SMF 4512 AIRCRAFT DESIGN I PART 3:AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE g 6 Basic Mission Segments Takeoff Climb Cruise Loiter Descend

escend Land

The performance analysis SHOULD cover at least: 1. Thrust required 1 2. Power required 3. Power available 4. Rate of climb 5. Maximum velocity and maximum rate of climb g 6. Absolute & service ceilings 7. Range & Endurance 8. Take-off performance 9. Landing performance 10. Turning flight 11. V-n diagram

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE

REMARKS: As this is a design class not a theoretical class, the lectures and notes that are going to be delivered are only served as a basic guidance. Students should use knowledge and skill from previous studies in aeronautics class to conduct a practical aircraft design project.

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE AERODYNAMIC DRAG

The complete drag coefficient of aircraft is:

C C D = C D ,e + L .[1] eAR
where CL = Total lift coefficient, including the small contributions from the horizontal tail and fuselage CD,e = Parasite drag coefficient, which contains not only the profile drag of the wing, but also the friction and pressure drag of the tail surfaces, fuselage, engine nacelles, landing gear and any other component of the airplane which is exposed to the airflow CD,e can be presented as : CD,e = CD,o + r CL2 where CD,o = Parasite drag coefficient at zero lift r = An empirically determined constant

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE AERODYNAMIC DRAG Thus Eq. 1 can be rewritten as:

1 2 CD = CD,o +r + CL eAR

[ ] .[2]

where e = Span Efficiency Factor Now we redefine e such that it also includes the effect of the variation of p parasite drag g with lift, let Eq. q 2 becomes:

CL 2 C D = CD , o + eAR

.[3]

where e which is now include the effect of r. Now e is known as Oswald Efficiency Factor (e = 1 for elliptical wing, the others are normally between 0.80 to 0.95). Equation [3] can also be rewritten as:

CD = CD,o + CL 2

.[4] [ ]

Therefore two parameters that students should determine: 1. Parasite drag coefficient at zero lift, CD,o 2. Oswald Efficiency Factor, e

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE AERODYNAMIC DRAG

Before estimating the aircraft performance, aircrafts drag polar must be determined first. Such a plot of CD Versus CL is called a drag polar. A drag polar curve is essential to the design process as much of the basic aerodynamics of an p gp airplane is reflected in the drag polar.

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE AERODYNAMIC DRAG

Normally the airfoil of the wing has a positive camber. That means when CL = 0, has a negative value. At this condition, the airplane is slightly pitched down and therefore, the corresponding drag coefficient is not the minimum: C D,o > CDmin

The minimum drag coefficient occurs when the airplane is more aligned with the relative wind.
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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE

Thrust Require, TR Consider an airplane in steady and level flight at a given altitude and a given velocity. Forces acting: T = D = qSCD [5] W = L = qSCL [6] Dividing Eq. 5 by Eq. 6 :

T q SC D = W q SC L

T CD = W CL
Thus the thrust required q for an airplane p to fly y at a g given velocity y in level, unaccelerated flight g is:

TR =

WC D W = CL L/D

.[7]

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE ) Thrust Required (Cont (Cont..)

And knowing that : g = Zero-lift drag g + Drag g due to lift The total drag TR = D = qSCD = qS(CD,o + CD,i)
In other word, TR = Zero Zero-lift lift TR + Lift Lift-induced induced TR Zero-lift TR = Thrust required to balance zero-lift drag Lift-induced TR = Thrust required to balance drag due to lift .[8]

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE ) Thrust Required (Cont (Cont..)

At minimum TR,

CD,o = CD,i Zero-lift = Drag due Z lift drag d D d to t lift

This yields an interesting aerodynamic result that at minimum thrust required, zero-lift drag equals drag due to lift.

Exercise: Given an airplane with the following characteristics: Wingspan g p = 35.8 ft Wing Area = 174 ft2 Normal gross weight = 2950 Ib Parasite drag coefficient, CD,o = 0.025 Oswald efficiency factor, e = 0.8 Calculate C l l TR at the h flight fli h speed d of f 200 ft/s f/ ? (Assume the airplane is flying in level flight with air density, =0.002377 slugs/ft3 & gravitational acceleration, g=3.28 ft/s2)

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE

Power Required, PR gy / Time Power = Energy = (Force x Distance) / Time = Force x (Distance/Time) Power = FV C Consider id an airplane i l i in l level, l unaccelerated l t d flight fli ht at t a given i altitude ltit d and d with ith velocity l it V. The Th power required: i d PR = TR V But as TR = D (for an unaccelerated flight) PR = qS ( CD,o + CD,i) V Or in other word, PR = Zero-lift Zero lift power required + Lift-induced Lift induced power required

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE ) Power Required (Cont (Cont..)

Remarks:
1. At minimum power required,

1 C D,o = C D,i 3

N t Please Note: Pl di dig-out t the th reason why h is i th that t so! !

2. The maximum flight velocity is determined by the intersection of the maximum PA and the PR curves (for a propellerdriven aircraft aircraft, it can be assumed that PA is changed with the altitude but constant with speed for a given engine setting). )

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE ) Propeller (Cont (Cont..)

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE ) Propeller (Cont (Cont..)

1 hp = 550 ft.Ib/s = 746 W

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE ) Propeller (Cont (Cont..) The propeller efficiency is depending on type of propeller used and the advance ratio. The following diagram depicts an example for three-bladed propeller with Clark-Y sections.

Exercise: An aircraft with 2 reciprocating engines propeller, flies at 238 mile/hr. The propeller is a threebladed propeller with Clark Y sections with a diameter of 6.27 ft. If each engine produce 285 hp at 2000 rpm, calculate the horsepower generated by the propeller if the blade angle is 45 deg?

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE ) Rate of Climb (Cont (Cont..)

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE ) Rate of Climb (Cont (Cont..)

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE ) Rate of Climb (Cont (Cont..) And for the maximum R/C:

Question : As altitude increases, the excess power will be the same, or changing to become bigger or smaller?

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE

At this case , you should be at enough high altitude!!!

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE

Effect of altitude on PA_max, PR and Vmax (Propeller-driven airplane)

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE

Ab l t A dS i C ili Absolute And Service Ceiling

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE (Cont ) Range (Cont..)

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE (Cont ) Range (Cont..) Breguet Range Formula (for reciprocating engine, propeller-driven airplane)

R=

CL
c CD

ln

Wo W1

Where

= Propeller efficiency c = Consumption of fuel [ Ib/(ft.Ib/s)s or N/(J/s)s ] W1 = Empty weight Wo = Gross weight

To maximize the range, g , we want : 1.The largest possible propeller efficiency, 2.The lowest possible specific fuel consumption, c 3 The highest ratio of Wo / W1, which is obtained with the largest fuel weight Wf . 3.The 4.Flight at maximum CL/CD (or L/D). This confirms our argument that for maximum range, we must fly at maximum CL/CD .

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE Endurance Breguet Endurance Formula (for reciprocating engine, propeller-driven airplane)

E=

CL

3/ 2

c CD

(2 S )1/ 2 (W11/ 2 Wo 1/ 2 )
where E in seconds.

To maximize the endurance, we want : 1.The largest possible propeller efficiency, 2 The lowest possible specific fuel consumption, 2.The consumption c 3.The highest fuel weight Wf 4.Flight at maximum CL3/2/CD. This confirms our argument that for maximum endurance, we must fly at maximum CL3/2/CD 5.Flight at sea level because is the largest at sea level.

It is interesting to note that endurance depends on altitude, whereas range is independent of altitude.

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE

Exercise: Estimatethemaximumrangeandmaximumenduranceforapropellerdrivenairplaneif: Wo =2950Ib Wf =367Ib = 0.8 c=2.27x107 ft1 S=174ft2

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE

Takeoff Performance
The running length along the ground required by an airplane, starting from zero velocity to gain flight speed and lift from the ground is defined as the ground roll, or liftoff distance, sLG

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE (Cont ) Takeoff (Cont..) For the ground roll,

s LO

1.44W 2 = g SC L max {T [ D + r (W L )]0.7V LO }

To ensure a margin of safety during takeoff, the liftoff velocity is typically 20 percent higher than the stalling velocity. Hence;

VLO = 1.2Vstall = 1.2

2W SC L max

The total takeoff distance, as defined in the Federal Aviation Requirements (FAR), is the sum sLO and the distance (measured along the ground) to clear a 35-ft height (for jet-powered civilian transports) or a 50-ft height (for all other airplanes).

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE Landing Performance To minimize the distance required to come to a complete stop, the pilot needs to decrease the thrust to zero at touchdown. Therefore, Therefore T is zero during landing. landing D - r (W L) = m dV/dt Landing ground roll,

1.69W 2 sL = g SC L max [ D + r (W L )]0.7VT

To maintain a factor of safety, VT = 1.3 Vstall where VT = Touchdown velocity

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE (Cont ) Landing (Cont..)

However some aircrafts utilize thrust reversal during the landing ground roll. Thus : -T TR D - r (W L) = m dV/dt And then the landing ground roll becomes :

1.69W 2 sL = g SC L max {TR + [ D + r (W L )]0.7VT }

Exercise: Estimate the landing ground roll distance at sea level for this aircraft. No thrust reversal is used, however, spoilers are employed such that L = 0. The spoilers increase the zerolift drag coefficient by y 10 p percent. The fuel tanks are essentially y empty, p y, so neglect g the fuel weight, g , take W1 = 12352 Ib. The maximum lift coefficient, with flaps fully employed at touchdown, is 2.5 . (GivenCD,o ,g=32.2ft/s f / 2, =0.002377slug/ft g/f 3,S=318f ft2andr =0.4) D o =0.02,
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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE

Turning Flight
Lets consider curved flight paths. A level turn is illustrated in Figure 1 below.

Figure 1. An airplane in a level turn Th wings The i of f the th airplane i l are b banked k d th through h angle l , hence h th the lift vector t is i inclined i li d at t angle l to t the th vertical. ti l
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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE Turning Flight (Cont..)

The bank angle and the lift L are such that the component of the lift in the vertical direction exactly equals to the weight: L cos = W And therefore the airplane maintains a constant altitude, moving in the same horizontal plane. However, the resultant of L and W leads to a resultant force Fr, which acts in the horizontal plane. This resultant force is perpendicular to the flight path, causing the airplane to turn in a circular path with a radius of curvature equal to R. From the force diagram in Figure 1, the magnitude of the resultant force is:

Introducing a new term, the load factor n, defined as:

The load factor is usually quoted in terms of gs , for example an airplane with lift equal to 5 times the weight, is said to be experiencing a load factor of 5 gs. Hence Fr can be rewritten as:
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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE T i Fli ht (Cont..) (C t ) Turning Flight

The airplane is moving in a circular path at velocity V. Therefore the radial acceleration is given by V2/R. From Newtons second law:

And solving for R R,

The angular velocity, denoted by

is called the turn rate and is given by V/R Therefore, Therefore

Thus to obtain both a small turn radius and a large turn rate, we want: The highest possible load factor (i.e. (i e the highest possible L/W) The lowest possible velocity
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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE

V n Diagram A diagram showing load factor versus velocity V-n

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE V n Diagram (Cont ) V-n (Cont)

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE V n Diagram V-n

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE V n Diagram (Cont ) V-n (Cont)

The right-hand side of the V-n diagram, line CD, is a high speed limit. At velocities greater than this, the dynamic pressure becomes so large that structural damage may occur to the airplane.

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE V n Diagram (Cont ) V-n (Cont)

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE V-n Diagram (Cont)

The V-n diagram shown in the previous slides is for maneuver envelope. Practically we must consider as well the extreme condition i.e. the gust envelope. Therefore students are required to plot: 1. 1 2. 3. Maneuver Envelope Gust Envelope Combined Envelope

Please refer FAR 23_ Flight Loads for further details.

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE

END OF PERFORMANCE PART Notes:

At different A diff altitudes, li d diff different graphs h will be obtained. Graphs at cruising altitude and sea level are compulsory in student report. Use the STANDARD air d density i for f respective i altitude. li d

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