GESCHICHTE UND KULTURGESCHICHTE GROSSBRITANNIEN BRITISH CULTURAL STUDIES/BRITISH CIVILIZATION STUDIES Dr.

Wolfgang Petschan

April 2008

CULTURAL STUDIES AS AN ACADEMIC SUBJECT

1 2 Main aim of (British)Cultural Studies: the study of society (in Britain) Cultural Studies seeks to borrow (and occasionally to combine) methods of study and strategies from traditional disciplines, but claims to be a discipline in its own right Culture - four broad definitions: A culture as developed state of mind e. g. a cultured (civilized) person B culture as the process of this development e. g. cultural activities; cultural interests culture as the means of this process e. g. arts and all human intellectual work

D (sociologically) the whole way of life of a distinct people or other social groups or society (civilization) as a whole
(Raymond Williams: CULTURE)

Two main types of the sociological study of culture A the informing spirit of a whole way of life e. g. language, styles of art, kinds of intellectual work: socio-cultural activities B a whole social order within which a specifiable culture evolves

Cultural Studies, then, seeks to combine all elements of the study of culture but prime emphasis is laid on the study of society as a whole even though the focus sometimes is on single issues.

Cultural Studies treats culture as a democratising social phenomenon: culture is not supposed to be an excluding element in Cultural Studies

Cultural Studies methodology and literature

British Cultural Studies and the Birmingham Centre for Cultural Studies Cultural Studies in America and the study of popular culture Cultural Studies in Australia and the more sociological and ideological approach

Perspectives of Cultural Studies schools of the study of social cultures

Cultural Studies and Civilization Studies: two discourses on a given society, proceeding from historical evolution and the current state of affairs

GESCHICHTE UND KULTURGESCHICHTE GROSSBRITANNIENS BRITISH CULTURAL STUDIES/ BRITISH CIVILIZATION STUDIES APRIL 2004

THE BRITISH COUNTRY

1 TERMINOLOGY 2 PHYSICAL MAP - Mainland Britain and the isles - Geographical identities - Myth of the island race - Geography and agriculture - Image of John Bull - Natural resources - Traditional and modern infrastructure - Geography and Britains strategic constellation - Britains geographic uniqueness 3 ECONOMIC MAP - Trade as economic requirement - Industrial Revolution and industrialization of the British Isles - British traditional industries - Industrial restructuring - Agriculture and fishing 4 POLITICAL MAP: EVOLUTION OF THE UK 1066 Norman Conquest 1170/1 Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland 1208 Loss of the Normandysovereignty of feudal England 1284/7 Annexation of Wales 1295 English overlordship to Scotland 1536 Statutes of Wales 1541 Henry VIII becomes King of Ireland 1603 Personal Union of England and Scotland under James I (James VI of Scotland) 1649 English Commonwealth including the British Isles 1707 Act of Union with Scotland 1800/1 Act of Union with Ireland 1921 Government of Ireland Act/ Anglo-Irish Treaty

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5 NATIONAL DIVISIONS IN BRITAIN 1 Rise of the traditional British Nations:

England Wales Scotland (Northern) Ireland

2 People claiming a national status: Cornwall Orkney & Shetland Islands (etc.) 3 Channel Islands and the Isle of Man 4 The Celtic Fringe and impact upon established Nations

6 MULTI-ETHNIC COMPOSITION OF THE UNITED KINGDOM 1 Celts (cultural varieties) 2 Impact of the Roman Empire 3 Anglo-Saxon influence 4 Viking invasions in the east, north and west 5 The Normans 6 Jews 7 Slavonic immigrants 8 European 9 Imperial and Commonwealth 10 Other Third World Immigrations 11 Emigration from Britain 12 Return of former emigrants 13 Multinational dimension + multiethnic dimension = MULTICULTURALISM

7 POLITICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND 1 Constitutional Monarchy 2 Liberal democracy of political pluralism 3 Multicultural society 4 Market economy 5 Traditional society 6 Member of the European Union (qualified)

GESCHICHTE UND KULTURGESCHICHTE GROSSBRITANNIENS BRITISH CULTURAL STUDIES/...GRUNDKURS OCTOBER 2002

THE CELTIC FRINGE AND DEVOLUTION IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

The CELTIC FRINGE comprises Cornwall, Wales, the Isle of Man, Cumbria (Lake District), Ireland, Scotland, the Orkneys and Shetlands. - Celtic imagery and identity Historically, Celtic territories were doomed to a subordinate role in mainland Britain Modern revival of Celtic heritage is closely linked to the rise of political and cultural nationalism of the last three centuries in a unique way Celtic nationalisms in the British Isles may have had similar experiences, historically, and one and the same enemy, but their political aims have differed Scotland: independence Wales: cultural autonomy and representation (within the UK) Northern Ireland: reunification or union with the Crown Historical colonialism and suppression in Britain provided for an unequal preservation of traditions: Wales: loss of historical identity overshadowed conservation and revitalisation of traditions and heritage Scotland: the Union with England allowed for the survival of quite a few traditions (Presbyterianism, law and legal institutions, language etc.) Ireland/NI: traditions among the Catholic population basically remained alive despite repressions The home rule project for Ireland, which failed, alerted Scottish nationalists to demand a similar pattern of autonomy and representation for their country

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DEVOLUTION IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

Devolution for the home countries is modelled on the imperial (colonial) pattern: Dominions As Home Rule it meant some limited political and administrative autonomy to be transferred to Ireland (which failed) Britain has no federal tradition although some imperial structures in the Empire suggest a high degree of federative organisation The first home rule project implemented in Northern Ireland (Government of Ireland Act of 1921) The decline of the Empire resulted in the growth of political and cultural nationalism in Scotland and Wales The first devolution project failed in 1979 The second attempt to devolve powers to the Celtic countries by the New Labour Government was much more successful. It is a political device to meet the challenge of modernization and prevent serious political and structural disruptions in the UK The contemporary devolution project is indivisible: success in the Northern Ireland peace process is inseparably dependent on the success of devolution in mainland Britain Scope of devolution (in Scotland and Wales): * limited regional competence * limited tax-raising competence * Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly; elected every four years on the basis some pattern of PR * elected government with regional competence * no separate representation abroad * supremacy of Westminster

Devolution has changed the political and constitutional landscape of Scotland and Wales: Coalition governments major opposition by nationalist parties Conservative Party politically marginalized for the time being political prospects for smaller parties Devolution has aroused both hopes and illusions among the Scottish and Welsh people about the future of their countries

BRITISH CIVILIZATION STUDIES/BRITISH CULTURAL STUDIES GREAT BRITAIN: (GRUNDKURS) OCTOBER 2008

DEVOLUTION FOR NORTHERN IRELAND

A ESSENCE OF THE NORTHERN IRELAND CONFLICT
1 Cultural and political imagery of the Irish and the Northern Ireland problem 2 Dimension of the Ireland Problem 3 Northern Ireland a British problem, historically and contemporarily 4 The Government of Ireland Act of 1921 and the Orange State 5 Northern Ireland problem: religion and the clash of cultural traditions 6 Northern Ireland and conflicting interests 7 Political and ideological varieties and visions of Northern Irelands future 8 Northern Ireland conflict, economic challenge and economic equality 9 Northern Ireland and the European Union 10 Peace as prerequisite for political and ideological contest 11 The Northern Ireland problem and British devolution

B THE GOOD FRIDAY AGREEMENT OF 1998

1 Northern Ireland peace to create framework and basic structures of political and ideological contest

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2 International agreement by including the Republic of Ireland as a guardian of peace 3 Need to uproot terror on either side of the divide 4 Britain and Ireland have been obliged to redefine their interests of Northern Ireland 5 Will to political consensus and cooperation as conditions of peace. Northern Ireland political competence depends on advancing cooperation and the construction of an acceptable constitutional framework in all ethnic communities 6 Withdrawal of British troops from Northern Ireland and decommissioning of paramilitary structures on either side of the divide. 7 Referendum on and elections to a devolved Northern Ireland Parliament and the creation of a new Northern Ireland Government to reconcile the interests of all ethnic groups 8 Power-sharing between Catholic and Protestant political representations with others eventually being included in the process 9 Permanent Irish-British Council and a Council of the British Isles 10 Good Friday Accords of 1998 incorporates peace projects by previous British governments since 1973; historical implications of the Home Rule scheme of the XIX century. 11 Recent longer-term stalemate in the Northern Ireland peace process and the (temporary) restoration of Direct Rule by Westminster and the British Government 12 In 2008: political compromise between Ian Paisleys DUP and Sinn Fein to form a power-sharing government 13 The future of NI depends on the readiness to compromise politically on either side of the divide and to balance the still antagonizing interests.

BRITISH CIVILIZATION STUDIES/BRITISH CULTURAL STUDIES GREAT BRITAIN (GRUNDKURS) OCTOBER 2002

THE BRITISH MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY

A
1

ESSENCE OF BRITISH MULTICULTURALISM

A political project to integrate ethnic/immigrant people into the contemporary British society The multicultural society is a political objective British multicultural policies are rooted in legacy and heritage of the Empire Western cultural and political paradigm: a source of cultural conflict Multiculturalism as a political device to meet the challenge of both globalization and economic requirements of modern society

2 3

4 5

B
1

THE CURRENT STATE OF BRITISH MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY

Proportion of people of non-British descent barely exceeds 5 to 8 per cent Strict immigration regulations (occasionally discriminatory even) based on clearly defined immigration legislation Race relations legislations (1970s) to make racial discrimination illegal. But racial prejudice is still a common feature in British society.

4 Controversial Nationality Act of 1983 (allegedly official racism employed)

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Variety of roots and reasons for ethnic immigration: (a) imperial heritage (subjects to the Crown) (b) private economic and other reasons (c) political asylum (d) invitation by British governments for economic considerations between 1950 and the mid-1960s

Immigration by white people; status of EC residents and people in The UK Physical, economic and social geography of immigrant settlement in Britain Political representation of immigrant interest in Britain

9 Immigrant culture and multicultural diversity in contemporary Britain: cultural impact upon white British culture 9 Multicultural education: challenge for British education; ethnic (religious) schools and the National Curriculum

10 Immigrant contribution to wealth and advance of British society

BRITISH CIVILIZATION STUDIES/ BRITISH CULTURAL STUDIES INTRODUCTORY COURSE (GRUNDKURS) OCTOBER 2002

CONSTITUTIONAL CONTEXT AND THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION

PURPOSE OF CONSTITUTIONS 1 Constitutions as vehicles to organize modern societies Glorious Revolution (1688/9) and King James US Constitution (1787) and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789) Megalaw: set of rules, written and unwritten Codified constitutions and uncodified constitutions 2 Functions of constitutions used in a variety of ways: -to empower states -to establish unifying values and goals (moral dimension) -to provide government stability -to protect freedom -to legitimise regimes 3 Constitutions correspond to and are supported by political culture 4 Constitutions provide stability, but require adaptability and ability to remain relevant despite changing circumstances 5 Open code (constitution) and the dynamics of flexibility

CONSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK IN CONTEMPORARY BRITAIN 1 Uncodified constitution 2 English Revolution: Instruments of Government (1649) (Leveller constitution of 1647) 3 Glorious Revolution: Declaration of Rights (1689)/Bill of Rights (1690) 4 Constitutional Amendments of the British Constitution 5 Sources of the British Constitution: STATUTE BOOK COMMON LAW CUSTOMS AND CONVENTIONS CONSTITUTIONAL AUTHORITY UNION LAW 6 Principles of the Constitution 7 Institutions of the Constitution 8 Charter 88 and the demand for a republican constitution in Britain 9 New Labours constitutional reforms as a result of structural reforms 10The British Constitution and the European Union

BRITISH CIVILIZATION STUDIES/BRITISH CULTURAL STUDIES GREAT BRITAIN AN INTRODUCTORY COURSE OCTOBER 2002

MAIN INSTITUTIONS OF THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION

I THE BRITISH MONARCHY
A THE CROWN AND THE BRITISH VIEW OF CHECKS AND BALANCES 1 The historical compromise and the alternative to political checks and balances: the Monarchy as the embodiment and authority of the constitution 2 The central position of the Monarchy is meant to connect and unite all institutions of state power in Britain, but is exerting no real power 3 Queen in Parliament Queen in Banco Queen in Government 4 Supreme constitutional authority lies with Parliament and the Government (Prime Minister) 5 The myth of a monarchy has been a prime source for the construction of identities throughout the United Kingdom B PERCEPTIONS OF THE BRITISH MONARCHY
1 That the King can do no wrong is a necessary and fundamental principle of the English constitution. (William Blackstone, 1723-1780, judge) 2 The Sovereign has, under a Constitutional Monarchy such as ours, three rights: the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn. (Walter Bagehot, 1826-1877, economist
journalist, constitutional authority)

3 The Monarchy is a labour-intensive industry. (Lord Harold Wilson,1916-1995, Prime Minister) 4 The Monarchy is the oldest profession in the world. (Prince Charles, 1986) 5 Kings and such like are just as funny as politicians. (Theodore Roosevelt, 1858-1916, US-President)

C PRIME STAGES IN THE EVOLUTION OF BRITISH MONARCHY 1 House of Wessex 2 Anglo-Norman age 3 Yorkists and Lancastrians: the Wars of the Roses 4 The Tudor era 5 The Stuarts and the Age of English revolutions 6 The Glorious Revolution: Orange dynasty 7 Hanoverians and the House of Windsor

D THE ROYAL TITLE AND ITS IMPLICATIONS 1 Elizabeth the Second (ERII), by the Grace of God Queen of the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland and her other realms and territories, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of Faith 2 The seat of the Monarchy is the United Kingdom 3 Constitutional sources of the title 4 Forms of royal title 5 Royal representatives E ROLES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE MONARCHY 1 Political and cultural representation of the UK, the Commonwealth of Nations, the colonies and the Anglican (Scottish Presbyterian) Church 2 Celebratory functions 3 Ideological functions (e.g. traditional British society; Defender of Faith) 4 Constitutional role 5 Defender of moral, cultural and political unity of the people in Britain 6 Royal Prerogatives F THE DILEMMA OF THE CONTEMPORARY MONARCHY 1 Abstract pattern, heritage and myth of the British Monarchy conflict with the realism and challenges of life in modern Britain 2 Moral and ethic authority of the Monarchy are undermined by a variety of events and other reasons 3 Political and cultural weakness of the traditional society in Britain since the XX century 4 Constitutional reform and republicanism 5 Obstructing and deconstructing role of the British media 6 Public discourse(s) on the future of the British Monarchy

BRITISH CIVILIZATION STUDIES/BRITISH CULTURAL STUDIES GREAT BRITAIN AN INTRODUCTORY COURSE OCTOBER 2003

THE BRITISH WELFARE STATE

1 Long tradition of British welfare thinking: Levellers social project (Civil Wars, 1642-60) Robert Owen (1771-1858), philanthropic industrial Project; Owenism 2 The rise of political labour in Britain as another milestone 3 Welfare thinking and the established political parties of the XIX century 4 The Big Crash of the 1930s and its consequences 5 Impact of the German welfare tradition and the social experiments of the Soviets and in Eastern Europe, and the struggle of British Labour in the XX century 6 John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946) welfare pattern for Britain 7 Structure of the British welfare State (1944 ca 1976) a. welfare legislations of 1944 b. political consensus beyond political and ideological divides c. state responsibility for the welfare of British Society d. mixed economy with a strong national economic sector and economic planning (state intervention in the market) e. economic growth and full employment f. National Health System g. National security network and pension schemes h. council housing i. national education system to provide equal educational opportunities 8 Solidarity as overriding social and moral principle 9 Reasons for decline: (a) relative decline of British industrial capacity (b) national and global crises developments (c) rise of alternative market projects (d) decline of the Eastern projects (e) abuse and mismanagement of welfare (f) cultural and psychological problems (g) a generational problem (h) globalization of market and business to to undermine national solidarity.

BRITISH CIVILIZATION STUDIES/BRITISH CULTURAL STUDIES GREAT BRITAIN AN INTRODUCTORY COURSE OCTOBER 2003

BRITISH PARLIAMENT
A TERMINOLOGY 1 British Parliament 2 Devolved Parliaments 3 Local Parliaments

county councils borough councils city/town councils parish/village council

B ON HISTORY OF PARLIAMENT(ENGLAND) 1 Anglo-Saxon Witan/Witenagemot 2 Anglo-Norman Curia Regis/Kings Council 3 Magna Charta and the Great Council 4 Rebel Parliament (1265) 5 Kings (Edward II) Model Parliament (1296) 6 Bicameral Parliament of the King ( after ca 1330) 7 Reformation Parliament (1527-1542) 8 Cromwells Parliament (1641-1653) 9 Glorious Revolution, Declaration of Rights and English Parliament 10 Union of Kingdoms: British Parliament 11 Early Victorian Parliament and its Golden Age 12 Modern Parliament predominated by political parties and Cabinet: electoral dictatorship

C AUTHORITY OF PARLIAMENT 1 Sovereignty of Parliament 2 Supremacy of the House of Commons 3 Supreme legislative authority 4 Highest representative authority 5 Scrutiny of Government 6 Budgetary authority

D HOUSE OF COMMONS 1 Budgetary supremacy 2 Electing Prime Minister and Government 3 Legislative and constitutional initiative 4 Scrutinizing Government 5 Political Parties and Parliamentary Parties 6 Elections to Parliament: Electoral system 7 Electoral divisions, elected Members; The Speaker 8 Her Majestys Opposition 9 Minority representations(women, ethnic minorities) 10 Reform of the House of Commons 11 Sovereignty of Parliament and Membership in the European Union

E HOUSE OF LORDS 1 Limited legislative competence 2 Scrutiny of Government 3 Highest Court of Appeal/Law Lords 4 Ecclesiastical competence/ Bishops 5 Recommendation and counselling 6 Variety of advice 7 Reform of the Lords: reduction of membership demotion of hereditary representation selection of peers: predominance of life peers political competences unfinished reform of the House of Lords

BRITISH CIVILIZATION STUDIES/BRITISH CULTURAL STUDIES GREAT BRITAIN AN INTRODUCTORY COURSE OCTOBER 2004

GOVERNMENT IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

(1) Structure of British government(s) (2) All government in Britain derive from the outcome of elections: Types of government: one-party government multiparty government (3) Functions of government: - managerial functions for society - political management - organizational management - execution of Cabinet decisions (central) (4) Principal organization of government: department (5) Semi-independent departmental agencies (6) Ministerial responsibility (7) Civil service (8) Members of government and Parliament (9) Size of government (10) Shadow Cabinet: government in waiting

CABINET AND THE PRIME MINISTER

(1) Privy Council and evolution of status of Cabinet (2) Composition of Cabinet: Secretaries (heads) of major departments of the government of the day (3) Cabinet of the Prime Minister (4) Ministerial responsibility and collective responsibility (5) Functions of the Cabinet: both political and administrative-executive (a) most important decisions; (b) business in Parliament; (c) arbitration; (d) oversight and coordination; (e) political leadership (6) Instructions for the civil service (7) System of Cabinet committees (8) Power of the Prime Minister as political leader of the Cabinet: (a) fixed powers (b) variable powers

BRITISH CIVILIZATION STUDIES/BRITISH CULTURAL STUDIES GREAT BRITAIN FOUNDATION COURSE (GK) DECEMBER 2008

EDUCATION IN BRITAIN
A ON HISTORY English Reformation and English education Scottish Presbyterian Reformation and Scottish education Private education and social stratification The liberal tradition in English education First legislation in British education in 1870 1907 Fisher Act on secondary education National differences and modifications in education in the UK Development of a university system B THE 1944 EDUCATION ACT (BUTLER ACT) Education reform and the British welfare project Compulsory free secondary education Equality in British education Broad educational democracy Decentralized educational authority (local educational authorities) Academic freedom and contents of education Divisions in British education and social stratification along educational standards Structure of secondary education in Britain Abolition of the 11+examination, fair competition and the comprehensive schools Educational exhaustion of the Butler Act Expansion of the system of higher education C THE EDUCATION REFORM ACT (ERA) OF 1988 Thatcherism and neo-liberal competitive capitalism New challenge to labours skills Enterprise Culture in education and the city technology colleges Centralization of financial authority in education Equal opportunities individual rights in education National Curriculum Student examination and assessments Schools proficiency and national rankings of schools Free enrolment and parental choice Teacher assessment Voluntary privatisation of education

No fundamental change in the structure of school education but relocation of educational interest Enlargement of the university sector University ranking and assessment Economic management and teaching Student loan system Further education colleges Private University of Buckingham New schemes in vocational education and training D EDUCATION IN SCOTLAND Presbyterian tradition in Scottish education Scottishness in Scottish education Funding of Scottish education Scottish universities Devolution and the nationalization of Scottish education E EDUCATION IN NORTHERN IRELAND Culturally (religiously) divided education in Northern Ireland Religious predominance in education across the divide ERA and Northern Irish standards in education Northern Irish universities Devolution and prospects for education F EDUCATION UNDER NEW LABOUR education, education, education and investment in human labour Continuation and improvement of ERA Efficiency of the institutions of British education National curriculum standards New Deal, occupational training and lifelong learning

BRITISH CIVILIZATION STUDIES GREAT BRITAIN AN INTRODUCTORY COURSE

WHAT IS HISTORY?

A THE HISTORIAN AND HIS FACTS

Carr, E H (1988): WHAT IS HISTORY?, pp. 03-30.

1 2 3 4 5

The historian is inspired by his time and the environments value system. The main task is not to record but to evaluate historical facts. The past is not dead past. Historical facts never come pure. In reconstructing history the historian needs imaginative understanding of the historical context. 6 The past is perceived through the eyes of the present. 7 The historian cannot be neutral just as the past never was neutral. 8 Historical knowledge is knowledge for some purpose. 9 It is the historians obligation to remain true to the facts. 10 The relationship between historical fact and the historian is one of equality. 11 History is the continued process of interaction between the historian and his facts, an unending dialogue
between the present and the past.

RE-THINKING HISTORY
Jenkins, K (1992): RE-THINKING HISTORY, pp. 05-26.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

History is one of a series of discourses of the world. The object of enquiry is the past. History and past are different things. There are different readings of the past over time and space. History is the labour of historians. The totality of history cannot be covered by one historian. There is no fundamentally correct discourse of the past. History must be selective. History is a shifting discourse, the subjective dimension of an historians account is overriding. 10 There is no absolute truth in history. 11 History is guided by some purpose. 12 History writing and the interpretation of history depend on conditions.

GESCHICHTE UND KULTURGESCHICHTE GROSSBRITANNIEN ... GRUNDKURS ... DEZEMBER 2009

HERITAGE AND ENTERPRISE CULTURE

In the 198os Prince Charles declaimed on both enterprise and heritage a new renaissance for Britain can be built which is characterized by responsibility and vision and which can rebuilt the historical sense of community and once again can make Britain a world actor. Globalization is about the organization of production and the exploitation of markets on a world scale. Heritage is about the conservation and protection of tradition, the local and identity in the process of restructuring British capitalism and British culture (Thatcherite reconstruction of Britain). Enterprise culture is about responding to the new global conditions of accumulation. 1980 and 1983 National Heritage Acts English Heritage 1982 Heritage Educational Trust National Trust for British heritage Heritage is the term most frequently used in current popular mediations of history to recover the past and pastness e.g. in buildings, artefacts and reconstructed action. Role of the media in the construction of a new social value and meaning package. The dominant influence on contemporary heritage culture has been the idea of the folk-museum and the widespread interest in rural crafts and skills, and the open air industrial museums. But museums should be items of social property; they have a value to the community. Commercialization of the museum. Tourism and leisure investment: leisure as spending. Heritage can be fun. Resurrection of a distant working past at the time of profound social reconstruction (service economy) Hewison: Instead of manufacturing goods, we are manufacturing heritage.(Heritage Industry, p. 9) Shopping as leisure; leisure as a major form of self expression and identity; Theme parks, science parks Commercialization of the urban space: Canary Wharfs on the Isle of Dogs or the Albert Dock in Liverpool (Americanization).

BRITISH CULTURAL STUDIES/CIVILIZATION STUDIES GREAT BRITAIN BASICS

SUB-CULTURES AND YOUTH CULTURES

Sub-cultures Youth culture Rebellion and dissent: primarily a matter of the urban space; most rebellious cultures have their roots in the working class background. Aims of rebellion and dissent: search for identity; social and cultural security; rebellion against established political and cultural value patterns and a refusal to conform to them since traditionally mainstream culture is essentially middle class. Rise of sub-cultures: economic improvements among working-class youth as an economic factor in post-WW II decades; English (British) Country-Cottage culture Teddy boys Mods and Rockers Hippies Bikers Skinheads Punks Rastafarians New Age Travellers Swampies (Eco-warriors) Ragga, Goths, Pervs, Indie Kids Fashion and Music: essential industries for the British market place and abroad; Afro-Caribbean influence: race riots (of the 1980s) Youth cultures follow a cycle Each youth culture: a blend of previous youth and subcultures