Properties of Other Stars The Sun is just a star like those seen at night o How can we then determine

e the properties of stars? Luminosity Surface Temperature Mass Luminosity-Brightness-Distance o Luminosity: Amount of power a star radiates (energy per second = watts) o Apparent brightness: Amount of starlight that reaches Earth (energy per second per square meter) o Luminosity depends on the star alone o Brightness decreases with distance o If we know Brightness and Distance to Star, we can find Luminosity o Conversely, If we know Brightness and Luminosity of Star we can find Distance Example of Standard-Candle Distance and Parallax o Parallax is the apparent shift in position of a nearby object against a background of more distant objects o Parallax angle depends on distance. o Apparent positions of nearest stars shift by about an arcsecond as Earth orbits Sun. o Parallax is measured by comparing snapshots taken at different times and measuring the shift in angle to star. Star Luminosity o Most luminous stars: 106 LSun o Least luminous stars: 104LSun o (LSun is luminosity of Sun)

Stellar temperatures o Every object emits thermal radiation with a spectrum that depends on its temperature. o Hotter objects emit more light per unit area at all frequencies. o Hotter objects emit photons with a higher average energy. o Hottest stars: 50,000 K o Coolest stars: 3000 K o (Suns surface is 5800 K.) o Level of ionization also reveals a stars temperature. The intensity of the absorption lines depends on the temperature Absorption lines in stars spectrum tell us its ionization Star Masses

o The amount of matter of an object can be measured: By (Newtons second law) By its gravitational properties (Newtons law of gravitation, Keplers third law) o The orbits and periods of the planets can be used to measure the mass of the Sun o What orbits other stars? o Binary Stars Two thirds of the stars in our neighborhood are arranged in orbiting pairs Knowing the period and size of binaries orbits, we can find the sum of their masses (modified Keplers law) Two objects spinning together wobble. The degree of wobbling of a binary system is related to the ratio of their orbits Whenever we can determine the period, the size of the orbit and the wobbling, we can find the masses of the binary stars Doppler Shift due to wobbling can be used to measure binary system motion (Spectral line motion) Transit: Brightness pattern provides information of orbital period and relative size of stars o Star Masses: 0.08MSun 100MSun Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram o Luminosity and color (temperature) are essential properties of stars Find luminosity from brightness and distance parallax Find temperature from spectral properties o Plot Luminosity versus Temperature (Spectral Type) to see if there is a pattern or correlation

o H-R diagram Most stars fall somewhere on the main sequence of the H-R diagram. Stars with lower T and higher L than main-sequence stars must have larger radii. These stars are called giants and supergiants. Stars with higher T and lower L than main-sequence stars must have smaller radii. These stars are called white dwarfs. o H-R diagram depicts: Temperature Color Spectral type Luminosity Radius Main Sequence o Main-sequence stars are fusing hydrogen into helium in their cores like the Sun. Luminous main-sequence stars are hot (blue).

 Less luminous ones are cooler (yellow or red). Mass measurements of main-sequence stars show that the hot, blue stars are much more massive than the cool, red ones. o The mass of a normal, hydrogen-burning star determines its luminosity and spectral type. Core pressure and temperature of a higher-mass star need to be larger in order to balance gravity. Higher core temperature boosts fusion rate, leading to larger luminosity. o Mass also determines the life of the star: A star like the Sun (one Solar Mass, one Solar luminosity will spend about 10 billion years in the main sequence) The luminosity of a ten Solar Mass Star is 10,000 the Suns Luminosity. It will burns its fuel 10/10,000 times faster than the Sun and will spend in the Main sequence only 1/1,000 of the Suns life A 0.3 solar mass star emits with a 0.01 solar luminosity and it will last 30 times longer than the Sun o Main-Sequence Summary High-Mass Star: High luminosity, Short-lived, Larger radius, Blue Low-Mass Star: Low luminosity, Long-lived, Small radius, Red

Off the main sequence o Stellar properties depend on both mass and age: Those that have finished fusing H to He in their cores are no longer on the main sequence. o All stars become larger and redder after exhausting their core hydrogen: giants and supergiants. o Most stars end up small and white after fusion has ceased: white dwarfs.

The Bizarre Stellar Graveyard White Dwarfs White dwarfs are the remaining cores of dead stars Electron degeneracy pressure supports them against the crush of gravity White dwarfs cool off and grow dimmer with time. Eventually they become cold black dwarfs. Its size will not change due to Gravity and Degeneracy pressure. White dwarfs with same mass as Sun are about same size as Earth (huge density). Higher-mass white dwarfs are smaller. Quantum mechanics says that electrons must move faster as they are squeezed into a very small space (Uncertainty Principle).

As a white dwarfs mass approaches 1.4MSun, its electrons must move at nearly the speed of light. Because nothing can move faster than light, a white dwarf cannot be more massive than 1.4MSun, the white dwarf limit (or Chandrasekhar limit).

White Dwarf in Binary System: Accretion Disks Nova The temperature of accreted matter eventually becomes hot enough for hydrogen fusion. Fusion begins suddenly and explosively, causing a nova. The nova star system temporarily appears much brighter (100,000 Suns). The explosion drives accreted matter out into space. The process may be repeated periodically Mass falling toward a white dwarf from its close binary companion has some angular momentum. The matter therefore orbits the white dwarf in an accretion disk. Friction between orbiting rings of matter in the disk causes the disk to heat up and glow. New Energy source for White Dwarf

White Dwarf Supernova An accreting white dwarf in a close binary system can also become a supernova when carbon fusion ignites explosively throughout such a degenerate star. As a result, the star is obliterated.

Two types of Supernova Massive star supernova: Iron core of a massive star reaches white dwarf limit and collapses into a neutron star, causing total explosion. White dwarf supernova: Carbon fusion suddenly begins as a white dwarf in close binary system reaches white dwarf limit, causing total explosion . One way to tell supernova types apart is with a light curve showing how luminosity changes with time. The type of spectra can also help (exploding white dwarfs dont have hydrogen absorption lines).

Nova or Supernova? Supernovae are MUCH MUCH more luminous (about 10 thousand times, up to 10 billion suns)!!! Nova: H to He fusion of a layer of accreted matter, white dwarf left intact

Supernova: complete explosion of white dwarf, nothing left behind

White Dwarf Supernovae as Standard Candles Carbon fusion that leads to the explosion of the white dwarf will occur soon after its mass exceeds 1.4 solar masses. White dwarf supernovae (type Ia) will occur in similar conditions and produce similar luminosity outputs Difference in observed brightness direct measurement of distance to supernova Standard Candles

Neutron Stars A neutron star is the ball of neutrons left behind by a massive-star supernova. Degeneracy pressure of neutrons supports a neutron star against gravity. Electron degeneracy pressure goes away because electrons combine with protons, making neutrons and neutrinos. Neutrons collapse to the center, forming a neutron star. A neutron star is about the same size as a small city (but several solar masses). Gravity at the surface is very strong (large mass, small size).

Pulsars and the Discovery of Neutron Stars Using a radio telescope in 1967, Jocelyn Bell noticed very regular pulses of radio emission coming from a single part of the sky. The pulses were coming from a spinning neutron stara pulsar. A pulsar is a neutron star that beams radiation along a magnetic axis that is not aligned with the rotation axis. The radiation beams sweep through space like lighthouse beams as the neutron star rotates. Pulsars rotate at very large speed, completing thousands of revolutions per second, just like a centrifuge Only the forces in neutron stars are strong enough to hold the object together o Anything else would be torn to pieces Pulsars spin fast because a stellar cores spin speeds up as it collapses into neutron star. o Conservation of angular The radiation emanating from the pulsar carries away energy and angular momentum. Slowly, but surely, the pulsar slows down and becomes dimmer

Neutron stars in binary systems: X-ray binaries, and X-ray bursts Matter falling toward a neutron star forms an accretion disk, just as in a white dwarf binary. Accreting matter becomes extremely hot producing intense X-ray radiation

o X-ray binaries Matter accreting onto a neutron star can eventually become hot enough for helium fusion. The sudden onset of fusion produces a burst of X rays.

Black Holes A black hole is an object whose gravity is so powerful that not even light can escape it. The stellar corpse collapses without end, crushing itself out of existence If you enter a black hole, you leave the region of the Universe that we can observe and can never return Light would not be able to escape Earths surface if you could shrink it to less than 1 centimeter.

Even Horizon: the Surface of a Black Hole The surface of a black hole is the radius at which the escape velocity equals the speed of light. This spherical surface is known as the event horizon. The radius of the event horizon is known as the Schwarzschild radius. o It increases with the mass of the black hole An object does not experience anything out of the ordinary at the event horizon!! The event horizon of a 3MSun black hole is also about as big as a small city (not much smaller than a neutron star. Unlike a neutron star, though, the interior of a black hole is mostly empty!

Black Holes and Relativity Understanding the properties of light and matter near black holes require a better understanding of the nature of Gravity and its relation to Space and Time. o Einsteins Theory of Relativity

Relativity: Making sense of Nature Empirical observations: o The laws of nature are the same for everyone o The speed of light is the same for everyone o All objects fall (react to Gravity) the same way The laws of Nature are the same for everyone o Two trains at a station

Which one is moving? o Flying on a plane How fast am I moving? o Out in space: The Borg How does it know its moving? o If I move at constant velocity I cannot determine whether I am moving at all! Motion is relative Consequences (verified experimentally) o No material object can travel faster than light. o If you observe something moving near light speed: Its time slows down. Its length contracts in direction of motion. Its mass increases. o Whether or not two events are simultaneous depends on your perspective.

Measuring o We obtain velocity as the ratio of a space and a time intervals: We need to review how we measure space intervals, and time intervals. Space is what we measure with rulers; Time is what we measure with clocks Space is not a thing! Is everything relative? o If time and space intervals between two events (e.g. two flashes of light), depend on the observer, is there any property of measurement that is the same for everybody, some kind of interval or separationwhich is the same for everybody? Spacetime o In addition to the value of the speed of light in vacuum, all observers will agree on the value of spacetime a combination of time and space intervals between two events. o Space if different for different observers. o Time is different for different observers. o Spacetime is the same for everyone o Henceforth space by itself, and time by itself, are doomed to fade away into mere shadows, and only a kind of union of the two will preserve an independent reality. (Minkowski) o Spacetime provides the connection between mass and Energy Mass as the inertia of the object All energy forms that come into the existence of the object will contribute to its inertia E=mc2 is a consequence of the reality of spacetime

General Relativity The third observation: o All objects fall (react to Gravity) the same way

I know I am on Earth because if I drop an apple, it fall to the ground. I would know if I was in outer space, far away from sources of gravity, because if I let go of an apple, it would stay in place But what if I am falling with the apple? o If I let go of it, it will go down with me. o I will see the apple behave the same way as if we were in outer space o I cannot tell I am falling just by looking at the apple Equivalence principle (I): o A free falling observer experiences the same phenomena as a free observer in the absence of gravity. The laws of nature are the same for both If I accelerate, I feel a push (a g-force) o In empty space free from gravity, I accelerate in a given direction o If I let go of the apple, it will move in the opposite direction o As an observer, I will see the apple moving as if it was falling o I cannot tell whether I am accelerating or there is gravity (Equivalence Principle (II)) Gravity o If all objects move the same way under gravity o If I can fake gravity by accelerating o If I can ignore for a while the existence of gravity during free fall o What is Gravity? Gravity is Spacetime Geometry o The properties of spacetime are modified by the presence of matter. o Objects follow prescribed trajectories under these conditions (e.g. moving forward on the surface of a sphere ends up not being a straight line) o Gravity ends up being a measure of the curvature of spacetime due to the presence of matter o Einstein theory of General Relativity o Gravity arises from distortions of spacetime. It is not a mysterious force that acts at a distance. The presence of mass causes the distortions, and the resulting distortions determine how other objects move through spacetime. Spacetime tells matter and energy how to move Matter and energy tell spacetime how to curve Consequences (verified experimentally) o Light bends due to gravity (Gravitational Lensing, Black holes) o Time runs slowly in gravitational fields. The stronger the gravity the slower time runs relative to observers far away. o Black holes can exist in spacetime, and falling into a black hole means leaving the observable Universe.

Back to Black Holes A black holes mass strongly warps space and time in the vicinity of its event horizon.

Nothing can escape from within the event horizon because nothing can go faster than light. No escape means there is no more contact with something that falls in. It increases the hole mass, changes the spin or charge, but otherwise loses its identity.

Neutron Star Limit Quantum mechanics says that neutrons in the same place cannot be in the same state. Neutron degeneracy pressure can no longer support a neutron star against gravity if its mass exceeds about 3Msun. Some massive star supernovae can make a black hole if enough mass falls onto core. Beyond the neutron star limit, no known force can resist the crush of gravity. As far as we know, gravity crushes all the matter into a single point known as a singularity.

Near a Black Hole If the Sun became a black hole, its gravity would be different only near the event horizon. Light waves take extra time to climb out of a deep hole in spacetime, leading to a gravitational redshift. Time passes more slowly near the event horizon. Tidal forces near the event horizon of a 3MSun black hole would be lethal to humans. Tidal forces would be gentler near a supermassive black hole because its radius is much bigger.

Do Black Holes really exists? We need to measure mass by: o Using orbital properties of a companion o Measuring the velocity and distance of orbiting gas Its a black hole if its not a star and its mass exceeds the neutron star limit (~3MSun) Some X-ray binaries contain compact objects of mass exceeding 3MSun, which are likely to be black holes. o One famous X-ray binary with a likely black hole is in the constellation Cygnus. Gamma-Ray Bursts o Brief bursts of gamma rays coming from space were first detected in the 1960s o Observations in the 1990s showed that many gamma-ray bursts were coming from very distant galaxies. o They must be among the most powerful explosions in the universecould be the formation of a black hole.

o Observations show that at least some gamma-ray bursts are produced by supernova explosions. o Others may come from collisions between neutron stars

What lies in the center of our galaxy? o Stars near the center of the Milky Way appear to be orbiting something massive but invisible a black hole? o Orbits of stars indicate a mass of about 4 million MSun. o X-ray flares from galactic center suggest that tidal forces of suspected black hole occasionally tear apart chunks of matter about to fall in.