8/11/2009

SE URBAN 2007-8 Highway Materials

Class notes and slides on:
Highway Materials „ Soil
Highway Construction and „ Aggregates
Highway Maintenance „ Bitumen

Soil properties and Soil Types

Classification
„ Soil Formation
„ Soil Types
„ Particle Size Analysis and Grading Characteristics
„ Physical Properties of Soils
„ Engineering classification of soils

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Particle Size Analysis

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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Classification

1.Soil Texture
2.Soil Structure
3.Bulk Density
4.Pore Space
5.Soil Temperature

Das,
1998

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Crushed stone (aggregate)

AGGREGATES
„ Aggregate" is a collective term for the mineral
materials such as sand, gravel and crushed
stone that are used with a binding medium
(such as water,
water bitumen,
bitumen portland cement,
cement
lime, etc.) to form compound materials (such
as asphalt concrete and portland cement
concrete). By volume, aggregate generally
accounts for 92 to 96 percent of HMA and
about 70 to 80 percent of portland cement
concrete. Aggregate is also used for base and
subbase courses for both flexible and rigid
pavements

Aggregates Types - Gravel Aggregates Types - Sands

ƒ Naturally occurring, water born pieces of
rock, in buried or current stream beds
„ Normally rounded with smooth surfaces,
other properties dependent on parent rock
„ Crushed gravel is larger gravel particles that
have been reduced in size by a crusher
„ May be washed to remove undesirable
material
„ May be screened to divide into desired size
9ƒ Naturally occurring, water or wind born pieces of
rock in buried or current stream beds or dunes
9§ Often rounded with smooth surfaces, other
properties dependent on parent rock
9§ May be washed to remove undesirable material
9§ May be screened to divide into desired size
groupings

groupings

4

Classification of Natural
Aggregates
„ In accordance with size
„ In accordance with sources:
„ In accordance with unit weight
In accordance with sources
1. Natural Mineral Aggregates - Sand, gravel,
and crushed rock derived from natural
sources.
(a) Igneous Rocks - Granite, basalt: hard,
t
tough,
h strong
t ®E Excellent
ll t aggregates
t characteristics.
(b) Sedimentary Rocks - about 80% of
aggregates; Natural sand and gravel)
Limestone, sandstone ® Excellent to poor
(c) Metamorphic Rocks -.
„ Marble, schist, slate ® Excellent to poor
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In accordance with size
„ Coarse aggregate: Aggregates predominately
retained on the No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve. For
mass concrete, the maximum size can be as
large as 150 mm.
„ Fine aggregate (sand): Aggregates passing
No.4 (4.75 mm) sieve and predominately
retained on the No. 200 (75 mm) sieve.
Aggregate Production
„ Aggregates are produced in a quarry or mine
whose basic function is to convert in situ rock
into aggregate with specified
h Usually
ll the
h rockk is blasted
bl d or
dug from the quarry walls then reduced in
size using a series of screens and
crushers. Some quarries are also capable of
washing the finished aggregate.
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Sand and gravel excavation. CRUSHING

The first steps of processing begins after the

extraction from quarry or pit. Many of these
steps also are common to recycled materials,
clay, and other manufactured aggregates.
The first stage in most operations is the
reduction and sizing by crushing. Some
operations, however, provide a step prior to
crushing called scalping.

Surge pile. GRADATION CONTROL

The best technique for gradation control is screening.
Screening can be done wet or dry, depending on the
kind of aggregate being processed and the degree of
consistency needed for each product. Washing, for
example, may be necessary to clean a concrete
aggregate, but it may not be needed for hot mix
asphalt products, which can contain more fines. For
gradation control alone, however, a producer may
come to realize that gradation consistency can only
be maintained by using wet screening, especially for
the hot mix asphalt products. Gradation consistency
is usually an overriding factor for a hot mix asphalt
customer. Water volume and flow direction are critical
in wet screening.

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Screening.
SAND PRODUCTION

Sand plays a critical role as a construction aggregate and it

deserves special attention when considering the means of
process control. Unlike coarse aggregate where various
types of crushers can be used to upgrade mineral quality
quality,
sand basically relies on the same techniques to address
both mineral quality and sizing. These techniques are
called particle exclusion.Whichever size the producer
decides to eliminate for quality reasons obviously also will
affect sizing.

PAVING ASPHALTS
NATURAL SAND Origins, properties,
Good quality natural sand is readily available in
many areas and may be easy to obtain and manufacture and use
process. As with the gravels that they often
accompany,the sand deposits may not have been
laid uniformly
uniformly, meaning a potential
change in quality and size is possible. In some
deposits, sand found below the water table differs
in fines content and quality from that found above
the water table. Subsurface drilling, sampling, and
testing is necessary to know to what degree and
where these differences occur.

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Sources and Manufacture of

Composition and Structure of
Asphalt
Asphalt
„ Sources
„ natural asphalt „ Physical and chemical character of asphalt is determined by:
„ composition of crude oil
„ crude oil
„ method of crude oil and asphalt processing

„ Asphalt manufacture „ Asphalt: complex, multicomponent, colloidal system

Asphalt is composed of a multitude species which differ by:
„ distillation - oxidation „

„ molecular mass, chemical structure, polarity

„ extraction - „ Molecular mass between 400 - 3000 D

modification „ Carbon skeleton: 25 - 150 atoms
„ cracking processes
„ Paving asphalt represents 3 ~ 4 % of the
total annual crude oil throughput in USA
and Canada

Specifications of Paving
Composition and Structure of Asphalt Asphalts
(Cont’d) „ The role of specifications:
„ specify properties that directly reflect asphalt
„ Composition varies considerably among behaviour
asphalts manufactured from different „ express these properties in physical units
crude oils „ provide limits for those properties to exclude
poor performing
f products
„ The largest portion of paving asphalts are
„ provide information from which the service
produced as vacuum residues with the cut performance can be predicted
point between 425°C and 565°C „ Important properties of asphalt:
„ mechanical
„ adhesive
„ durability

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Specifications of Paving Asphalts (Cont’d) Classical Penetration- Based

„ Conventional tests used for asphalt Specification
characterization:
REQUIREMENTS FOR ASPHALT CEMENT FOR USE IN PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION
„ penetration, ductility, softening point R&B, ASTM D946

flash point, spot test, Fraass breaking point….. Penetration Grade

„ Ageing characteristics: 40-50 60-70 85-100 120-150 200-300

Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max
„ Thin Film Oven Test, Rolling Thin Film Oven Penetration @ 77°F(25°C) 100g, 5s 40 50 60 70 85 100 120 150 200 300

Test, Pressure Aging Vessel… Flash Point, °F (Cleveland open cup)

Ductility at 77°F (25°C) 5cm/min, cm
450
100
---
---
450
100
---
---
450
100
---
---
425
100
---
---
350
100A
---
---

„ Rheological tests: Solubility in trichloroethylene, %

Retained penetration after thin-film
99
55+
---
---
99
52+
---
---
99
47+
---
---
99
42+
---
---
99
37+
---
---
oven test, %
„ Bending Beam Rheometer, Direct tension Test, Ductility at 77°F (25°C) 5cm/min, cm --- --- 50 --- 75 --- 100 --- 100A ---

Dynamic Shear Rheometer

after thin-film oven test
A If ductility at 77°F (25°C) is less than 100 cm, material will be accepted if ductility at 60°F (15.5°C) is 100 cm minimum
at the pull rate of 5 cm/min

The Road Construction

Process
„ The type of road construction used varies from one
job to another. The type of construction adopted for
a particular road depends on: the volume and nature
of traffic to use the road,
„ the nature of the materials available,

Highway Construction „

„
the topography,
foundation conditions,
„ type and availability of construction equipment, and
„ financing arrangements and timing.

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The Road Construction

Process Earthworks
„ Any road construction job consists of number of basic steps,
although the relevant importance and the interaction between „ The eventual aim of the earthworks phase of the construction is
these steps will vary from job to job. These steps can be to position the subgrade underlying the pavement layers in the
summarized as: right location and at the correct level, and to provide drainage.
„ planning, programming and pre-construction activities;
The operations to be performed are:
„ formation
f ti off cuttings
tti b
by excavating
ti ththrough
h hi
high
h ground,
d
„ site clearance;
„ formation of embankments by filling over low ground,
„ setting out;
„ shaping the finished surface to design levels, and
„ earthworks;
„ excavating for drainage works.
„ bridge construction;

„ drainage structures;
„ The earthworks is often the largest task in the road building
process and therefore careful planning and organisation are
„ pavement construction;
essential. Speed and efficiency depend very much upon the
„ placement of road surfacing;
quantity and types of earthmoving plant available.
„ placement of road furniture; and

„ landscaping.

NED roadwork-11 Aug 2009

Sequence of Operations
„ The normal sequence of operations in cut and fill work is:
„ In Cut
„ excavate to the depth necessary to reach formation level,

„ transport away from the site undesirable material such as

o ganic soils,
organic soils
„ haul suitable materials from cuts to fill areas, and

„ suitably dispose of any excess cut material.

„ In Fill
„ drain water from depressions and dispose of any unsuitable

underlying material,
„ spread fill material in horizontal layers not more than 250 mm

thick, and
Subgrade prepared Base course materials stacked
„ thoroughly compact these layers to required density.

40

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Pavement Construction Pavement Construction

„ Gravel and Crushed Rock Pavements „ Cement Concrete Pavements
„ Source: pits,quarries. „ Manufacture: ready-mixed batching plant.

„ Haulage: trucks. „ Haulage: agitator truck.

„ Spreading: grader or paver. „ Large quantities: site manufacture + normal trucks.

„ Compaction: higher compaction standard than subgrade; „ Placement: slip-form paver.

different roller types used. „ Compaction: internal vibrators + external screeds

screeds.
„ Accuracy of levels important.

„ Asphalt Pavements
„ Manufacture: fixed plants (up to 400 tonnes per hour), or

large mobile plants.

„ Haulage: trucks.

„ Placement: paving machine.

„ Compaction: rollers - smooth vibrating drum and pneumatic-

tyred.
„ Usually final layer thin to achieve good riding surface.

Placement of Road Surfacing „ Spray binder - air temperature should be > 15 C; no

rain should be threatening; mark out spray run-
„ May be gravel, sprayed bituminous seal, asphalt or alignment and start and finish.
cement concrete. „ Apply aggregate - quick incorporation into hot bitumen
Construction of Sprayed Bituminous Surfacing before excessive cooling; spreaders required; drag
broom to correct spreading inconsistencies.
„ Pavement must be sound. For new work: compaction and
trimming of underlying gravel or crushed rock pavement. „ Roll surface - to bed stone; pneumatic-tyred or static
For existing bituminous surface: patching. Steps: steel drum rollers.
„ Sweep surface - drawn rotary broom + hand
„ D
Drag b
broom
sweeping. „ Record work - quantities bitumen sprayed, aggregate
„ Prepare binder - transport to job by road or rail tanker,
spread, etc.
or in drums. „ Traffic control - throughout steps 1 to 10; minimise
„ Flux and/or cutback binder.
traffic delays.
„ Incorporate adhesion agent.

„ Prepare aggregate - stockpiles, precoating

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Preparation for a Sprayed

Bituminous Surfacing
Left: Sweeping a gravel pavement
prior to the application of a
prime. Sweeping is usually carried
out with

Construction of HMA Road

drawn mechanical brooms,
although
some hand sweeping is often
required
as well.

Preparation for a Sprayed

Bituminous Surfacing
Asphalt Production
Right: Damping the
pavement. It is found that a Right: Batching Plant, Toowoomba. The mix
falls through a series of inclined
prime or seal will vibrating screens and the various size
adhere better to an fractions are stored in hot storage bins.
underlying gravel The plant operator then weighs out the
correct proportions of each size for a
pavement if the pavement is single batch. The sizes are mixed and then
slightly damp. the required amount of hot bitumen
is added and mixing continued. The batch
is then discharged from the mixer into a
Left: A bitumen road tanker. waiting truck, and the batching process
Transport of bitumen to the repeated.
job site will
usually be by rail tanker or Left: Hot Storage Bins, Brisbane Plant. In
road tanker. the Brisbane plant, the batches of
hot mix are stored in insulated storage
bins, and this means that arriving trucks
can be filled more rapidly.

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Asphalt Paving.
Left: Paving Machine, Front View. Asphalt Paving.
This is a view of the front of a
typical Right: Screed Unit. The screed unit
self-propelled, floating screed, consists of levelling arms,
paving a screed plate which vibrates to act
machine. Tip trucks discharge the as a
hot tamper, and thickness controls. It is
asphalt into the front hopper and it supported d by
b the
h mix i which
hi h gives
i it
i
is a
then conveyed to the rear of the floating action.
machine
Left: Reference Beam Attached to
by a chain and slat conveyor.
Paver. A long moving reference
Right: Paving Machine, Rear View.
beam, mounted
This picture shows a truck with its
on shoes (or skis) can be used to
tray
ensure
tipped, discharging mix into the
the screed follows a smooth line
paver.
regardless of irregularities in the
The operator sits on top and steers
surface
the
being paved.
machine to the required alignment.

Construction of RCC Road Construction of RCC Road

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Construction of RCC Road Placement of dowels and tie

bars

Dowel bars location PCC thickness

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Roofing paper Roofing paper-1

Tie bars Dowel basket

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Placement of reinforcement Dowels images

Forms, Steel form Wooden Form

Figure 7.113:
Steel Forms

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Removal of Form Vibrator

75% Time
40% Quality
Highway Maintenance Drop

Each Rs.1000 of
R
Renovation
ti Cost
C t
Here…
Will Cost
Surface Distresses 40% Quality
Rs.4000 to
Rs.5000 if
Drop Delayed to Here

17% Time

Years

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Surface Distress
Surface Distress
ASTM E1778 Standard Terminology
„ According to the HAPI Pavement Guide Relating to Pavement Distress
start with „ Alligator cracking – Oil spillage
„ Fracture (e.g., cracking, spalling) „ Bleeding – Polished aggregate
„ Distortion (e.g., deformations) „ Block cracking – Potholes
„ Disintegration (e.g., stripping, raveling) „ Corrugations – Raveling
„ Edge cracking – Reflection cracking
– Rutting

Surface distress
„ Surface distress is "Any indication of poor or Alligator cracks are interconnected cracks, forming a series of
unfavorable pavement performance or signs of
small blocks resembling an alligator’s skin. This occurs when
impending failure; any unsatisfactory performance of a
pavement short of failure" (Highway Research Board, the sub-base gravel fails to provide adequate support for the
1970). Surface distress modes can be broadly classified asphalt pavement. It is also known as fatigue cracking, and
into the following three groups: repeated heavy loads and moisture create excess flexing of
1. Fracture. This could be in the form of cracking or the surface.
spalling resulting from
f such things as excessive loading,
NO
fatigue, thermal changes, stripping, slippage or Defects
contraction. Low Med High

2. Distortion. This is in the form of deformation, which can Low 1 2 3

result from such things as excessive loading, creep,
densification, consolidation, swelling, or frost action. Med 4 5 6
3. Disintegration. This is in the form of stripping or High
7 8 9
raveling, which can result from such things as loss of
bonding, chemical reactivity, traffic abrasion, aggregate
degradation or binder aging.

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Alligator Cracking
„ A series of interconnected
cracks caused by fatigue
Potholes arise when the wearing surface failure of the HMA surface
disintegrates under traffic, due to inadequate under repeated traffic
structural strength in one or more layers of the loading. As the number
pavement. They are bowl-shaped voids and are and magnitude of loads
often located in areas of poor drainage. Patches are becomes too great,
portions of pavement that have been removed and longitudinal cracks begin to
replaced, usually to repair defects in the pavement. form (usually in the
Problems occur when the patches crack, settle, or wheelpaths).
h l th ) After
Aft
distort. repeated loading, these
NO
Defects longitudinal cracks connect
forming many-sided sharp-
GOOD (0) angled pieces that develop
into a pattern resembling
FAIR (2) the back of an alligator or
crocodile.
POOR (5)

ALLIGATOR Cracking Alligator/Fatigue

„ Possible Causes: Inadequate structural support for the given loading,
which can be caused by a myriad of things. A few of the more common
ones are:
Decrease in pavement load supporting characteristics
Problem: Roughness, „

Probably the most common reason is a loss of base, subbase or subgrade

indicator of structural failure, „
support from things like poor drainage or spring thaw. Water under a
cracks allow moisture pavement will generally cause the underlying materials to become weak.
infiltration into the base and „ Stripping on the bottom of the HMA layer. The stripped depth
subgrade, eventually results contributes little to pavement strength so the effective HMA thickness
in potholes and pavement decreases.
disintegration if not treated. „ Increase in loading (i.e., the pavement is being loaded more heavily than
anticipated in design)
„ Inadequate structural design (i.e., the pavement was designed too thin
for the anticipated loads)
„ Poor construction (i.e., inadequate compaction)

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Alligator Cracking Alligator Cracking

„ Repair: A fatigue cracked pavement should be
investigated to determine the root cause of „ Large fatigue cracked areas indicative of
failure. Any investigation should involve digging a pit general structural failure. Place an HMA
or coring the pavement to determine the pavement's
structural makeup as well as determining whether or overlay over the entire pavement
not subsurface moisture is a contributing surface. This overlay must be strong enough
factor. Once the characteristic alligator pattern is structurallyy to carryy the anticipated
p loading
g
apparent, repair by crack sealing is generally because the underlying fatigue cracked
ineffective. Fatigue crack repair generally falls into
one of two categories: pavement most likely contributes little or no
„ Small, localized fatigue cracking indicative of a loss of strength (Roberts et. al., 1996).
subgrade support. Remove the cracked pavement
area then dig out and replace the area of poor
subgrade and improve the drainage of that area if
necessary. Patch over the repaired subgrade.

Block Cracking
Description: Interconnected
cracks that divide the
Edge cracks are approximately 1ft from the road pavement up into
edge. Normally they are caused by lack of shoulder rectangular pieces. Blocks
support, or by the settlement of the material under range in size from
the edge. This can indicate poor drainage, frost approximately 1 ft2 to 100
heaves, or shrinkage of the surrounding earth. ft2. Larger blocks are
generally classified as
longitudinal and transverse
cracking.
g Block cracking g
NO
normally occurs over a large
Defects portion of pavement area
Low Med High
but sometimes will occur
Low 1 2 3 only in non-traffic areas.
Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness
Med 4 5 6 Possible Causes: HMA shrinkage and daily temperature
cycling. Typically caused by an inability of asphalt binder to
High
7 8 9
expand and contract with temperature cycles because of:
Asphalt binder aging
Poor choice of asphalt binder in the mix design

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Corrugation and Shoving
Description: A form of plastic
Block Cracking
„ Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and
extent of the block cracking:
„ Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide). Crack seal
to prevent (1) entry of moisture into the subgrade
through the cracks and (2) further raveling of the
crack edges. HMA can provide years of satisfactory
service after developing small cracks if they are
kept sealed (Roberts et. al., 1996).
„ High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and cracks
with raveled edges). Remove and replace the
cracked pavement layer with an overlay.
Corrugation and Shoving
„ Repair: A heavily corrugated or shoved
pavement should be investigated to
determine the root cause of failure. Repair
strategies generally fall into one of two
categories:
„ Small, localized areas of corrugation or
shoving. Remove the distorted pavement
and patch.
„ Large corrugated or shoved areas indicative
of general HMA failure. Remove the
damaged pavement and overlay.
8/11/2009
movement typified by ripples
(corrugation) or an abrupt
wave (shoving) across the
pavement surface. The
distortion is perpendicular to
the traffic direction. Usually
occurs at points where traffic
starts and stops
((corrugation)
g ) or areas where
HMA abuts a rigid object
(shoving).
Problem: Roughness
Possible Causes: Usually caused by traffic action (starting and stopping)
combined with:
An unstable (i.e. low stiffness) HMA layer (caused by mix
contamination, poor mix design, poor HMA manufacturing, or lack of
aeration of liquid asphalt emulsions)
Excessive moisture in the subgrade
Depression
„ Description: Localized pavement surface areas with slightly
lower elevations than the surrounding pavement. Depressions
are very noticeable after a rain when they fill with water.
Problem: Roughness, depressions filled with substantial water
can cause vehicle hydroplaning
Possible Causes: Frost heave or subgrade settlement resulting
from inadequate compaction during construction.
construction
„ Repair: By definition, depressions are small localized areas. A
pavement depression should be investigated to determine the
root cause of failure (i.e., subgrade settlement or frost
heave). Depressions should be repaired by removing the
affected pavement then digging out and replacing the area of
poor subgrade. Patch over the repaired subgrade.
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Longitudinal Cracking
Depression „ Description: Cracks parallel to the pavement's centerline or
laydown direction. Usually a type of fatigue cracking.

Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness, indicates

possible onset of fatigue cracking and structural failure.

Possible Causes:
„ Poor joint construction or location. Joints are generally the
least dense areas of a pavement. Therefore, they should be
constructed outside of the wheelpath so that they are only
infrequently loaded. Joints in the wheelpath like those
shown in third through fifth figures above, will general fail
prematurely.
„ A reflective crack from an underlying layer (not including
joint reflection cracking)
„ HMA fatigue (indicates the onset of future fatigue cracking)

„ top-down cracking

Longitudinal Cracking Longitudinal Cracking

„ Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and
extent of the cracking:
„ Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and
q
infrequent cracks)). Crack seal to p
prevent (1)
( )
entry of moisture into the subgrade through the
cracks and (2) further raveling of the crack
edges. HMA can provide years of satisfactory
service after developing small cracks if they are
kept sealed (Roberts et. al., 1996).
„ High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and
numerous cracks). Remove and replace the
cracked pavement layer with an overlay.

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Patching
„ Description: An area of pavement that has been Patching
replaced with new material to repair the existing
pavement. A patch is considered a defect no matter
how well it performs.

Problem: Roughness
„ Possible Causes:
„ Previous localized pavement deterioration that has
been removed and patched
„ Utility cuts
„ Repair: Patches are themselves a repair action. The
only way they can be removed from a pavement's
surface is by either a structural or non-structural
overlay

Polished Aggregate
„ Description: Areas of HMA pavement where the Polished Aggregate
portion of aggregate extending above the asphalt
binder is either very small or there are no rough or
angular aggregate particles.

Problem: Decreased skid resistance

„ Possible Causes: Repeated traffic
applications. Generally, as a pavement ages the
protruding rough, angular particles become
polished. This can occur quicker if the aggregate is
susceptible to abrasion or subject to excessive
studded tire wear.
„ Repair: Apply a skid-resistant slurry seal or BST or
overlay.

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Potholes Potholes
„ Description: Small, bowl-shaped depressions in the pavement
surface that penetrate all the way through the HMA layer down
to the base course. They generally have sharp edges and
vertical sides near the top of the hole. Potholes are most likely
to occur on roads with thin HMA surfaces (1 to 2 inches) and
seldom occur on roads with 4 inch or deeper HMA surfaces
(Roberts et al., 1996).

Problem: Roughness (serious vehicular damage can result

from driving across potholes at higher speeds), moisture
infiltration
„ Possible Causes: Generally, potholes are the end result of
fatigue cracking. As fatigue cracking becomes severe, the
interconnected cracks create small chunks of pavement, which
can be dislodged as vehicles drive over them. The remaining
hole after the pavement chunk is dislodged is called a pothole.
„ Repair: In accordance with patching techniques

„
Raveling
Description: The progressive disintegration of an HMA layer
Raveling
Repair: A raveled pavement should be investigated to determine the root
from the surface downward as a result of the dislodgement of „

cause of failure. Repair strategies generally fall into one of two

aggregate particles.
categories:
Problem: Loose debris on the pavement, roughness, water „ Small, localized areas of raveling. Remove the raveled pavement and
collecting in the raveled locations resulting in vehicle patch.
hydroplaning, loss of skid resistance „ Large raveled areas indicative of general HMA failure. Remove the
„ Possible Causes: damaged pavement and overlay
„ Loss of bond between aggregate particles and the asphalt
binder as a result of:
„ A dust coating on the aggregate particles that forces the asphalt
binder to bond with the dust rather than the aggregate
„ Aggregate segregation. If fine particles are missing from the
aggregate matrix, then the asphalt binder is only able to bind
the remaining coarse particles at their relatively few contact
points.
„ Inadequate compaction during construction. High density is
required to develop sufficient cohesion within the HMA.
„ Mechanical dislodging by certain types of traffic (studded tires,
snowplow blades or tracked vehicles).

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Rutting
„ Description: Surface depression in the wheel path. Pavement
uplift (shearing) may occur along the sides of the rut. Ruts are
particularly evident after a rain when they are filled with
water. There are two basic types of rutting: mix rutting and
subgrade rutting. Mix rutting occurs when the subgrade does
not rut yet the pavement surface exhibits wheel path
depressions as a result of compaction/mix design
problems. Subgrade rutting occurs when the subgrade exhibits
wheel path depressions due to loading.
loading In this case
case, the
pavement settles into the subgrade ruts causing surface
depressions in the wheel path.
Problem: Ruts filled with water can cause vehicle
hydroplaning, can be hazardous because ruts tend to pull a
vehicle towards the rut path as it is steered across the rut.
Rutting
„ Possible Causes: Permanent deformation in any of a
pavement's layers or subgrade usually caused by consolidation
or lateral movement of the materials due to traffic
loading. Specific causes of rutting can be:
„ Insufficient compaction of HMA layers during construction. If it
is not compacted enough initially, HMA pavement may continue
to densify under traffic loads.
„ Subgrade rutting (e.g., as a result of inadequate pavement
structure)
„ Improper mix design or manufacture (e.g., excessively high
asphalt content, excessive mineral filler, insufficient amount of
angular aggregate particles)
„ Ruts caused by studded tire wear present the same problem as
the ruts described here, but they are actually a result of
mechanical dislodging due to wear and not pavement
deformation.

Rutting RUTTING
„ Repair: A heavily rutted pavement
should be investigated to determine the
root cause of failure (e.g. insufficient
compaction, subgrade rutting, poor mix
design or studded tire wear). Slight
ruts (< 1/3 inch deep) can generally be
left untreated. Pavement with deeper
ruts should be leveled and overlayed.

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Slippage Cracking
Rutting „ Description: Crescent or half-moon shaped cracks
generally having two ends pointed into the
direction of traffic.

Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness

„ Possible Causes: Braking or turning wheels cause
the pavement surface to slide and deform. The
resulting sliding and deformation is caused by a
low-strength surface mix or poor bonding between
the surface HMA layer and the next underlying
layer in the pavement structure.
„ Repair: Removal and replacement of affected
area.

Transverse (Thermal)
Slippage Cracking Cracking
„ Description: Cracks perpendicular to the pavement's
centerline or laydown direction. Usually a type of thermal
cracking.

Problem:
P bl All
Allows moisture
i infiltration,
i fil i roughness
h
„ Possible Causes:
„ Shrinkage of the HMA surface due to low temperatures or
asphalt binder hardening.
„ Reflective crack caused by cracks beneath the surface
HMA layer
„ top-down cracking
„ Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and extent
of the cracking:

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Transverse (Thermal) Transverse (Thermal)

Cracking Cracking
„ Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and
infrequent cracks). Crack seal to prevent (1)
entry of moisture into the subgrade through
the cracks and (2) further raveling of the
crack edges. HMA can provide years of
satisfactory service after developing small
cracks if they are kept sealed (Roberts et. al.,
1996).
„ High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and
numerous cracks). Remove and replace the
cracked pavement layer with an overlay

Water Bleeding and Pumping

Description: Water bleeding (left two photos) occurs
when water seeps out of joints or cracks or through Water Bleeding and Pumping
an excessively porous HMA layer. Pumping (right-
most photo) occurs when water and fine material is Repair: Water bleeding or pumping should be
ejected from underlying layers through cracks in the investigated to determine the root cause. If the
HMA layer or out the sides of the HMA layer under problem is a high water table or poor drainage,
moving loads.
loads subgrade drainage should be improved. If the
Problem: Decreased skid resistance, an indication of problem is a porous mix (in the case of water
high pavement porosity (water bleeding), decreased bleeding) a fog seal or slurry seal may be applied to
structural support (pumping) limit water infiltration
Possible Causes:
•Porous pavement as a result of inadequate
compaction during construction or poor mix design
•High water table
•Poor drainage

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Water Bleeding and Pumping Joint Reflection Cracking

Description: Cracks in a flexible overlay of a rigid
pavement. The cracks occur directly over the
underlying rigid pavement joints. Joint reflection
cracking does not include reflection cracks that occur
away from
f an underlying
d l i joint
j i or from
f any other
h type
of base (e.g., cement or lime stabilized).

Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness

Possible Causes: Movement of the rigid pavement

slab beneath the HMA surface because of thermal
and moisture changes. Generally not load initiated,
however loading can hasten deterioration.

Joint Reflection Cracking

„ Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity
and extent of the cracking:
Joint Reflection Cracking
„ Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and
infrequent cracks). Crack seal to prevent (1)
entry of moisture into the subgrade through
the cracks and (2) further raveling of the
crack edges. In general, rigid pavement
joints will eventually reflect through an HMA
overlay without proper surface preparation.
„ High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and
numerous cracks). Remove and replace the
cracked pavement layer with an overlay.

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