Session 1: Introduction to Measurement Systems

ITI104 - Instrumentacin e Informtica Industrial Curso 2013/2014

Grado en Ingeniera del Automvil

1. Introduction
Measurement systems have important vital applications in our everyday lives, whether at home, in our vehicles, offices or factories. We use measuring devices in buying our fruits and vegetables. We assume that the measuring devices are accurate, and we assume that we are all referring to the same units (e.g., kilogram, metre, litre). The consequence of inaccurate measuring devices in this case leads to financial losses on our part. We check the temperature of our homes and assume that the thermostats reading the temperature are accurate. If not, then the temperature will be either too high or too low, leading to inconvenience and discomfort. We pay for our electricity in units of kWh and we assume that the electricity metre is accurate and faithfully records the correct number of electricity units that we have used. We pay for the water we consume in litres, and we also assume that the water meter is correctly measuring the flow of water in litres. In this case as well, the error will lead to financial loss. The accuracy of the measurement systems mentioned above is very important, but is more critical in some applications than others. For example, a pharmacist preparing a medication is reliant on the accuracy of his/her scales to make sure he/she includes the correct amounts of ingredients in the medication. Another example is the manufacturing of present-day integrated circuits and photo-masks that requires a high degree of accuracy. Certain chemical reactions require high accuracy in the measurement and control of temperature.

2. Application of Measurement Systems

The importance of measurement systems is demonstrated by their application in our lives. The following are the four main applications of measurement systems: 1. One of the earliest uses of measurement systems was in regulating trade. For everyday activities such as buying and selling goods, it is important to have a common standard and to be able to measure it to an appropriate level of accuracy. The main problem was the lack of common standards and unit to use. Even units that had the same name, differed in their actual value. The main two systems that
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dominated were the metric and the imperial systems. In scientific applications the CGS (centimetre-gram-second) and MKS (meterkilogram-second) systems were also used. This divergence of systems has been addressed in modern times by standardisation, whereby common systems of units and standard references are commonly recognised and used by all countries, and has culminated in the adoption of SI units. Thus in addition to regulating trade, the use of standard units and measures has facilitated the free movement of goods across international boundaries. 2. A second application that is widely used in research laboratories is that of knowledge seeking and problem solving. We use measurements to enhance our knowledge about various systems and understand how different variables interact. 3. Another application is in monitoring functions. In this application we use measurement systems to inform us of the values of critical variables to allow us to take necessary action. We would consult the room thermometer for example to decide whether to switch the heating on or off. 4. The fourth application is the use of measurement systems to feed the measured value to an automatic feedback control systems. In the last application, the human being was monitoring the value of a variable and taking appropriate action. By closing the loop, the measurement system becomes part of the automatic feedback control system and this obviates the need for human intervention. a. An example is a level measurement system that measures the water level in a tank and opens a valve to fill it up whenever the water level drops below a certain pre-set value. The accuracy and resolution of a measured variable is very important. The control system that uses the output of the measurement system cannot be more accurate that the accuracy of the measurement system itself. In effect, a poor measurement system becomes the weakest link in the control system and causes a deterioration of performance.

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Introduction

3. History
Below is a brief timeline of the history of the measuring and its conventions. More details can be found in [2]. 1799 Creation of the standard meter and standard kilogram of platinum, Storage standards in the "Archives de la Rpublique" in Paris. 1830 Gau and Weber define absolute electrical units of the basis units of the CGS-Systems (Centimetre, Gramm, Second). 1875 Recognising the need to work towards internationally agreed measurement standards, governments from 17 countries worldwide signed this treaty and agreed to create and finance a permanent, scientific institute, the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM, www.bipm.org) as the centre for coordination of world measurement. The Comit International des Poids et Mesures (CIPM) was established to oversee the BIPM and today there are 51 Member States of the Metre Convention, and 23 Associate States and Economies of the General Conference. 1889 The first general conference on weights and measures creates versions of the standard meter and standard kilogram, which were distributed to the member states. 1893 The units of V, A and are represented by empirical normal (silver voltmeter, mercury normal). They are called "practical" units. 1948 International launch of the MKSA system with the basic units meter, kilogram, second, ampere. The electrical units can be connected to coherent mechanical units. 1960 Adoption of the name Systme International d'Units (SI) for the recommended practical system of units of measurement. There are 7 base units (metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, mole, and candela) and many derived units are formed by combining base units (e.g. volt, watt, newton, pascal, joule) 20xy Possible revision of the SI (http://www.bipm.org/en/si/new_si/ )

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4. Elements of a Measurement System

Each measurement system consists of five elements. These elements could all be in one item or could be all in separate five items. They could be adjacent to each other or they could be separated by a distance. Some simple systems might not contain all of the components. The components of a typical system are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Elements of a measuring system (Source: [1])

Each of these components is discussed in more detail below. a. Sensors: The sensor is the element that gives an output that is proportional to the input applied to it. In general the output is in an electrical format as this is the most suitable format for later use (in processing, transmission and storage). The input format depends on the variable to be measured (e.g., temperature, pressure, humidity, pH, speed, acceleration, light). Sensors usually have a near linear relationship, although this is not always the case. b. Variable Conversion Element (VCE): When the output variable of a primary sensor is in an unsuitable (or inconvenient) format, a signal conditioning element is used to convert it to a suitable form. For example, the change in resistance of a strain gauge cannot be directly measured and thus a deflection type bridge circuit is used to convert it to a suitable voltage. Bridge circuits are examples of signal conditioning elements and are discussed in more detail in a Session 9.
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Another example is the amplification of a very weak signal such as a biomedical signal (such as that used in an electrocardiogram ECG, for more details). The combination of the sensor and the signal conditioning element (SCE) is called the transducer. By definition, a transducer is a device the converts from one form of energy to another. The term transducer is sometimes incorrectly used to mean sensor. Details will be given in Sessions 6-8. c. Signal Processing Element: This component is needed to improve the quality of the signal. A very common example is filtering a signal that contains mains frequency noise (i.e., 50 Hz). Some of the examples of signal processing elements as used in a measurement system are: Remove the mean value from an AC signal (i.e., dc shift). Filter out induced noise (example 50 Hz hum/pick-up). Convert an analogue signal to a digital format. Convert a time signal into voltage (e.g., an ultrasonic level sensor). The combination of the sensor, SCE and SPE is called the transmitter. The term sensor is sometimes incorrectly used to mean transducer or transmitter. In practice when buying a sensor for an industrial application, it is more likely to find it available as a transmitter with a voltage or current output (rather than just a sensor). The output signal from the SPE could be in a number of formats: voltage, current, frequency or on/off (such as in a switch). In other words, the information about the variable to be measured will be contained in the voltage of the output signal, its current or its frequency. It could also just be a yes/no output signal (for example as given by a thermostat that gives a signal stating whether the variable measured is more or less than a set value). In the case of frequency for example, the value of the measured Variable would be represented as a certain frequency deviation from a certain mean frequency. The voltage and current output usually follow a standard format (e.g. 0-10 V in case of voltage and 4-20 mA in case of current).

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Use of voltage, current or frequency has implication in terms of the effect of noise. The effect of noise on current transmission and voltage transmission is discussed in more detail in a Session 4 and 5. d. Signal Transmission: The signal is then transmitted to the final location where it is needed. Most modern measurement system could be distributed over a wide area, and hence transmission in this case is necessary. There are three reasons why the signal needs to be transmitted to a remote location: 1. Convenience: It is easier for example to locate the final equipment in a warm office than on the roof of the building where the transmitter is located. Inaccessibility: The transmitter may sometimes be located in an area that cannot be accessed or reach. The measured variable could be inaccessible because it is located in a narrow tunnel if it is located in a high position. Hazardous location: The transmitter might be located in an area that is accessible, but hazardous to humans. An example of the hazardous situation is where the measured variable is in a chemical or nuclear plant, or in an area with very high temperatures.

2.

3.

Transmission can be done by a number of methods, some of which are: I. Cable Transmission: This is typically done by screened single core or multi-core. This method suffers from the problem of losses and attenuation especially over long distances and from electromagnetic interference. The cable is screened to reduce noise interference. Where the distance is long and losses become excessive, repeaters are needed at regular distances to re-amplify the signal. Fibre optics: Fibre optic cables are now more widely used. They offer the following advantages (the first two being most important to measurement systems): They are resistant to interference by electric and magnetic fields.
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II.

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They have low losses over long distances (as opposed to copper cable that might need repeaters at long distances, e.g., 2 km). They have a large bandwidth and can offer high speeds (up to Tera-Hz). This is not much of an issue in low speed sampling system used in most measurement systems and is more relevant to high speed communication and data systems. They offer electrical isolation (galvanic isolation) between the transmitter and receiver. In some cases this is necessary for safety reasons. The main disadvantage of fibre optic systems is their high cost. They also need special equipment for installation, testing and repair and they require highly trained and specialized technicians. III. Wireless transmission: This removes the need for cabling and can be very attractive in cases where the transmitter is placed in inaccessible or remote locations. However, it does suffer from the problem of obstacles interrupting the connection (e.g., reinforced concrete) and from attenuation. Most transmitter manufacturers offer wireless versions of their systems nowadays. Many of the home weather stations are equipped with a wireless connection.

e. Display, recording or analysis: D/R/A or use in automatic feedback systems: This is where the final signal is utilised. One of the following action is taken: It is either fed into the automatic feedback system. The signal is displayed, recorded or analysed: The signal can either be displayed on a screen or industrial display, it could be recorded on a hard-disk for example over a period of days or months and it could be analysed to understand trends or draw conclusions. Both actions can be taken simultaneously as well: We can feed the signal into an automatic feedback system and display it on a screen or record it.

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Introduction

Not all measurement system will contain all of the five elements. In some cases it is difficult to identify the boundaries between different elements. As an example a simple measurement system is the mercury-in-glass thermometer. In this case all the items are within the same instrument and it is in fact difficult to separate one component from another. The system only contains a sensor (effectively the mercury in the tube) and a display component (the scale on the glass). There is neither an SCE, SPE or transmission system. On the other hand, an example of a complicated system is a computer controlled remote system in a chemical plant. In this case the five components can be clearly identified. The system is distributed, and thus the transmission element in this case is necessary due to the distance between the variable of the process to be measured and the receiver (e.g., a computer). The computer receiving the signal would display it, record it and keep available for later analysis if needed. The signal could also be fed into an automatic control system (e.g., temperature control of the chemical reaction).

5. Measurement Systems and Measurement Devices

A measurement system is the generic term of an instrument or a complex system. A person using a thermometer to measure his body temperature represents a measurement system. This system is made of: the human observer, the thermometer and the measured variable (temperature) from the process (the human body). It is important to note that the human observer is part of the measurement system in this example. If the observer makes an error in reading the temperature from the thermometer

6. Overview of variables that are measured

The following is a selection of the most widely measured quantities: I. Electrical parameters: The basic seven parameters are: voltage, current, resistance, capacitance, inductance, frequency and phase shift. Other electrical parameters that are effectively derived from the 7 above in terms of measurement are: power and power factor.
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II.

Magnetic: One of the magnetic parameters that can be directly measured is the magnetic flux density. Environmental variables such as: Temperature, pressure and humidity. Mechanical measurements such as: Mass, force, torque, length, area, volume/capacity, angle and surface roughness. Fluid measurements such as: Viscosity, level measurement and flow measurement. Motion measurement such as: Translational motion and rotational motion. Others: Sound pressure, gas sensing and PH in solutions.

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VII.

7. Error in a Measurement System

Any measurement system has an input variable which is the true value of the quantity to be measured and an output variable which is the measured value. This is shown in Figure 1. Ideally, we would aim to make these two values identical, but in practice this is not possible. One of the main aims in designing a measurement system is to minimise the error between the true value and the measured value. In fact, a large percentage of this textbook addresses the issue of how to minimise the error between the true value and the measured value. The reason for this error developing could one of the following: Systematic Errors: These are errors that have a clear understood explanation within the measurement system. Systematic error can be sub-divided into: Static errors caused by the static characteristics of the measurement system (effectively the steady state characteristics). Dynamic errors caused by the dynamic response of the measurement system (transient response of the device). Random errors caused by unknown reasons. Internal and external noise disturbances.
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The problem of error in measurement system is discussed in more detail in Session 3 and 4.

8. Specification and Selection

In practice an engineer is more likely to be selecting an instrument than designing it. Hence he/she needs to use his/her experience in selecting the correct instrument that is most suitable for the application. When considering the specification of an instrument, the following needs to be taken into consideration: a. Performance: This includes parameters such as: resolution, accuracy, sensitivity and dynamic performance. b. Environmental conditions: The environment into which the device has to operate might exclude the possible use of certain technologies (e.g., explosive environment will exclude the use of mechanical switches). One of the important aspects of specifying environmental conditions is the issue of ingress protection (IP) (i.e., preventing foreign objects, whether solids or liquids from entering the system). An international system for specifying this ingress protection is called IP rating. The rating is shown as IPXX (each X stands for a number), where the first number specifies the solids and the second number specifies the liquids. This is detailed in the standard IEC 60529. More details about this are shown at the end of this Annex 7.1. Another important environmental issue to take into consideration is the risk of electromagnetic interference, such as proximity to satellite or mobile phone transmitters. c. Characteristics of the measured variable: For example for an electrical signal, we need to understand its voltage range, its frequency range, the shape of its waveform (i.e., non-sinusoidal). Another factor to take into consideration is whether the system needs to be distributed or concentrated in one position. d. Durability and maintenance requirements: It is important to ensure that the unit is durable (i.e., can withstand continuous heavy usage) and maintainable (i.e., can be easily maintained
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with available spare parts and good technical support). A consideration of the availability of spare parts and technical information is also important. e. Whole life costs: All of the factors above have to be weighed against whole life costs: Initial cost (cost of purchase) and ongoing life costs (cost of maintenance, servicing, energy consumption) as well as decommissioning costs (demolition and waste disposal). A good assessment criterion is obtained if the whole life cost is divided by the period of the measurement systems expected life. It is worth remembering that the cost of the system grows exponentially as the required performance increases (Figure 2). So it is important to make the correct decision and select the most suitable performance (not more than required and not less). A wrong decision could either result in an expensive instrument that has performance requirements higher than needed, or a cheap instrument that has poor or unsuitable performance characteristics. f. The most suitable method of measurement. In certain cases an alternative method of measuring the variable might be more suitable and more cost effective. g. The method of displaying the results: In certain cases data might need to be stored for long term trends and analysis. h. Loading effect: As a general rule in measurement science: Whenever we try to measure a variable we affect its value. It is important to ensure that minimise the disturbance caused to the measured variable by the measurement process.

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Figure 2: Performance and Cost trade-off curve. (Source: [1])

So the selection process is a compromise between performance characteristics, ruggedness and durability, and maintenance requirements, against whole life cost. It requires a wide knowledge of the range of instruments available for a certain measured variable and how the instrument characteristics are affected by the measurement situation and operating conditions. Example 1 You are given the choice of buying two measurement systems. The capital (initial) cost of the first system is 2,000, lasts for 20 years and requires 100 per annum to maintain. The capital (initial) cost of the second system is 1,500, last for 5 years and costs 120 per annum to maintain. Which system would you select and why? Solution We shall ignore the effect of inflation in this case. Calculating the annual cost of each instrument (taking into consideration that each instrument will depreciate by a certain amount each year): System A will lose 1/20 of its capital cost per annum which is 2,000/20= 100 per annum. So the annual cost will be 200 per annum.
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System B will lose 1/5 of its capital cost per annum which is 1,500/5= 300. So the annual cost will be 420 per annum. So system A will work out cheaper in the long term. In case we only need the measurement system for 5 years, we can still sell system A at the end of the 5 years and recover the cost (assuming equal depreciation every year). In this example we have ignored the effect of inflation and growth of earnings. In reality this would be taken into consideration and future payments/costs will have to be discounted at a specified rate (e.g., 6%). For simplicity we have ignored this effect. We have also assumed that the systems depreciate by equal amounts every year. This not true in reality; systems have a higher annual depreciation rate in the early years.

9. Problems
1. Give three real life examples of closed loop feedback systems that employ a sensor to provide the feedback signal. 2. One of the applications of measurement system was in the regulation of trade. What is the important of units and standards for this application? Discuss with examples. 3. What is the purpose of the following elements of a measurement system? The signal conditioning element. The signal processing element 4. What do we call the following: The combination of the sensor and the signal conditioning element? The combination of the sensor, the signal conditioning element and the signal processing element? 5. When selecting measurement instrument for the following what factors do you need to take into consideration, and how would you specify the system? A temperature measurement system that will be used in the desert on a high speed vehicle. A humidity measurement system that will be installed on the top of high rise building (that also has mobile phone masts fitted on it). An oscilloscope that will be used to display mobile phone frequencies.
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A gas sensor that will be used on an offshore oil rig (i.e. petroleum extraction plant).

6. References
[1] Alan S. Morris and R. Langari, Measurement and Instrumentation. Theory and Application, Ed. Elsevier, 1st Edition, 2011. [2] The International System of Units: Its History and Use in Science and Industry Robert A. Nelson, February 2000, http://www.aticourses.com/international_system_units.htm. Some text is reproduced with authorization of Dr. Lufti Al-Sharif (lalsharif@theiet.org)

7. Annex
7.1. IP Rating: Description of Digits
First digit The First digit indicates the level of protection that the enclosure provides against access to hazardous parts (e.g., electrical conductors, moving parts) and the ingress of solid foreign objects.
Level 0 1 2 3 4 5 Object size protected against Effective against no protection against contact and ingress of objects >50 mm any large surface of the body, such as the back of a hand, but no protection against deliberate contact with a body part >12.5 mm fingers or similar objects >2.5 mm tools, thick wires, etc. >1 mm most wires, screws, etc. dust protected ingress of dust is not entirely prevented, but it must not enter in sufficient quantity to interfere with the satisfactory operation of the equipment; complete protection against contact dust tight no ingress of dust; complete protection against contact

Second digit Protection of the equipment inside the enclosure against harmful ingress of water.
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Level 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Protected against not protected dripping water

Details Dripping water (vertically falling drops) shall have no harmful effect. dripping wter when Vertically dripping water shall have no harmful effect when the tilted up to 15 enclosure is tilted at an angle up to 15 from its normal position. spraying water Water falling as a spray at any angle up to 60 from the vertical shall have no harmful effect. splashing water Water splashing against the enclosure from any direction shall have no harmful effect. water jets Water projected by a nozzle against enclosure from any direction shall have no harmful effects. heavy seas Water from heavy seas or projected in powerful jets shall not enter the enclosure in harmful quantities. immersion up to 1 Ingress of water in harmful quantity shall not be possible when m the enclosure is immersed in water under defined conditions of pressure and time (up to 1 m of submersion). Immersion beyond The equipment is suitable for continuous immersion in water 1m under conditions which shall be specified by the manufacturer. NOTE: Normally, this will mean that the equipment is hermetically sealed. However, with certain types of equipment, it can mean that water can enter but only in such a manner that produces no harmful effects.

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