Moores Law: the number of transistors per chip doubles about every 18 months.

Has been valid for the past 40 years. Geis the first semiconductor used.Silicon is todays most important semiconductor materials GaAsand InP are popular for optoelectronic applications. SiGeand GaAsare good for RF applications Bandgap energyis the minimum energy needed to free an electron by breaking a covalent bond in the semiconductor crystal. intrinsic semiconductor

Zener breakdown:occurs when the electric field in the depletion region increases to the point where it can break covalent bonds and generate electronhole pairs. ..VZ< 5.6 V for diodes entering breakdown through this mechanism.....In avalanche breakdown, Diffusion of e-s and HolesElectrons tend VZ increases with temperature.... In Zener to diffuse from n side to p side breakdown, VZ decreases with Holes tend to diffuse from p side to n side temperature.....Breakdown is not a The resulted current is diffuse current. It destructive process provided that the is due to the movement of majority maximumspecified power dissipation is carriers. not exceeded. Formation of depletion region Diode Circuit Analysis Drift current is due to the movement of Graphical analysis (load-line method)..... minorities Numerical Analysis with diodes Forward biasing means applying an mathematical model......Simplified external voltage Vd> 0: analysis with ideal diode model...... When an electric field is applied toa Built-in potential drops (barrier lowers) Simplified analysis using constant voltage material, charged particles will Majority electrons and holes easily cross drop model. move or drift the junction Zener diode is modle with resistance Carrier drift velocity v[cm/s] is Balance between diffusion and drift and voltage source in series proportional to electric field E[V/cm] breaks Zener diode applications... Voltage at low fields: Current appears at the terminals: regulator iD= IdiffusionIdrift> 0 Line regulation dVL/dVs In fact, I diffusion increases exponentially Load regulation dVL/dIL - p < n since holes are localized to with V. Diode Application: AC DC Converters move through the covalent bond Reverse biasing means applying an structure, while electrons can move freely external voltage Vd< 0: in the crystal Built-in potential increases/barrier Doping is the process of adding very increases; Majority electrons and holes small wellcontrolled amounts of can hardly cross the junction Half wave rectifiers impurities into a pure Diffusion decreases semiconductor. Doping enables the Drift current almost unchanged as there control of the resistivity and other are little supply of carriers (minorities). properties over a wide range of values iD= IdiffusionIdrift Donor Vs Acceptor < 0 and tends to Idrift Peak Detector Circuit Vdc = Vp -Von If n > p, the material is n-type. Diode Terminal I-V Characteristics If p > n, the material is p-type. The carrier with the larger density is the majority carrier, the smaller is the minority carrier Breakdown region:Rapid increase in ID when reverse bias voltage exceeds a break down voltageVZTemp. Coeff. Typical value of Vz: 2 V <VZ<2000 Avalanche Breakdown:Carriers in the SCR are accelerated by the internal Mobility drops as doping level increases electric field and collide with fixed atoms Full Wave Bridge Rectifiers As the reverse bias increases, the energy due to Impurity atoms have different size than of the accelerated carriers increases, silicon and hence disrupt the periodicity eventually breaking covalent bonds and generating electron-hole pairs of crystal lattice.... Impurity atoms The newly created carriers also represents localized charges. Basic function of diode: to allow current accelerate, collide with atoms, and Low PIV is important in high-voltage generate other electron-hole pairs. This to flow only in one direction. circuits. process feeds on itself and leads to Applications: Direction of current through load is in avalanche breakdown Rectifiers, Waveform clipping and same direction. Si diodes with VZ> 5.6 V enter breakdown clamping circuits, DC-DC converters through this mechanism

Active Region DC to DC convertors Boost Convertors

Early Effect: Current in active region depends (slightly) on vCE Account for Early effect with additional term in collector current equation VAis a parameter for the BJT (50 to 100) and called the Early voltage Nonzero slope means the output resistance is NOT infinite. At low value of vCE, the CBJ becomes forward-biased and the transistor enters the saturation region If reverse voltage across either of the two pnjunctions in the transistor is too large, corresponding diode will break down. Emitter is the most heavily doped region and collector is the most lightly doped region......Due to doping differences, baseemitter diode has relatively low breakdown voltage (3 to 10 V). Collector base diode can be designed to break down at much larger voltages. Transistors must be selected in accordance with possible reverse voltages in circuit.

Buck Convertors Forward bias of EBJ causes electrons to diffuse from emitter into base. 2. As base region is very thin, the majority of these electrons diffuse to the edge of Clamping Circuit:Clamping level can also the depletion region of CBJ, and then are be shifted away from zero by adding a swept to the collector by the electric field voltage source in series with diode. of the reverse-biased CBJ. 3. A small fraction of these electrons recombine with the holes in base region. 4. Holes are injected from base to emitter region. (4) << (1) Collector current Clipping Circuit

Photodiode if depletion region of pn junction diode is illuminated with ligh electron-hole pair produce. Photodectector: convert light signal into electrical form. Usually reverse biased to increase the depletion layer width. LED. When electrons and holes recombine, they release energy. This energy is often released as heat into the lattice, but in some materials, known as direct bandgap materials, they release light. Engineering LEDs can be difficult, but has been done over a wide range of wavelengths. BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 3 terminals: emitter, base, and collector 2 pnjunctions: emitter-base junction collector-base junction Emitter: heavily doped Base: very thin Region of Operation

Base Current ase current consists of two components: Ib1and Ib2: Ib1, due to forward bias of EBJ, is an exponential function of Vbe. Ib2, due to recombination, is directly proportional to the numbers of Model for Saturation Mode electrons injected from the emitter, which EBJ Forward-biased; CBJ Forwardbiased. in turn is an exponential function of Vbe Can relate iB and iCby the following equation

=Ic/Ib is constant for a particular transistor On the order of 100-200 in modern devices (but can be higher) called common-emitter current gain. also denoted as F Emitter Current

Forward voltage drop VBC is small b/c collector doping level is low (by design).....No expressions for terminal currents other than Ic+ Ib= Ie. The ratio of Ic to Ib is called the forced current gain Active-mode Increase I B(or VI) causes IC to increase proportionally (IC =IB) VCto drop VCwill drop to a point where BCJ becomes forwardbiased, then: VCEclamps to VBE -0.5V, or 0.2V

Further increases of IBwill not increase IC....IC is said saturated IC/IB becomes smaller than and is called forced CUTOFF region EBJ Reverse-biased CBJ Reverse-biased Ib = Ic = Ie = 0 MOSFET :: Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor ompared with BJT, MOSFET has Higher integration scale Lower manufacturing cost Simpler circuitry for digital logic and memory .. Inferior analog circuit performance in general Recent trend: more and more analog circuits are implemented in MOS technology for . lower cost integration with digital circuits in a same chip (mixed-signal IC) Structure of MOSFET

channel pinches-off

Further increase Gate Voltage

Electrons (minorities in the pregion) attracted by the electric field towards the gate, and stopped by the gate oxide A n-type inversion layer formed underneath the gate oxide when VGS reaches a certain value, called threshold voltage (Vt, or VTNfor NMOS) The channel connects the S andD and now currents can flow between them Linear Triod Mode of Operation

our terminals: Gate, Source, Drain and body Two types n-Channel (NMOS) p-Channel (PMOS) The minimum value of L is referred as the feature sizeof the fabrication technology LOW Gate Voltage Body is commonly tied to ground When the gate is at low voltage (VGS~ 0): P-type body is at low voltage Source-body and drain-body diodes are OFF (reverse bias) iG=0 (always), iDS= 0 Depletion region between n+ and p-type bulk No current can flow, transistor is said in Cutoff mode

Saturation Mode of Operation When channel pinches off, electrons still flows from S to D . Electrons are diffused from the channel to the depletion region near D, where they are drifted by the lateral E-field to the D Similar to a reverse-biased B-C junction in a BJT .. Further increase of vDSno effect on the channel current is saturated and the transistor is in Saturation Mode In this mode, transistor = a voltage controlled current source

Increase Gate Voltage Vertical electric field established Under the gate-oxide: Holes (positive charges) repelled Depletion region under gate oxide formed

When vGS> Vt and a small vDS is applied Current flows from D to S (Electrons flow from S to D) iDSvDS Increasing vGS above Vt increases the electron density in the channel, and in turn increases the conductivity between D & S Such devices are called enhancementtype MOSFET .. In this mode, transistor = a voltage controlled resistor Increase Drain Voltage: Channel Pinch- Non ideal Effects Channel Length Modulation Off Increase vDS Decrease vGD less es at the drain side of the channel When vDSvGSVt VGDVt no channel exists at the drain side. The

CMOS Inverter PU: pull up network, responsible for producing HIGH output PD: pull down network, responsible for producing LOW output

At vDS=vGS-VTN=VDSsat Channel pinch-off CASE 1: V1 =Vdd As vDSincreases beyond v DSsat, the pinch off point moves away from D towards S The effective channel length L is reduced by L IDincreases An effect similar to Early effect in BJT EFFECT OF TEMPREATURE Vt and mobility are sensitive to temperature: . Vtdecreases by 2mV for every 1C rise in temperature mobility decreases with temperature Overall, increase in temperature results in lower drain currents AVALANCH BREAKDOWN As VDis increased, the drain-body junction becomes reversed biased Breakdown occur @voltages of 20to150V Rapid increase in the drain current Normally, no permanent damage device CASE 2: V1 = 0 PINCH OFF BREAKDOWN Whe VDis increased to a point, the depletion region surrounding D extends to the S Punch-through breakdown (about 20 V) Occurs in devices with short channels Normally, no permanent damage device GATE-OXIDE BREAKDOWN When VGSexceeds about 30 V (or lower in modern IC technology) Gate oxide breaks down like in the case of a capacitor Results in permanent damage device PMOS