CHAPTER 16

What is this thing we call temperature? Close your eyes and imagine the
room you are sitting in is filled with billions and billions of tiny marbles all
flying around the room at different speeds, going in different directions,
bumping into each other and the walls of the room. If you had paranormal
vision, this is exactly what you W!"# see. $he tiny marbles would be the
atoms and molecules that ma%e up what we call the air. $he different speeds
mean that they have different amounts of %inetic energy. &emember that
we defined %inetic energy as '() * mv
+
. $hese differences in %inetic
energy relate directly to this thing we call temperature. $he more %inetic
energy an atom or molecule has, the more damage it can do to your s%in
when it collides with your body and gives up that energy to burn you, the
greater the %inetic energy, the higher the temperature of the molecule.
Definition: Heat - energy transferred between ob.ects because they are at
different temperatures. /atter does not contain heat0
Definition: Thermal Equilibrium - the average %inetic energy of the
molecules is the same for both ob.ects and so there is no heat flow between
them.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynami! " #e have 1 bloc%s, 2, 3, and C. If 2 is
in $.(. with 3, and 3 is in $.(. with C, then 2 is in $.(. with C.
$his allows us to measure temperatures0
A
3
C
Tem$erature %ale!:
4cientists of the past used the boiling and free5ing points of water to
establish temperature scales because both were easy to observe in the
laboratory. In the !nited 4tates, we commonly use the Fahrenheit
temperature scale, which defines the free5ing point of water as 1+67 and the
boiling point as +8+67 at sea level. I needed to specify sea level because
temperature depends on the air pressure.
In many scientific applications, however, a different temperature scale is
used, the Celsius scale which defines the free5ing point of water as 96C and
the boiling point as 8996C, both at sea level. It:s easy to convert between
the two scales by using the following formulae;
C6) <=> ?76 @ 1+A
76 ) >=< C6 B 1+
Cotice that both temperature scales go past 5ero into negative territory0 $his
is a big problem. 4ome of the eDuations we use in physics have temperature
in the denominator. ops0 When anything is divided by 5ero, we say it
blows up, which means it goes to infinity. $his is clearly wrong so we
need yet another temperature scale to deal with the problem. We call this
the Kelvin scale.
It does not depend on the boiling and free5ing points of water. Instead, we
define 9 ' ?notice there is no little degree symbolA as the point at which all
molecular motion stops0 $he name for this is ab!olute &ero' We will see
later that, theoretically spea%ing, we can get very close to this point, but
never actually reach it. $he degree si5e of the 'elvin scale is exactly the
same as the Celsius degree, but they have different starting points. We
convert between them with the following formula;
' ) C B +E1.8<
4o, the free5ing point of water ?96CA would eDual +E1.8< ', and the boiling
point ?8996CA would eDual 1E1.8< '.
FFGreatest Change in $emperature 2 world record for the greatest change
in temperature was set in 4pearfish, 4#, on Hanuary ++, 8>I1. 2t E;19 2./.
the temperature was
I 9 . J 7,
two minutes later the temperature was I< 67.
7ind the average rate of temperature change during those two minutes in
%elvins per second.
I< 7 ? I.9 7A 7
+I.<
+.9 min min
T
t

7 8 min 8 '
+I.< 9.+1 ' s
min K9 s 8.L7
_ _ _

,
, ,
THER(AL E)PA*%+,*;
$ell candle story. $hin% about the concept of thermal
expansion=contraction. 'now that the linear expansion=contraction
coefficient of paraffin ?candle waxA is more than 899 times greater than that
of any solid ?glass, terra cotta, etc.A 2lso, remember that what expands with
heat, CC$&2C$4 with cold, and by exactly the same amount0
Mave you ever wondered why sidewal%s have those hori5ontal spaces every
few feet? $hese are called expansion .oints and they are there to %eep the
sidewal% from buc%ling when the temperature changes. Changes in
temperature cause the length of an ob.ect to change. Meating causes an
ob.ect to grow longer, and cooling causes its length to shorten. $his is the
physics behind a bi-metalli !tri$ which is the basis of the thermostat.
We can calculate how much from the formula
9
" " $
N O is called the coefficient of thermal expansion. It varies
with the material and is something we loo% up in tables. What are its units?
'
@8
) ?C6A
@8
..2 certain engine part made of iron expands 8 mm in length as the engine
warms up. What would be the approximate change in length if the part were
made of aluminum instead of iron?
$he amount that a material expands can be determined from the linear
expansion eDuation; P" ) O "
o
P$. $he value of O for aluminum is slightly
more than twice that of iron. We could therefore expect it to expand slightly
more than twice as much.
FF $he world:s longest suspension bridge is the 2%ashi 'ai%yo 3ridge in
Hapan. $he bridge is 1>89 m long and is constructed of steel. Mow much
longer is the bridge on a warm summer day ?19.9 6CA than on a cold winter
day @<.99 6C?

2rea expansion;
2 + 2 $
What about a donut@shaped ob.ect? $he hole will expand at the same rate as
the surrounding material.
FF2t 8+.+< 6C a brass sleeve has an inside diameter of +.8>K cm and a steel
shaft has a diameter of +.8>> cm. It is desired to shrin%@fit the sleeve over
the steel shaft. ?aA $o what temperature must the sleeve be heated in order
for it to slip over the shaft? ?bA 2lternatively, to what temperature must the
shaft be cooled before it is able to slip through the sleeve?
(a)
9
? A
L C d
L C d
d d T

/b0

Qolume (xpansion;
9 9
Q 1 Q $ Q $
The !$eial $ro$ertie! of water:
2t I 6C ?1> 67A water is it:s /4$ #(C4( and so it sin%s. $his causes the
top of a la%e to free5e first0
Heat and #or1; it:s depressing0
8 cal ) I.8LK H a food calorie is a 1ilo calorie.
8 3tu ) 9.+<+ %cal ) 89<< H
R is the symbol for heat, which is measured in Houles, .ust li%e energy0
(ehanial Equi2alent of Heat:
F3ernie ?&omeroA and the machine screw.

FF3I 2 typical person radiates about K+ W of power at room temperature.
Given this result, how long does it ta%e for a person to radiate away the
energy acDuired by consuming a +19@Calorie doughnut?
( )
+
-+
8 C
K+ H=s 8.IL8 89 C=s
I8LK H
(
S
t
( +19 C 8 h
t I.1 h
S 1K99 s 8.IL8 89 C=s

_


,

_ _

, ,
Meat Capacity, C
$
R
C

$he units are H=' or H=C6 Consider a ba%ed potato vs. scrambled
eggs. Which will get cold first, all else being eDual?
Mow much energy does it ta%e to change the temperature of a substance?
Meat capacity is alway! $o!iti2e3 4o, R and P$ must have the same sign.
@R means that heat is leaving.
R ) C P$ depends on the amount of substance.
4pecific heat capacity, c, does not0 It only depends on the type of substance.
$ m
R
c

H=?%gTC6A
c
water
) I8LK H=%gT'$his is (C&/!4 compared with most other
substances0
FF 2 <.9@g lead bullet is fired into a fence post. $he initial speed of the
bullet is +<9 m=s, and when it comes to rest, half its %inetic energy goes into
heating the bullet. Mow much does the bullet:s temperature increase?
Q
T
mc

( )
( )
( )
+
8 8
+ 8
+ +
+
+
I
+<9 m=s
8+9 '
I 8+L H= %g '
mv
K Q v
T
mc mc mc c


1
]
Calorimetry;

+ $ mc R 9 R R
heat gaining bodies heat g sin lo bodies
FF2t the local county fair, you watch as a blac%smith drops a 9.<9@%g iron
horseshoe into a buc%et containing +< %g of water. ?aA If the initial
temperature of the horseshoe is I<9 6C, and the initial temperature of the
water is +1 6C, what is the eDuilibrium temperature of the system? 2ssume
no heat is exchanged with the surroundings. ?bA 4uppose the 9.<9@%g iron
horseshoe had been a 8.9@%g lead horseshoe instead. Would the eDuilibrium
temperature in this case be greater than, less than, or the same as in part ?aA?
(xplain.
( )
+
+ + +A
Morseshoe M
Morseshoe 7e f 9 Morseshoe M M f 9 M
f f
R R 9
m c ?$ $ A m c ?$ $ A 9
?9.<9%gA?IILH = %g 'A $ I<9 C ?+<%gA?I8LKH = %g 'A?$ +1 CA 9
Ruestion; is it necessary to convert the temperatures from Celsius to 'el

+
+
+
( )
( )
f f
f
f
vin? Why not?
?++IH = 'A $ 899,L99H 89I, K<9H = ' $ +I9K><9H 9
89ILEIH=' $ +, I8E, E<9H
+, I8E, E<9H
$ +I C
89ILEIH='
+

$here are 1 methods of heat transfer;
8. Conduction - heat flows directly through a physical material - molecular
'( gets passed along. If you leave a metal spoon in a pot simmering on the
stove and then grab the spoon, why do you get burned, even though the
handle was outside of the simmering substance? &epeat this with a wooden
spoon and you don:t get burned. What:s the difference? $he metal spoon is
a ondutor ?thermal energy travels easilyA and the wooden spoon is an
in!ulator ?thermal energy does not travel easilyA.
$
R %2 t
"
_

,
+. Convection - the physical movement of matter at a different temperature.
1. &adiation - heat energy travels in the form of (/ waves. I&, night
vision, Predator, optical pyrometer.
4tefan@3olt5mann "aw
( )
I L + I
S e 2$ is 4tefan@3olt5mann constant; <.KE 89 W= m '
e is the emissivity; 8 is for a Uperfect radiatorU.
#ar% colored@ob.ects have e values near 8 and light@colored
ob.ects have emissivity near

( )
I I
net 4urroundings
9.
b.ects both emit and absorb radiation;
S e 2 $ $