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How Does Wi-Fi Work?

To mankind, Wi-Fi represents many things: Freedom of speech, access to information and the ability to keep in touch with both family members and strangers, near and far. But what does Wi-Fi stands for? ome will claim it!s shorthand for Wireless Fidelity, sort of like how people of "ew #ork call the region south of $ouston treet % o$o% and an Francisco calls outh of &arket % o&a.% But, that!s not true. 'n ())), the Wireless *thernet +ompatibility ,lliance -not to be confused with the .ebel ,lliance in tar Wars/ wanted to set a standard for wireless connections. 't was called '*** 012.((, which didn!t e3actly roll off the tongue. o, to be sure it would catch on, they needed to offer a brand identity to consumers. When gi4en (1 options by consultancy 'nterbrand, the one they picked was Wi-Fi -check out the original press release/. That!s it. There!s no long, complicated, hard-to-pronounce terminology behind the curtain. Wi-Fi simply means Wi-Fi.

Introduction of the Hotspot

Wi-Fi was most commonly used in the home, when people had many de4ices they wanted to put on the same network. This allowed for seamless file-sharing between computers and fewer cables to trip o4er. ,s laptops became more common, the need for an 'nternet connection that allowed for portability became more rele4ant.5ublic hotspots were initially paid, at places like coffee shops and restaurants, and critics were skeptical of their longe4ity -and for good reason/. "ow, Wi-Fi is usually offered free as a ser4ice to customers in an airport or coffee shop, but hotspots are popping up e4en in less commerce-focused locations like subways, airplanes and phone booths.

Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi, also spelled Wifi or WiFi, is a popular technology that allows an electronic de4ice to e3change data or connect to the internet wirelessly using radio wa4es. The name is a trademark name, and was stated to be a play on the audiophile term $i-Fi. The Wi-Fi ,lliance defines Wi-Fi as any %wireless local area network -W6,"/ products that are based on the 'nstitute of *lectrical and *lectronics *ngineers! -'***/ 012.(( standards%.7(8$owe4er, since most modern W6,"s are based on these standards, the term %Wi-Fi% is used in general *nglish as a synonym for %W6,"%. 9nly Wi-Fi products that complete Wi-Fi ,lliance interoperability certification testing successfully may use the %Wi-Fi +*.T'F'*:% trademark. &any de4ices can use Wi-Fi, e.g. personal computers, 4ideo-game consoles, smartphones, some digital cameras, tablet computers and digital audio players. These can connect to a network resource such as the 'nternet 4ia a wireless network access point. uch an access point -or hotspot/ has a range of about 21 meters -;< feet/ indoors and a greater range outdoors. $otspot co4erage can comprise an area as small as a single room with walls that block radio wa4es, or as large as many s=uare miles achie4ed by using multiple o4erlapping access points.

:epiction of a de4ice sending information wirelessly to another de4ice, both connected to the local network, in order to print a document.Wi-Fi can be less secure than wired connections -such as *thernet/ because an intruder does not need a physical connection. Web pages that use 6 are secure but unencrypted internet access can easily be detected by intruders. Because of this, Wi-Fi has adopted 4arious encryption technologies. The early encryption W*5, pro4ed easy to break. $igher =uality protocols -W5,, W5,2/ were added later. ,n optional feature added in 211>, called Wi-Fi 5rotected etup -W5 /, had a serious flaw that allowed an attacker to reco4er the router!s password. . The Wi-Fi ,lliance has since updated its test plan and certification program to ensure all newly certified de4ices resist attacks.

History
Main article: History of IEEE 802.11 012.(( technology has its origins in a ()0< ruling by the ? Federal +ommunications +ommission that released the ' & band for unlicensed use. 'n ())(, "+. +orporation with ,T@T +orporation in4ented the precursor to 012.(( intended for use in cashier systems. The first wireless products were under the name Wa4e6,". The 012.(( standard uses a large number of patents held by many different organiAations. ome ha4e dubbed :utch engineer Bic $ayes the %father of Wi-Fi% due to his in4ol4ement in negotiating the initial standards within the'*** while chairing the workgroup. The ,ustralian radio-astronomer Cohn 9! ulli4an de4eloped a key patent used in Wi-Fi as a by-product in a + '.9 research proDect, %a failed e3periment to detect e3ploding mini black holes the siAe of an atomic particle%. 'n ())2 and ());, ,ustralian organiAation + '.9 -the ,ustralian +ommonwealth cientific and 'ndustrial .esearch 9rganisation/ obtained patents for a method later used in Wi-Fi to %unsmear% the signal.8 'n ())), the Wi-Fi ,lliance formed as a trade association to hold the Wi-Fi trademark under which most products are sold.

'n ,pril 211), (E technology companies agreed to pay + '.9 F2<1 million for infringements on + '.9 patents.This led to ,ustralians labelling Wi-Fi as an ,ustralian in4ention, though this has been the subDect of some contro4ersy. + '.9 won a further F221 million settlement for Wi-Fi patent-infringements in 21(2 with global firms in the ?nited tates re=uired to pay the + '.9 licensing rights estimated to be worth an additional F( billion in royalties.

The name
The term Wi-Fi, commercially used at least as early as ,ugust 2111, was coined by a brand-consulting firm called 'nterbrand+orporation. The Wi-Fi ,lliance had hired 'nterbrand to determine a name that was %a little catchier than !'*** 012.((b :irect e=uence!%5hil Belanger, a founding member of the Wi-Fi ,lliance who presided o4er the selection of the name %Wi-Fi%, also stated that 'nterbrand in4ented WiFi as a play on words with Hi-Fi -high fidelity/, and also created the Wi-Fi logo. The term !fidelity! refers to the faithfulnessGaccuracy of reproduction or transmission of the signal, and !wireless! is a distinguishing feature that contrasted with earlier internet connection technologies such as wired *thernet. The Wi-Fi ,lliance initially used the ad4ertising slogan, %The tandard for Wireless Fidelity%, for Wi-Fi but later remo4ed the phrase from their marketing. :espite this, some documents from the ,lliance dated 211H and 211E still contain the term Wireless Fidelity. There was no official statement related to the dropping of the term. The yin-yang Wi-Fi logo indicates the certification of a product for interoperability. "on-Wi-Fi technologies intended for fi3ed points such as &otorola +anopy are usually described as fi3ed wireless. ,lternati4e wireless technologies include mobile phone standards such as 2I, HI or EI.

Wi-Fi certification
The '*** does not test e=uipment for compliance with their standards. The non-profit Wi-Fi ,lliance was formed in ())) to fill this 4oid J to establish and enforce standards for interoperability and backward compatibility, and to promote wireless local-area-network technology. ,s of 21(1, the WiFi ,lliance consisted of more than H>< companies from around the world. The Wi-Fi ,lliance enforces the use of the Wi-Fi brand to technologies based on the '*** 012.(( standards from the '***. This includes wireless local area network -W6,"/ connections, de4ice to de4ice connecti4ity -such as Wi-Fi 5eer to 5eer aka Wi-Fi :irect/, 5ersonal area network-5,"/, local area network -6,"/ and e4en some limited wide area network -W,"/ connections. &anufacturers with membership in the Wi-Fi ,lliance, whose products pass the certification process, gain the right to mark those products with the Wi-Fi logo. pecifically, the certification process re=uires conformance to the '*** 012.(( radio standards, the W5, and W5,2 security standards, and the *,5 authentication standard. +ertification may optionally include

tests of '*** 012.(( draft standards, interaction with cellular-phone technology in con4erged de4ices, and features relating to security set-up, multimedia, and power-sa4ing. "ot e4ery Wi-Fi de4ice is submitted for certification. The lack of Wi-Fi certification does not necessarily imply that a de4ice is incompatible with other Wi-Fi de4ices. 'f it is compliant or partly compatible, the Wi-Fi ,lliance may not obDect to its description as a Wi-Fi de4ice though technically only certified de4ices are appro4ed. The Wi-Fi ,lliance may or may not sanction deri4ati4e terms, such as uper Wi-Fi, coined by the ? Federal +ommunications +ommission -F++/ to describe proposed networking in the ?$F TB band in the ? .

Uses

, sticker indicating to the public that a location is within range of a Wi-Fi network. , dot with cur4ed lines radiating from it is a common symbol for Wi-Fi, representing a point transmitting a signal. 72;8 To connect to a Wi-Fi 6,", a computer has to be e=uipped with a wireless network interface controller. The combination of computer and interface controller is called a station. ,ll stations share a single radio fre=uency communication channel. Transmissions on this channel are recei4ed by all stations within range. The hardware does not signal the user that the transmission was deli4ered and is therefore called a best-effort deli4ery mechanism. , carrier wa4e is used to transmit the data in packets, referred to as %*thernet frames%. *ach station is constantly tuned in on the radio fre=uency communication channel to pick up a4ailable transmissions.

Internet access
, Wi-Fi-enabled de4ice can connect to the 'nternet when within range of a wireless networkwhich is configured to permit this. The co4erage of one or more -interconnected/ access pointsJcalled hotspotsJ can e3tend from an area as small as a few rooms to as large as many s=uare miles. +o4erage in the larger area may re=uire a group of access points with o4erlapping co4erage. 9utdoor public Wi-Fi technology has been used successfully inwireless mesh networks in 6ondon, ?K. Wi-Fi pro4ides ser4ice in pri4ate homes, high street chains and independent businesses, as well as in public spaces at Wi-Fi hotspots set up either free-of-charge or commercially, often using a +apti4e

portal webpage for access. 9rganiAations and businesses, such as airports, hotels, and restaurants, often pro4ide free-use hotspots to attract customers. *nthusiasts or authorities who wish to pro4ide ser4ices or e4en to promote business in selected areas sometimes pro4ide free Wi-Fi access. .outers that incorporate a digital subscriber line modem or a cable modem and a Wi-Fi access point, often set up in homes and other buildings, pro4ide 'nternet access and internetworking to all de4ices connected to them, wirelessly or 4ia cable. imilarly, there are battery-powered routers that include a cellular mobile 'nternet radiomodem and Wi-Fi access point. When subscribed to a cellular phone carrier, they allow nearby Wi-Fi stations to access the 'nternet o4er 2I, HI, or EI networks. &any smartphones ha4e a built-in capability of this sort, including those based on ,ndroid, BlackBerry, Bada, i9 -i5hone/, Windows 5honeand ymbian, though carriers often disable the feature, or charge a separate fee to enable it, especially for customers with unlimited data plans. %'nternet packs% pro4ide standalone facilities of this type as well, without use of a smartphoneL e3amples include the &iFi- and WiBro-branded de4ices. ome laptops that ha4e a cellular modem card can also act as mobile 'nternet Wi-Fi access points. Wi-Fi also connects places that normally don!t ha4e network access, such as kitchens and garden sheds.

City-wide Wi-Fi

,n outdoor Wi-Fi access point 'n the early 2111s, many cities around the world announced plans to construct city-wide Wi-Fi networks. There are many successful e3amplesL in 211E, &ysore became 'ndia!s first Wi-Fi-enabled city and second in the world after Cerusalem. , company called WiFiy"et has set up hotspots in &ysore, co4ering the complete city and a few nearby 4illages. 'n 211<, unny4ale, +alifornia, became the first city in the ?nited tates to offer city-wide free Wi-Fi.
7208

&inneapolis has generated F(.2 million in profit annually for its pro4ider.

'n &ay 21(1, 6ondon, ?K, &ayor Boris Cohnson pledged to ha4e 6ondon-wide Wi-Fi by 21(2. e4eral boroughs including Westminster and 'slington already ha4e e3tensi4e outdoor Wi-Fi co4erage. 9fficials in outh Korea!s capital are mo4ing to pro4ide free 'nternet access at more than (1,111 locations around the city, including outdoor public spaces, maDor streets and densely populated residential areas. eoul will grant leases to KT, 6I Telecom and K Telecom. The companies will in4est FEE million in the proDect, which will be completed in 21(<.

Campus-wide Wi-Fi
&any traditional college campuses in the ?nited tates pro4ide at least partial wireless Wi-Fi 'nternet co4erage. +arnegie &ellon ?ni4ersity built the first campus-wide wireless 'nternet network, called Wireless ,ndrew, at its 5ittsburgh campus in ())H before Wi-Fi branding originated. 'n *urope many uni4ersities collaborate in pro4iding Wi-Fi access to students and staff through theeduroam international authentication infrastructure. 'n 2111, :re3el ?ni4ersity in 5hiladelphia became the ?nited tates! first maDor uni4ersity to offer completely wireless 'nternet access across its entire campus.The Far *astern ?ni4ersity in &anila is the first uni4ersity in the 5hilippines to implement a campus-wide Wi-Fi co4erage.

Direct computer-to-computer communications

Wi-Fi also allows communications directly from one computer to another without an access point intermediary. This is called ad hocWi-Fi transmission. This wireless ad hoc network mode has pro4en popular with multiplayer handheld game consoles, such as the"intendo : , 5lay tation 5ortable, digital cameras, and other consumer electronics de4ices. ome de4ices can also share their 'nternet connection using ad hoc, becoming hotspots or %4irtual routers%. imilarly, the Wi-Fi ,lliance promotes a specification called Wi-Fi Direct for file transfers and media sharing through a new disco4ery- and security-methodology. Wi-Fi :irect launched in 9ctober 21(1.7E18 Advanta es and !imitations

, keychain-siAe Wi-Fi detector

Advanta es
Wi-Fi allows cheaper deployment of local area networks -6,"s/. ,lso spaces where cables cannot be run, such as outdoor areas and historical buildings, can host wireless 6,"s. &anufacturers are building wireless network adapters into most laptops. The price ofchipsets for Wi-Fi continues to drop, making it an economical networking option included in e4en more de4ices. :ifferent competiti4e brands of access points and client network-interfaces can inter-operate at a basic le4el of ser4ice. 5roducts designated as %Wi-Fi +ertified% by the Wi-Fi ,lliance arebackwards compatible. ?nlike mobile phones, any standard Wi-Fi de4ice will work anywhere in the world. Wi-Fi 5rotected ,ccess encryption -W5,2/ is considered secure, pro4ided a strong passphrase is used. "ew protocols for =uality-of-ser4ice -W&&/ make Wi-Fi more suitable for latency-sensiti4e applications -such as 4oice and 4ideo/. 5ower sa4ing mechanisms -W&& 5ower a4e/ e3tend battery life.

"imitations
pectrum assignments and operational limitations are not consistent worldwide: ,ustralia and *urope allow for an additional two channels beyond those permitted in the ? for the 2.E I$A band -(M(H 4s. (M ((/, while Capan has one more on top of that -(M(E/. , Wi-Fi signal occupies fi4e channels in the 2.E I$A band. ,ny two channel numbers that differ by fi4e or more, such as 2 and >, do not o4erlap. The oft-repeated adage that channels (, ;, and (( are the only non-o4erlapping channels is, therefore, not accurate. +hannels (, ;, and (( are the only grou of three non-o4erlapping channels in "orth ,merica and the ?nited Kingdom. 'n *urope and Capan using +hannels (, <, ), and (H for 012.((g and 012.((n is recommended. *=ui4alent isotropically radiated power -*'.5/ in the *? is limited to 21 dBm -(11 mW/. The current !fastest! norm, 012.((n, uses double the radio spectrumGbandwidth -E1 &$A/ compared to 012.((a or 012.((g -21 &$A/.This means there can be only one 012.((n network on the 2.E I$A band at a gi4en location, without interference toGfrom other W6," traffic. 012.((n can also be set to use 21 &$A bandwidth only to pre4ent interference in dense community

#an e
Wi-Fi networks ha4e limited range. , typical wireless access point using 012.((b or 012.((g with a stock antenna might ha4e a range of H< m -(21 ft/ indoors and (11 m -H11 ft/ outdoors. '*** 012.((n, howe4er, can more than double the range.7E(8 .ange also 4aries with fre=uency band. Wi-Fi in the 2.E I$A fre=uency block has slightly better range than Wi-Fi in the < I$A fre=uency block which is used by

012.((a and optionally by 012.((n. 9n wireless routers with detachable antennas, it is possible to impro4e range by fitting upgraded antennas which ha4e higher gain in particular directions. 9utdoor ranges can be impro4ed to many kilometers through the use of high gain directional antennas at the router and remote de4ice-s/. 'n general, the ma3imum amount of power that a Wi-Fi de4ice can transmit is limited by local regulations, such as F++ 5art (< in the ? . :ue to reach re=uirements for wireless 6," applications, Wi-Fi has fairly high power consumption compared to some other standards. Technologies such as Bluetooth -designed to support wireless 5," applications/ pro4ide a much shorter propagation range between ( and (11m7E28 and so in general ha4e a lower power consumption. 9ther low-power technologies such as NigBee ha4e fairly long range, but much lower data rate. The high power consumption of Wi-Fi makes battery life in mobile de4ices a concern. .esearchers ha4e de4eloped a number of %no new wires% technologies to pro4ide alternati4es to Wi-Fi for applications in which Wi-Fi!s indoor range is not ade=uate and where installing new wires -such as +,T;/ is not possible or cost-effecti4e. For e3ample, the 'T?-TI.hn standard for high speed 6ocal area networks uses e3isting home wiring -coa3ial cables, phone lines and power lines/. ,lthoughI.hn does not pro4ide some of the ad4antages of Wi-Fi -such as mobility or outdoor use/, it!s designed for applications -such as '5TBdistribution/ where indoor range is more important than mobility. :ue to the comple3 nature of radio propagation at typical Wi-Fi fre=uencies, particularly the effects of signal reflection off trees and buildings, algorithms can only appro3imately predict Wi-Fi signal strength for any gi4en area in relation to a transmitter. This effect does not apply e=ually to long-range Wi-Fi, since longer links typically operate from towers that transmit abo4e the surrounding foliage. The practical range of Wi-Fi essentially confines mobile use to such applications as in4entory-taking machines in warehouses or in retail spaces, barcode-reading de4ices at check-out stands, or recei4ingGshipping stations. &obile use of Wi-Fi o4er wider ranges is limited, for instance, to uses such as in an automobile mo4ing from one hotspot to another. 9ther wireless technologies are more suitable for communicating with mo4ing 4ehicles.

Data security risks

The most common wireless encryption-standard, Wired *=ui4alent 5ri4acy -W*5/, has been shown to be easily breakable e4en when correctly configured. Wi-Fi 5rotected ,ccess -W5, and W5,2/ encryption, which became a4ailable in de4ices in 211H, aimed to sol4e this problem. Wi-Fi access points typically default to an encryption-free -o en/ mode. "o4ice users benefit from a Aero-configuration de4ice that works out-of-the-bo3, but this default does not enable any wireless security, pro4iding open wireless access to a 6,". To turn security on re=uires the user to configure the de4ice, usually 4ia a software graphical user interface -I?'/. 9n unencrypted Wi-Fi networks connecting de4ices can monitor

and record data -including personal information/. uch networks can only be secured by using other means of protection, such as a B5" or secure $yperte3t Transfer 5rotocol -$TT5 / o4er Transport 6ayer ecurity.

Interference
For !ore details on this to ic" see Electro!agnetic interference at 2.# $H%. Wi-Fi connections can be disrupted or the internet speed lowered by ha4ing other de4ices in the same area. &any 2.E I$A 012.((b and012.((g access-points default to the same channel on initial startup, contributing to congestion on certain channels. Wi-Fi pollution, or an e3cessi4e number of access points in the area, especially on the neighboring channel, can pre4ent access and interfere with other de4ices! use of other access points, caused by o4erlapping channels in the 012.((gGb spectrum, as well as with decreased signal-to-noise ratio - "./ between access points. This can become a problem in high-density areas, such as large apartment comple3es or office buildings with many Wi-Fi access points. ,dditionally, other de4ices use the 2.E I$A band: microwa4e o4ens, ' & band de4ices, security cameras, NigBee de4ices, Bluetoothde4ices, 4ideo senders, cordless phones, baby monitors, and -in some countries/ ,mateur radio all of which can cause significant additional interference. 't is also an issue when municipalities7EE8 or other large entities -such as uni4ersities/ seek to pro4ide large area co4erage. Hardware

$tandard devices

,n embedded .outerBoard ((2 with ?.F6-. &, pigtail and .<2 mini 5+' Wi-Fi card widely used by wireless 'nternet ser4ice pro4iders -W' 5s/ in the +Aech .epublic

9 B.i:I* HI" M 012.((n ,ccess 5oint and ?&T GI & Iateway in one de4ice

,n ,theros Wi-Fi " draft adaptor with built in Bluetooth on a ony Baio * series laptop

? B wireless adapter
, wireless access point -W,5/ connects a group of wireless de4ices to an adDacent wired 6,". ,n access point resembles a network hub, relaying data between connected wireless de4ices in addition to a -usually/ single connected wired de4ice, most often an *thernet hub or switch, allowing wireless de4ices to communicate with other wired de4ices. Wireless adapters allow de4ices to connect to a wireless network. These adapters connect to de4ices using 4arious e3ternal or internal interconnects such as 5+', mini5+', ? B, *3press+ard, +ardbus and 5+ +ard. ,s of 21(1, most newer laptop computers come e=uipped with built in internal adapters.

Wireless routers integrate a Wireless ,ccess 5oint, *thernet switch, and internal router firmware application that pro4ides '5 routing, ",T, and :" forwarding through an integrated W,"-interface. , wireless router allows wired and wireless *thernet 6," de4ices to connect to a -usually/ single W," de4ice such as a cable modem or a : 6 modem. , wireless router allows all three de4ices, mainly the access point and router, to be configured through one central utility. This utility is usually an integrated web ser4er that is accessible to wired and wireless 6," clients and often optionally to W," clients. This utility may also be an application that is run on a computer, as is the case with as ,pple!s ,ir5ort, which is managed with the ,ir5ort ?tility on &ac 9 O and i9 .7E<8 Wireless network bridges connect a wired network to a wireless network. , bridge differs from an access point: an access point connects wireless de4ices to a wired network at thedata-link layer. Two wireless bridges may be used to connect two wired networks o4er a wireless link, useful in situations where a wired connection may be una4ailable, such as between two separate homes. Wireless range-e3tenders or wireless repeaters can e3tend the range of an e3isting wireless network. trategically placed range-e3tenders can elongate a signal area or allow for the signal area to reach around barriers such as those pertaining in 6-shaped corridors. Wireless de4ices connected through repeaters will suffer from an increased latency for each hop, as well as from a reduction in the ma3imum data throughput that is a4ailable. 'n addition, the effect of additional users using a network employing wireless range-e3tenders is to consume the a4ailable bandwidth faster than would be the case where but a single user migrates around a network employing e3tenders. For this reason, wireless range-e3tenders work best in networks supporting 4ery low traffic throughput re=uirements, such as for cases where but a single user with a Wi-Fi e=uipped tablet migrates around the combined e3tended and non-e3tended portions of the total connected network. ,dditionally, a wireless de4ice connected to any of the repeaters in the chain will ha4e a data throughput that is also limited by the %weakest link% e3isting in the chain between where the connection originates and where the connection ends. "etworks employing wireless e3tenders are also more prone to degradation from interference from neighboring access points that border portions of the e3tended network and that happen to occupy the same channel as the e3tended network. The security standard, Wi-Fi 5rotected etup, allows embedded de4ices with limited graphical user interface to connect to the 'nternet with ease. Wi-Fi 5rotected etup has 2 configurations: The 5ush Button configuration and the 5'" configuration. These embedded de4ices are also called The 'nternet of Things and are low-power, battery-operated embedded systems. , number of Wi-Fi manufacturers design chips and modules for embedded Wi-Fi, such as Iain pan.

Distance records
:istance records -using non-standard de4ices/ include H02 km -2H> mi/ in Cune 211>, held by *rmanno 5ietrosemoli and *s6a.ed of BeneAuela, transferring about H &B of data between the mountain-tops of *l Pguila and 5latillon.The wedish pace ,gencytransferred data E21 km -2;1 mi/, using ; watt amplifiers to reach an o4erhead stratospheric balloon. 7E)8 %m&edded systems

*mbedded serial-to-Wi-Fi module 'ncreasingly in the last few years -particularly as of 211>/, embedded Wi-Fi modules ha4e become a4ailable that incorporate a real-time operating system and pro4ide a simple means of wirelessly enabling any de4ice which has and communicates 4ia a serial port.This allows the design of simple monitoring de4ices. ,n e3ample is a portable *+I de4ice monitoring a patient at home. This Wi-Fi-enabled de4ice can communicate 4ia the 'nternet. These Wi-Fi modules are designed by 9*&s so that implementers need only minimal Wi-Fi knowledge to pro4ide Wi-Fi connecti4ity for their products.

'u!tip!e access points

'ncreasing the number of Wi-Fi access points pro4ides network redundancy, support for fastroaming and increased o4erall network-capacity by using more channels or by defining smaller cells. *3cept for the smallest implementations -such as home or small office networks/, Wi-Fi implementations ha4e mo4ed toward %thin% access points, with more of thenetwork intelligence housed in a centraliAed network appliance, relegating indi4idual access points to the role of %dumb% transcei4ers. 9utdoor applications may use mesh topologies.

(etwork security

The main issue with wireless network security is its simplified access to the network compared to traditional wired networks such as*thernet, with wired networking one must either gain access to a building -physically connecting into the internal network/ or break through an e3ternal firewall. To enable Wi-Fi, one merely needs to be within the wireless range of the Wi-Fi network. &ost business networks protect sensiti4e data and systems by attempting to disallow e3ternal access. *nabling wireless connecti4ity reduces security if the network uses inade=uate or no encryption. ,n attacker who has gained access to a Wi-Fi network router can initiate a :" spoofing attack against any other user of the network by forging a response before the =ueried :" ser4er has a chance to reply.

$ecurin methods
, common measure to deter unauthoriAed users in4ol4es hiding the access point!s name by disabling the the ': broadcast. While effecti4e against the casual user, it is ineffecti4e as a security method because ': is broadcast in the clear in response to a client ': =uery. ,nother method is to only allow

computers with known &,+ addresses to Doin the network,8 but determined ea4esdroppers may be able to Doin the network by spoofing an authoriAed address. Wired *=ui4alent 5ri4acy -W*5/ encryption was designed to protect against casual snooping but it is no longer considered secure. Tools such as ,ir nort or ,ircrack-ng can =uickly reco4er W*5 encryption keys.Because of W*5!s weakness the Wi-Fi ,llianceappro4ed Wi-Fi 5rotected ,ccess -W5,/ which uses TK'5. W5, was specifically designed to work with older e=uipment usually through a firmware upgrade. Though more secure than W*5, W5, has known 4ulnerabilities. The more secure W5,2 using ,d4anced *ncryption tandard was introduced in 211E and is supported by most new Wi-Fi de4ices. W5,2 is fully compatible with W5,. , flaw in a feature added to Wi-Fi in 211>, called Wi-Fi 5rotected etup, allows W5, and W5,2 security to be bypassed and effecti4ely broken in many situations. The only remedy as of late 21(( is to turn off Wi-Fi 5rotected etup, which is not always possible.

)i y&ackin
5iggybacking refers to access to a wireless 'nternet connection by bringing one!s own computer within the range of another!s wireless connection, and using that ser4ice without the subscriber!s e3plicit permission or knowledge. :uring the early popular adoption of 012.((, pro4iding open access points for anyone within range to use was encouraged to culti4ate wireless community networks, particularly since people on a4erage use only a fraction of their downstream bandwidth at any gi4en time.

.ecreational logging and mapping of other people!s access points has become known as wardri4ing. 'ndeed, many access points are intentionally installed without security turned on so that they can be used as a free ser4ice. 5ro4iding access to one!s 'nternet connection in this fashion may breach the Terms of er4ice or contract with the ' 5. These acti4ities do not result in sanctions in most DurisdictionsL howe4er, legislation and case law differ considerably across the world. , proposal to lea4e graffiti describing a4ailable ser4ices was called warchalking. , Florida court case determined that owner laAiness was not to be a 4alid e3cuse. 5iggybacking often occurs unintentionally, since most access points are configured without encryption by defaul 8 and operating systems can be configured to connect automatically to any a4ailable wireless network. , user who happens to start up a laptop in the 4icinity of an access point may find the computer has Doined the network without any 4isible indication. &oreo4er, a user intending to Doin one network may instead end up on another one if the latter has a stronger signal. 'n combination with automatic disco4ery of other network resources -see :$+5 and Neroconf/ this could possibly lead wireless users to send sensiti4e data to the wrong middle-man when seeking a destination - see Man-in-the-!iddle attac&/. For e3ample, a user could inad4ertently use an unsecure network to log into a website, thereby making the login credentials a4ailable to anyone listening, if the website uses an unsecure protocol such as $TT5.

$AF%T*
The World $ealth 9rganiAation -W$9/ says %there is no risk from low le4el, long-term e3posure to wi-fi networks% and the ?nited Kingdom!s $ealth 5rotection ,gency reports that e3posure to Wi-Fi for a year results in the %same amount of radiation from a 21-minute mobile phone call%. , small percentage of WiFi users ha4e reported ad4erse health issues after repeat e3posure and use of Wi-Fi, 8 though there has been no publication of any effects being obser4able in double-blind studies. , re4iew of studies in4ol4ing >2< people that claimed electromagnetic hypersensiti4ity found no e4idence for their claims.

Wi-Fi

vs+ ,Wi-Fi!s shortcoming is that it only works in close range because it!s dependent on radio wa4es. #ou must be in a hotspot to use it. But HI, on the other hand, follows you. :e4ices like a "ook, Kindle or i5ad are priced higher with HI, plus, you pay a carrier like ,T@T or BeriAon for the ser4ice. ,lternati4ely, HI can be bought separately as a mobile hotspot J in this case, your mobile hotspot gets the 'nternet connection 4ia HI and in turn pro4ides a connection to your other -multiple/ de4ices 4ia Wi-Fi. "e3t time you walk into a coffee shop, keep in mind that your rhetoric reflects what kind of web user you are J asking if they offer free 'nternet will out you as a newbie, while re=uesting the %password for the wireless% is a small impro4ement. "e3t time, say you!re interested in their Wi-Fi, and say it like you know the term is short for nothing, especially not %Wireless Fidelity.% Want ultimate nerd cred? ,sk about the '*** 012.(( -but don!t blame me if you ha4e to settle

,rd -eneration Wire!ess (etworks

, new breed of wireless networks with higher speed and capacity than 2I that are being planned, designed and deployed in different countries now -2112/. These networks

are in higher fre=uency band -2 I$A and beyond/ with larger bandwidth -around < &$N/ than 2I will pro4ide higher speeds up to 2 &bps in a fi3ed or stationary wireless en4ironment and at H0E Kbps in a mobile en4ironment. hope to con4erge towards one international standard for HI. This is unlikely to be fulfilled soon because of 4endors! self interests, e3isting infrastructure dependencies and migration steps like 2.<I I &GI5. , (3.TT +:&,, *dge, etc. before a common ?&T network becomes

%D-% %nhanced Data rates for -$' %vo!ution

per4asi4e *nhanced :ata rates for Ilobal *4olution -*:I*/ is a radio based high-speed mobile data standard. 't allows data transmission speeds of H0E kbps to be achie4ed when all eighttimeslots are used.. *:I* was initially de4eloped -by *ricsson/ for mobile network operators who fail to win ?ni4ersal &obile Telephone ystem -?&T / spectrum. *:I* gi4es I & operators the opportunity to offer data ser4ices at speeds that are near to those a4ailable on ?&T networks. *:I* can also pro4ide an e4olutionary migration path from I5. to ?&T by implementing now the changes in modulation that will be necessary for implementing ?&T later. The idea behind *:I* is to get higher data rates on the current 211 k$A I & radio carrier by changing the type of modulation used, whilst still working with current circuit -and packet/ switches.

TD'A %d e - "orth ,merican 4ersion of *uropean I & *dge initiati4e - an interim step for T:&, ' -(H; networks before HI - same principles of band but on a different band, different network infrastructure and different modulation techni=ue CD'A./// - "orth ,merica!s other offering in answer to *urope!s HI ?&T standard - a rather simplistic e3planation. cdma2111 is a HI technology that increases data transmission rates in +:&, systems. cdma2111 has been renamed the (3 &ulti-+arrier mode -(3 &+/, which pro4ides a H1> Kbps data rate in the 'T?!s HI specification. The 'T? HI specification also includes a H3 &ulti-+arrier mode -H3&+/ at 2 &bps as well as W-+:&,, the HI path intended for I & carriers in *urope and Capan to upgrade to HI +:&, - ource - TechWeb definition/ -)#$ - Ieneral 5acket .adio er4ice - another interim step towards Hrd Ieneration H$C$D - $igh peed +ircuit witched :ata - an interim step that gi4es H0.E Kbps wireless speed

%vo!ution From .- to ,Following scenarios are most likely:

+urrent 2I I & networks ----QWideband +:&, -W-+:&,/ for HI +urrent T:&, networks -e.g. ,T@T!s T:&, network/ -----Q W-+:&, ' -)< -"on-Wideband +:&,/ ----Q cdma2111

5ressures from the market and user organiAation will lead to interoperation between W-+:&, and cdma2111 networks. $owe4er 4endors and network carriers will posture and shout for the superiority of their respecti4e technologies. 'deally we should ha4e one standard and one network technology that is superior but that is asking for an ideal business world. We urge user organiAations to e3ert their natural right to force carriers to build one logical HI network with roaming and interoperability e4en if this network consists of multiple physical networks.

$tatus 0f ,- (etwork )!ans in (orth America 12anuary .//.3 -

,- -$' Tria!s &y 'icroce!! - a wireless network ser4ice pro4ider in +anada is piloting a HI network in &ontreal now -()))-2111/. We would like to make following comments on HI networks: (. HI networks, when fully implemented -2 to < years/, will mo4e mobile computing to a new le4el of performance and capacity. &eanwhile, wireless applications should be implemented carefully. +hoose your communications middleware 4endor who will allow you to migrate to future networks without application-le4el changes. +ontinue to in4est in optimiAing your wireless network traffic. appro3imately 2<-H0 Kbps with I5. or faster speed with (3.TT +:&, alternati4e is more than ade=uate speed for well-designed transaction-based applications. These interim 2.<I networks can be, in fact, good enough for many optimiAed multi-media applications where use of graphics is to enhance the current wireless data application user interface. .ich multi-media applications will be affordable in terms of capacity and price only in future. 2. For a reliable production-le4el national footprint, HI networks will take longer than industry forecasts. There is significant market de4elopment work, business case work for huge in4estments re=uired and finally engineering work for implementing networks. *ach step takes time. First you will see I5. or *dge in I & sector. +:&, (3.TT -Rualcomm technology/ that pro4ides higher spectral efficiency is being implemented by a number of carriers in ? , and *urope. By 211H-211< timeframe, you will see HI co4erage only in high-population areas. H. There is still lack of uniform standards and differences in technologies being employed especially in "orth ,merica. ?ser organiAations should plan for using the capacity of future wireless networks only after detailed analysis of ser4ice pro4iderSs network implementation plans, planned co4erage and agreements with other network operators to pro4ide national co4erage under one umbrella. 5erhaps hybrid network strategy is your best bet. "o single network technology or operator will meet all your wireless network needs. E. "orth ,merica will continue to ha4e multiple technologies and standards M *urope will stay ahead for the ne3t four years. HI standards will be adopted earlier in *urope and Capan before "orth ,merica.

<. Wireless multi-media applications must be carefully analyAed from business case point of 4iew. 9nly selected few applications will become affordable on proDected cost structure. $owe4er widespread use of wireless multi-media as a general-purpose business application will stay as a target opportunity for the ne3t ;-0 years. ;. We also feel that based on =ueuing theory proDections of similar telecommunications systems, effecti4e data rate will drop significantly below H<1 Kbps forecasts with large number of users per cell. "onetheless, HI will bring a =uantum impro4ement from where we are. >. 'f you are a wireless network pro4ider, do plan for these networks =uickly. They are going to happen as fast as network ser4ice pro4iders can roll them out. 'f you do not do it, your competitor will do it. 0. 'f you are a network ser4ice pro4ider, price these wireless data ser4ices -2.< I and HI/ low and breake4en period longer. #ou should be in it for the long haul. 5lease keep in mind what happened to 'ridium.

Advanta es of ,HI networks offer users ad4antages such as: "ew radio spectrum to relie4e o4ercrowding in e3isting systems. &ore bandwidth, security, and reliability. 'nteroperability between ser4ice pro4iders. Fi3ed and 4ariable data rates. ,symmetric data rates. Backward compatibility of de4ices with e3isting networks. ,lways-online de4ices. HI will use '5 connecti4ity, '5 is packet based -not circuit based/. .ich multimedia ser4ices.

Disadvanta es of ,There are some issues in deploying HI: The cost of upgrading base stations and cellular infrastructure to HI is 4ery high. .e=uires different handsets and there isthe issue of handset a4ailability. HI handsets will be a comple3 product. .oaming and making both dataG4oice work has not yet been demonstrated. ,lso the higher power re=uirements -more bits with the same energyGbit/ demand a larger handset, shorter talk time, and larger batteries/ Base stations need to be closer to each other -more cost/.

Tremendous spectrum-license costs,network deployment costs, handset subsidies to subscribers, etc. Wireless ser4ice pro4iders in Iermany and Britain who won spectrum licenses in auctions, paid astronomical prices for them. ,s a result, they ha4e little

App!ications wi!! ,- ena&!e HI represents a paradigm shift from the 4oice centric world of the pre4ious generations of wireless networks to the multi-media centric world of HI. .eflecting the high HI bandwidth and the fact that it is packet based, HI de4ices will offer capabilities that are a combination of a phone, 5+, and a TB. *3amples of ser4ices that will be HI networks can offer are: ,lways-on connection with users paying only when sending or recei4ing packets. Web surfing. 'nstant messaging and email with multimedia attachments. 6ocation based ser4ices. 5ersonaliAed ser4ices, where content can be pushed to users. Broadband multimedia data ser4ices like 4ideo conferencing and streaming 4ideo. .ecei4ing fa3es. Ilobal roaming capability. Ietting maps and directions with a multi-modal user interface. +ustomiAed entertainment. imultaneous access to multiple ser4ices, each ser4ice offering some combination of 4oice, 4ideo, data, etc.

)otentia! 4i!!er App!ications The high bandwidth of HI networks will lead to the creation of new ser4ices, some of which we ha4e no idea about at this time. The big =uestion is what ser4ices will be big re4enue makers for the wireless ser4ice pro4iders. 'n 2I networks, the big winners ha4e been short te3t messaging in I & networks -*urope and countries other than ? ,/ and image downloads and forwardingon i&ode networks in Capan. Two candidate ser4ices for big winners in HI networks are 4ideo conferencing and 4ideo messaging.

Wire!ess animation !ink

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