WELDING RESEARCH FOR SELF RELIANCE IN DEFENCE

G. Madhusudhan Reddy Defence Metallurgical Research Laboratory, Hyderabad, INDIA

Many applications of materials are limited by their ability to be joined.

If higher level of performance required, process-microstructure-property relations are essential to ensure adequate joint integrity.

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Material Welding suitability

Component Weldability

Manufacture Welding feasibility

Design Welding reliability

Weldability of the component as defined by German Standard is subdivided into the elements of welding suitability of the material, welding reliability of the design and welding feasibility in manufacture

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CERAMIC - METAL JOINING

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History of Ceramic-metal Joining

Need for Ceramic-Metal joining

Problems in Ceramic-Metal joining Various techniques for Ceramic-Metal joining Basic Mechanisms involved in joining Metal Brazing
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Active

History / Evolution of ceramic-metal joining

First Patented by two German Scientist named Pulfrich and Vatter during World War II (late 1930s) the process is termed as Metallizing / Moly-Manganese process . To increase the performance of electronic vacuum tubes by substituting ceramics for glass.
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Problems in Ceramic-Metal Joining

Difference in the nature of Interatomic bonding

Ceramics are Ionic / Covalent bonded (no free electrons) while most of the metals have Metallic Bonding.

Vast difference in the Coefficient of Thermal Expansion () Ceramic Metal Ceramic Metal Ceramic
At Brazing Temperature (Around 9000C)

Ceramic Metal
Cooling again to room temperature

At room Temperature (Stress Free)

Difference in their Youngs modulus Chemical Stability or inertness of ceramics

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Various techniques for Ceramic-Metal joining

1. Mechanical Joining:a. Clamping ---Eg. Clamping of NASA Space Shuttle leading edges. b. Shrink Fitting---Eg. In spark Plug 2. Direct Joining:Joining enhanced just by applying heat and / or pressure without the use of any intermediates. 3. In-direct Joining:Joining facilitated by the use of intermediates such as filler alloys, Glass bonding agents or aids.
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Direct & In-direct Ceramic-Metal joining Processes

Direct Joining Processes

In-direct Joining Processes Sintered Metal Powder Process Active Metal Brazing Liquid & Vapor Phase Metallizing Glass Bonding Active Metal soldering

Diffusion Bonding Microwave Joining Ultrasonic Bonding Electron Beam welding Laser welding Friction welding

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Why Active Metal Brazing?

Potential for high temperature use
Minimal surface preparation Single step process Complex joint geometries Reduced stress concentration Suitable for particle reinforcement

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Definition:Active Metal brazing is a process wherein specially designed filler metal is sandwiched between ceramic and metal base material and then heated in vacuum. The filler metal contains small amount of reactive elements such as Ti, Zr, Hf etc. that is able to form a reaction layer on the ceramic surface that can be wetted by the conventional filler metal.

Basic Mechanism:The desired reaction along the Ceramic(say for eg. Alumina) interface is:-

Al203
(Alumina)

Ti
(from the filler alloy say for eg. Ag-Cu-Ti)

Al

TiO (non-stoichiometric)

(desired interface product)

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Basic Mechanism:The desired reaction along the Ceramic(say for eg. Alumina) interface is:-

Al203
(Alumina)

3Ti

2Al

3TiO (non-stoichiometric)
(desired interface product)

(from the filler alloy say for eg. Ag-Cu-Ti)

metal
Alumina TiO

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Ag-Cu-Ti Alumina Alumina

Ti

Stainless steel

50 m

Stainless steel Dot Mapping of Ti Element

Microstructure of Alumina-[Ag-Cu-Ti]-SS Brazed Joint

Alumina

Ag-Cu-Ti

Ti

20 m

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Ag-Cu-Hf Filler

Alumina

Stainless Steel

Al2O3-[ Sn-Ag-Ti]-SS joint

Filler region + interface

Al2O3-[ Cu-Ag-Ti]-SS joint

Reference BSE Image

Alumina
25 m

SS

Filler region + interface

Alumina
50 m
Reference BSE

SS

Reference BSE Hf

25 m

Al2O3-[ Ag-Cu-Hf]-SS joint

Ti

Ti

Alumina

Ti stabilized SS

Al2O3-[ Ag-Cu-Ti]-commercial pure Ti

Alumina C.P.Ti

10m

10m

Ti Al2O3-[ Ag-Cu-Ti]-Ti Stabilized Stainless steel Ti

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Alumina

FSS

Al2O3-[ Ag-Cu-Ti]-Inconel 718

Alumina

Inconel 718

10m

10m

Ti Ti Al2O3-[ Ag-Cu-Ti]-FSS Ti

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BRAZING ALLOY INTERACTION IN PURE METALCRAMIC COMBINATIONS

Fe

BSE

15m

Ti

Mo

BSE

5 m

Ti

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SiC-(Ag-Cu-Ti)SS
AISI 304 SS SiC

10 m

Ti

Fe

Cr

Si

Ni

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ACTIVE METAL INTERACTION IN CERAMICMETAL COMBINATIONS

ASS

ASS
Alumina FSS

50 m

Ti
Alumina Ti SS SiC (Ti SS)

Ti
ASS

Ti
10m

Ti

Ti

Alumina
INCONEL 718 INCONEL 718 INCONEL 718

SiC

Ti

Ti

Ti

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Significance
DMRL has developed low alloy steel for the Indian Navy. This steel is used for the fabrication of war ships and aircraft carriers

* *

Protection against sea water corrosion is major concern for wider naval applications Surface modification is essential
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ELECTROSLAG STRIP CLADDING

STRIP FEEDING

EXPLOSIVE CLADDING

SOLIDIFIED SLAG LIQUID SLAG WELD DEPOSIT PARENT METAL WELDING DIRECTION

FLUX

OPERATING PRICIPLE OF ELECTROSLAG STRIP CLADDING

High rate of deposition and area coverage in combination with small and uniform penetration of the parent metal

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MICROSTRUCTURE OF EXPLOSIVE & STRIP CLAD JOINTS

Low alloy steel AISI 304 Low alloy steel

AISI 304

50 m

1mm
24 22 20 18

24

Explosive Clad joint

22

Strip Clad Joint

Stainless steel

Cr

20 18

Cr

Weight % of Cr & Ni

Weight % of Cr & NI

16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40

12X
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 10 20 30 40

Stainles steel

Ni

NI Low alloy steel

Low alloy steel

Distance in micrones

Distance in micrones

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SHEAR BOND & BEND TEST RESULTS

SHEAR BOND STRENGTH (MPa) As -CLAD Explosive cladding Strip cladding 550 250

BEND TEST 3T , 1200 Satisfactory Satisfactory

Bend test

Lap shear

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Friction welding

AISI 304

AISI 304

Friction weld
304
Low alloy steel

Low alloy steel

Low alloy steel

Clad Joint

For evaluation of (i) Impact (ii) Tensile (iii) Notch tensile properties of clad joints

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Plain tensile test

Explosive clad joint
Clad Joint 304

Low alloy steel

Friction weld

Both Explosive and strip clad joints- Failure in stainless steel region Clad joint is stronger than stainless steel

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Explosive clad joint

Impact Properties Steel surface

Fracture path

Impact Energy (CVN): 145 Joules

Length of the fracture path: 12mm

Strip clad joint

Explosive clad joints exhibited superior impact toughness as compared to Strip clad joints. Crack is highly tortuous in Explosive clad joints compared to that in Strip clad joints

Cut line

Fracture path

Impact Energy (CVN): 5 Joules

Length of the fracture path: 8.3 mm

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Fractographs of Notch Tensile samples

Friction joint

Electro slag strip clad joint NTS of strip clad joint: 580 MPa
NTS of Stainless steel: 925 MPa NTS of low alloy steel:1020 MPa

304
Clad interface

Low alloy steel

STRIP
40 m

Explosive clad joint

Friction Joint

Low alloy steel

Clad interface

304

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Problems in the fusion welding of maraging steels

Solidification cracking Segregation of Mo and Ti and formatio of austenite H2 induced cracking

1 mm

20 m

40 m

Dark band in HAZ/multi pass welds

Constitutional liquation

10 m

Rapid heating and high peak temperature in HAZ intermetallic compound TiC/Ti(CN) liquate and penetrate grain boundaries brittle g.b film in the resulting microstructure

Shielding gas : Carbon pickup embrittlemnt due to formation of TiC at the grain boundaries DMRL

Micro analysis of Fusion zone by EPMAMaraging steel

Sample Condition Location Ni Mo Co Ti Al

As welded

Cell center Cell boundary

17.69 18.72

4.08 5.94

8.15 8.24

0.25 0.89

0.07 0.39

BSE image and elemental X-ray maps of Mo and Ti

Solutionised condition

Cell center Cell boundary

17.78 18.02

4.26 5.70

8.19 8.23

0.30 0.72

0.10 0.17

Homogenized condition

Cell center Cell boundary

17.92 18.01

4.49 4.5

8.22 8.26

0.38 0.39

0.14 0.16

BSE image and elemental X-ray maps of Mo and Ti

Bulk composition of fusion zone

18.0

4.6

8.3

0.41

0.15

BSE image and elemental X-ray maps of Mo and Ti

a) As welded b)Solutionised c)Homogenised condiions

Cell boundaries exhibit enriched Ni, Mo, Ti in as welded & SA conditions. Micro segregation of Co & Al are very low. Homogenization normalizes the trend ,

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Impact Toughness- Maraging steel GTA welds

Material condition
As received As - welded Aged Solutionized + aged Homogenized + Solutionized + aged
70

Austinite volume(%)

Impact energy (Joules ) Weld Parent metal 110 65 40 23 50 70 42 45 50

---Not present 18 13 Not present

As-welded

----

60

Impact toughness (J)

50

Aged
40

Homogenized+Solutionized+Aged

30

Solutionized+Aged
20 8.6 8.8 9.0 9.2 9.4 9.6

Effective crack path length (mm)

(a) As-welded (b) Aged (c) (Solutionized+Aged) (d) (Homogenized+Solutionized+Aged)

Welds exhibit lower toughness compared to parent metal irrespective of HT process Maximum crack length in ( H+S+A) due to absence of reverted austenite which forms voids Soft phase deform early and reach to critical strain for fracture Higher the crack length, crack path is tortuous

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Armour steels
The main problems that encountered in welding of armour steels are:
(a) (b ) (c) Hydrogen assisted cracking Reduced ballistic immunity due to usage of austenitic stainless steel welding consumables Heat affected zone softening

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Heat affected zone softening in high strength low alloy steel

Variables: * Chemistry of the steel * Welding processes * Effect of external cooling * Effect of post weld heat treatment Evaluation * Degree of softening

# Steels with higher martensitic start temperature exhibited least tendency for softening in low heat input welds # External cooling reduced softening # Post weld heat treatments eliminated soft zone
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BALLISTIC PERFORMANCE OF WELDMENTS

Effect of heat input Influence of welding processes
Plasma Arc Weld

GTAW Weld

EB weld

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Enhancement of Ballistic Capabilities of Soft Welds Through Hardfacing

Energy of projectile dissipated through development of numerous cracks Hardfacing is a method to improve ballistic performance of austenitic welds established

Titanium alloys
Composition : Ti-6.5Al3.3Mo-1.8Zr-0.25Si Application: Compressor disc and blade

GTM 900

- heat treated condition

heat treated condition

Required properties
20m 100m

Disc Fatigue & short time high temperature strength

Blade Long term high temperature strength & better FCGR resistance

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Ti alloys

Influence of starting base metal microstructure on fusion zone grain size

- heat treated condition heat treated condition

EB weld GTM900

If the starting base metal grain structure is coarse the weld zone grain structure would also be coarse due to epitaxial solidification

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Weld fusion zone in Ti alloys exhibit low ductility. This attributed to an acicular martesitic microstructure and large prior grain size. This situation can not be improved by adjusting weld heat input (q) heat input- coarsens the grains heat input accelerates cooling and renders microstructure more acicular Post weld heat treatments (below transus ) cannot alter the prior grains.

It is thus desirable to use techniques for refining solidification structure which, at the same time, do not impair the matrix microstructure DMRL

Pulsed current welding

Magnetic arc oscillation

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WELDABILTY ISSUES AL ALLOYS Porosity Solidification cracking

Crack Weld
Fracture surface

50 m

Partially melted zone (PMZ) cracking

Poor mechanical properties (A) Fusion zone (40-50% of base metal T6 condition) (due to non heat treatable fillers) (B) Softening in the HAZ dissolution of precipitates during weld thermal cycle

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140

4043 filler
120

AA 6061 T6

AA 6061 T6 Condition

Hardness(Hv)

100

Fusion boundary

80

60

40 0 5 10 15 20 25

Fuel tank

Distance from centre line of the weldment (mm)

Softening in the HAZ dissolution / coarseningof Mg2Si during weld thermal cycle

Tensile properties 0.2%YS UTS Base metal (T6) 270 Weld 120 310 180 % El. 10 6

Oxidiser Tank
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Failure location : Soft HAZ

140

4043 filler
120

Arc oscillated weld

AA 6061 CC weld
PMZ

Hardness (Hv)

100

Fusion boundary

80

60

Continuous current weld

HAZ

Weld

40 0 5 10 15 20 25

Distance from centre line of the weldment (mm)

Tensile properties 0.2%YS Base metal (T6) CC Weld 270 120 UTS 310 180 % El. 10 6

AO weld Weld
PMZ HAZ

( Failure location : Soft HAZ) AO Weld 204 285 9. 5

( Failure location : Weld)

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WELDING DIRECTION

CRACKS

Influence of Scandium on Solidification Cracking Behavior of AA 7010 Alloy

100 80

TOP VIEW
SPECIMEN AFTER BENDING

7010

GTAW
SPECIMEN BEFORE BENDING

Total crack length (mm)

60

40

7010 +Sc

20

FRONT VIEW FORCE

7020
0 0 1 2 3 4 5

= t / (2R)

Augumented strain (%)

7010 base line alloy

7010+SC

7020

7020

1 mm

At augmented strain 2%

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Influence of Scandium on Solidification Cracking Behavior of AA 7010 Alloy

100

7010 Weld

80

7010

Total crack length (mm)

60

50 m
40

7010 +Sc

20

7020
0 0 1 2 3 4 5

Augumented strain (%)

7010+Sc Weld
Small addition (i.e., 0.25 wt%) of Sc to commercial 7010 aluminium alloy greatly improves its weldability in terms of improving the resistance of the alloy to hot cracking

50 m

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INCONEL 718
Super alloy 718 in one of the most widely used nickel based alloy Super alloy 718 is is one of the most widely used nickel based alloy for for high high temperature applications likegas aero-engine, temperature applications like aero-engine, turbine etc., gas turbine etc., because of its outstanding elevated temperature properties, good fabricability 718 is basically strengthened by Ni 3Nb precipitate coupled with hot corrosion and oxidation resistance
Niobium (Nb) has a high partition coefficient and hence tends to segregate in the interdendritic region during weld solidification resulting in Laves phase formation that leads to poor response of the weldment to post weld ageing This is an impediment in the exploitation of the full potential of the alloy in respect of room temperature and high temperature properties. HOW TO OVERCOME THE LAVES PROBLEM? Laves Problem

Use of techniques which result in less Nb segregation * Magnetic arc oscillation * Use of pulsing techniques * Electron beam oscillation techniques

Use of post weld heat treatment

Use of relatively higher solutionizing temperatures

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IN 718 Electron Beam Welds

Influence of beam oscillation
20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

ELECTRON PROBE MICRO ANALYSIS

19
Wt % of Niobium

Interdendritic Dendritic core

10 2.75 4.5

10 m

1 Un - oscillated

2 oscillated

Laves Vol.% : 12

Laves Vol.% : 4

Results of stress rupture tests at 6500C and 600 MPa

Condition Type of weld Rupture life in Hours 630 - 650 Unoscillated Oscillated Unoscillated Oscillated 150 - 160 430 - 450 26 - 32 400 - 410 Weld Weld Weld Weld Failure location

Strengthening precipitation in 980STA condition TEM microstructures in welds

Base metal Welding + Solutionising and aged

Welding + Directly aged Improved precipitation of strengthening phases due to reduced Nb segregation

DIFFICULTIES IN WELDING OF DISSIMILAR METALS

WIDE DIFFERENCES IN THERMAL,PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES LEADING TO Distortion, non uniform melting non uniform deformation

METALLURGICAL INCOMPATIBILITY Mutual insolubility Tendency to form brittle and low melting phases
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Ti6Al4V- AA 6061 GTA Weld

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FRICTION WELDING OF AISI 304 TO AA 6061 Effect of Electroplated Interlayer

120

Bend angle (Degree)

100

Bend angle

100

AISI 304

AA 6061

80

60

BSE

Fe

40

30 14 0 W/IL Ni
Type of interlayer

20

AISI 304

AA 6061 17 m Al

Cu

Ag

Ag

300 Strength (MPa) 250 200 150 150 110 100 50 0 20 W/IL Ni Cu

270

It is feasible to weld AISI 304 to AA 6061 employing interlayer materials such as silver. The better performance of silver as an interlayer is attributed to formation of ductile phases like Ag2Al and FeAl.

Ag

Type of interlayer

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Continuous cooling transformation diagrams (CCT)

Peculiarities of weld thermal cycle

#

Faster heating and cooling Steep temperature gradients The short exposure time at high temperature Higher austenitizing temperature. Large thermo-mechanical stresses

# # # #

Methods for generating weld CCT

# # Physical simulation methods Direct insitu methods

Insitue method has the advantage of allowing the transformation which occur in a true HAZ to be studied directly

All the variables in welding operation such as heat input, preheat temperature, thickness etc., can be directly put into play

Development of CCT diagrams for weldments

Determination of the qualities in the HAZ as a function of the chosen welding data Determination of the necessary heat input to avoid cold cracks Describing microstructural developments occurring in weld and HAZ regions Choice of materials and welding processes Understanding of metallurgical processes occurring during welding

Schematic weld/HAZ CCT diagram

Evaluation of the weldability during the development of new steel

Continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagram - Low carbon low alloy weld metal

C (0.06%), Mn (0.7%) manual metal arc welds

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