English Grammar Essentials

Oh Teik Theam

For Free Distribution

(Parts of this script were previously published in The Star.)

Contents 1. Parts of Speech 2. Subject and Predicate . !umber and Person ". Sentence# Phrase and $lause %. Subject&'erb ()reement *. $ases of !ouns and Pronouns +. Types of !ouns ,. Prepositions -. Tense 1.. The Present Participle and the Past Participle 11. Types of 'erbs 12. The /oods of 'erbs 1 . Types of Pronouns 1". $oordinatin) $onjunctions and Subordinatin) $onjunctions 1%. Some !otes on (djectives 1*. (ntecedents 1+. /odifiers 1,. 'erbals 1-. (ppositives 2.. Possessives 21. $ommon 0ses of the $omma 22. $ausative 'erbs 2 . Parallelism 2". 1ouble !e)atives 2%. $ommon 0ses of the 2yphen 2*. Other Punctuation /arks 2+. (ctive 'oice and Passive 'oice 2,. 1irect Speech and 3ndirect Speech 2-. Types of Sentences .. /iscellaneous

1. Parts of Speech The ei)ht parts of speech are the verb# the noun# the adjective# the adverb# the pronoun# the conjunction# the preposition and the interjection. ( '456 is a word that e7presses an action or a state of bein) 8 it is part of the predicate of a sentence. 47amples9 eats, write, feels. ( !O0! is a word (other than a pronoun: that names a person# place or thin). 47amples9 James, Kuala Lumpur, bread. (n (1;4$T3'4 is a word that modifies the meanin) of a noun. 47amples9 beautiful, exciting, smart. (n (1'456 is a word that modifies the meanin) of a verb# an adjective# a )erund# another adverb# or a sentence. 47amples9 uic!l", bris!l", fortunatel". ( P5O!O0! is a word that represents a noun. 47amples9 he, the", her, who. ( $O!;0!$T3O! is a word or phrase that connects parts of sentences# phrases or clauses. 47amples9 and, but, because. ( P54POS3T3O! is a word used before a noun or pronoun to show its relationship with other words. 47amples9 in, into, at. (n 3!T45;4$T3O! is an e7clamation 8 it e7presses stron) feelin) rather than meanin). 47amples9 #uch$ % Than! hea&ens$ Same word# different parts of speech The function of a word in a sentence determines what part of speech it is in that sentence. The same word may be used as different parts of speech. ' ha&e not eaten ice cream since m" last birthda". (preposition: Since "ou are not feeling well, ' will ha&e to go alone to the part". (conjunction: ' read three boo!s e&er" month. (verb: This boo! is an interesting read. (noun: There is something about him that ma!es me uneas". (preposition: ' saw that mo&ie about three months ago. (adverb: 't was the onl" answer ' could thin! of. (adjective: She is onl" six "ears old. (adverb: '(ll be bac! in a while. (noun: The" decided to while awa" the afternoon b" pla"ing chess. (verb: )hile she prepared the food, he cleaned up the li&ing room. (conjunction: 2eteronyms 2eteronyms are words that have the same spellin) but different meanin)s because of different pronunciations. $an you identify the parts of speech of the heteronyms in the story below< The Fox and the Stor!

( fo7 met a stork and invited her to dinner. The stork didn=t have the heart to refuse (1a: the invitation. That evenin)# she showed up at the fo7=s place an hour late. >Sorry#? she said. >3 for)ot to wind (2a: my clock up.? (nd she )ave her vulpine host a small present ( a: to assua)e his an)er. The fo7 brou)ht out from his kitchen two wide# shallow dishes containin) carrot juice. >/ay 3 present ( b: to you my latest culinary creation#? he announced. >3t is full of flavour# with a dash of su)ar and just a suspicion of )arlic.? The fo7 )u@@led the juice# but the stork could not )et a sin)le drop with her lon)# thin beak. She did not become an)ry at her host for bein) so thou)htless. 3nstead# she reAuested him to )ive her the recipe for preparin) the juice. >!o problem#? said the fo7. >Bet me tear ("a: a blank leaf out of my notebook.? (nd he took a minute (%a: to write the recipe on the paper# usin) a pencil with a soft lead (*a:. The )ood&natured bird did not leave in a huff when dinner was over. She showed her )raciousness by stayin) back for a lon) time to watch a live (+a: football match on a portable black&and&white television. (nd she was deli)hted when her team was in the lead (*b: at half time. The ne7t day# the stork invited the fo7 to share her afternoon meal. 2e accepted the invitation and travelled alon) a path that wound (,a: throu)h the woods and up the side of a hill to reach his destination. The stork served her )uest some finely chopped meat in a )lass jar with a lon)# narrow neck. 2er beak easily went into the jar# but the fo7 could not reach his food. >This meat tastes delicious#? the stork said. >3=ve had this food three days in a row (-a: already. 3 think 3 can live (+b: to a )reat a)e if 3 eat it freAuently. 1on=t let your appetite desert (1.a: you now# Co7#? she continued# lau)hin) with )usto. >Dou should at least try a minute (%b: portion of this tender meat.? The fo7 noticed that his hostess had a tear ("b: or two in her eye# and for a moment he felt san)uine and thou)ht that she pitied him 8 until she declared# >Peelin) onions can make you cry. 3 had a mishap while 3 was cuttin) the onions#? she added. >Buckily# it was just a flesh wound (,b:.? Ehen lunch was over# the stork asked# >2ow was the food# Co7<? (nnoyed# the fo7 said nothin)# but he thou)ht# >!o point startin) a row (-b: with her. 3 can hardly fault her for payin) me back in my own coin.? >3=m really satiated after the hu)e meal#? said the stork. >Ehen you leave# Co7# could you please take out the kitchen refuse (1b:<? (s the fo7 made his way home# a sudden )ust of wind (2b:# like a hot desert (1.b: wind# blew a)ainst his face. *+dapted from a fable b" +esop) +nswers 1. 5efuse (a: verb (b: noun 2. Eind (a: verb (b: noun . Present (a: noun (b: verb ". Tear (a: verb (b: noun %. /inute (a: noun (b: adjective *. Bead (a: noun (b: noun

+. Bive (a: adjective (b: verb ,. Eound (a: verb (b: noun -. 5ow (a: noun (b: noun 1.. 1esert (a: verb (b: adjective (noun as modifier: 2. Subject and Predicate ( sentence is a )roup of words which makes complete sense. 3t communicates a statement# Auestion# e7clamation or command. 4very sentence contains two parts9 (i: Subject 8 The subject is the part of the sentence which names the person or thin) we are talkin) about. (ii: Predicate 8 The predicate is the part of the sentence which tells somethin) about the subject. 3n the e7amples below# the predicates in the sentences are underlined9 Jud" and her mother are coo!ing dinner. The cats in the alle" are ma!ing a lot of noise. The teacher wrote the answer on the blac!board. ,ome here. (2ere# the subject# Dou# is understood.: Down went the battleship. She tal!s too much and listens too little. ($ompound predicate# with two verbs: The pupil wal!ed into the headmaster(s room, holding his report card. (The participial phrase holding his report card is not part of the predicate but part of the subject# modifyin) pupil.: 3. Number and Person !umber is an inflection that indicates whether a word is sin)ular or plural. ( noun that denotes one person or thin) is in the sin)ular number. 47amples9 cat, box, tree, pencil, leaf, potato, mouse, !nife, loaf, cit", sheep, brother-in-law. ( noun that denotes more than one person or thin) is in the plural number. 47amples9 cats, boxes, trees, pencils, lea&es, potatoes, mice, !ni&es, loa&es, cities, sheep, brothersin-law. The number of a verb and its subject should a)ree ( The bo"s are pla"ing football. % ." teacher is ill.: The number of a pronoun and its antecedent should also a)ree. ( Da&id had an argument with his wife. % The pupils handed in their test papers.: ((n antecedent is an earlier word or phrase which a pronoun refers to.: 3n )rammar# person is the form of a pronoun or a verb to show the speaker (first person:# the addressee (second person: or a third party (third person:. ' am 8 subject and verb in the first person# sin)ular )e are 8 subject and verb in the first person# plural /ou are 8 subject and verb in the second person# sin)ular and plural

0e%She%'t is 8 subject and verb in the third person# sin)ular The" are 8 subject and verb in the third person# plural 4. Sentence Phrase Clause ( sentence is a )roup of words that contains a subject and a predicate# and e7presses a complete thou)ht. ( predicate is the part of a sentence or clause which states somethin) about the subject. 3n writin)# a sentence be)ins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop# a Auestion mark or an e7clamation mark. 47ample9 .ar" had a little lamb. (>/ary? is the subject of the sentence# and >had a little lamb? is the predicate.: ( phrase is a )roup of two or more words that acts as a sin)le unit in the synta7 of a sentence. 3t does not contain a subject and predicate# and does not e7press a complete thou)ht. 47amples9 on the surface % of great interest % a slice of bread. ( clause consists of a subject and a predicate. 47ample9 0e has a swimming pool which is as big as a lagoon 1 where >which? (referrin) to the noun immediately precedin) it: is the subject# and >is as bi) as a la)oon? is the predicate. There are two kinds of clauses9 independent and dependent. 3ndependent clauses can be sentences by themselves. ( simple sentence is an independent clause9 0umpt"-Dumpt" sat on a wall. 1ependent (or subordinate: clauses cannot stand by themselves 8 they occur in sentences with independent clauses. Cor e7ample# in the sentence >The baby monster couldn=t sleep because he thou)ht that there was a human under his bed?# >because he thou)ht that there was a human under his bed? is the dependent clause# and >The baby monster couldn=t sleep? is the independent clause. $an you tell whether the 6eatles son) titles below are sentences# phrases or dependent clauses< 1. (cross the 0niverse 2. 3 Ceel Cine . She Boves Dou ". 3n /y Bife %. Ehile /y Fuitar Fently Eeeps *. 3 Eant to 2old Dour 2and +. ( 2ard 1ay=s !i)ht ,. Till There Eas Dou -. 3 Saw 2er Standin) There 1.. (ll /y Bovin) 11. Ehen 3 Fet 2ome 12. Bonesome Tears in /y 4yes 1 . 3 $all Dour !ame 1". Ehen 3=m Si7ty&Cour 1%. The Bon) and Eindin) 5oad 1*. 1o Dou Eant to Gnow a Secret< 1+. (ll Dou !eed 3s Bove

1,. 3 (m the Ealrus 1-. 4i)ht 1ays a Eeek 2.. The 6allad of ;ohn and Doko +nswers9 1.phrase 2.sentence .sentence ".phrase %.clause *.sentence +.phrase ,.clause -.sentence 1..phrase 11.clause 12.phrase 1 .sentence 1".clause 1%.phrase 1*.sentence 1+.sentence 1,.sentence 1-.phrase 2..phrase !. Subject"#erb $greement The verb# like the noun and the pronoun# has two numbers# the sin)ular and the plural. 2ere are some e7amples of the sin)ular and plural forms of verbs9 S3!F0B(5 eat listen smile 2nd Person (/ou: eat listen smile rd Person (0e%She%'t: eats listens smiles 1st Person (': PB05(B 1st Person ()e: eat listen smile 2nd Person (/ou: eat listen smile rd Person (The": eat listen smile

3f the subject in a sentence is sin)ular# the verb is sin)ularH if the subject is plural# the verb is plural. (i: Ehen the subject consists of two or more nouns or pronouns joined by >and?# use a plural verb. 0e and his parents are at the mall. (ii: Ehen two or more sin)ular nouns or pronouns are joined by >or? or >nor?# use a sin)ular verb. The president or the chairman is at the press conference. 2either Jim nor Jane is at the meeting. (iii: Ehen a compound subject contains a sin)ular noun (or pronoun: and a plural noun (or pronoun: joined by >or? or >nor?# the verb should a)ree with the part of the subject nearer the verb. Da&id or his sisters are eating in the !itchen. (iv: >1oesn=t? (the contraction of >does not?: is used with a sin)ular subject. >1on=t? (the contraction of >do not?: is used with a plural subject. 2owever# the first person and second person pronouns >3? (sin)ular: and >you? (sin)ular and plural: use >don=t?. She doesn(t ha&e the boo!.

)e don(t want to go. ' don(t thin! it is a good idea. /ou don(t !now, do "ou3 (v: 1on=t let a phrase or clause between the subject and the verb mislead you. The verb a)rees with the subject# not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase or clause. The people who li!e the mo&ie are few. #ne of "our buttons is missing. The boss, as well as his wor!ers, is hardwor!ing. (vi: The followin) words are sin)ular and reAuire a sin)ular verb9 each, each one, either, neither, e&er"one, e&er"bod", an"bod", an"one, nobod", somebod", someone, no one. Someone has stolen the boo!. 4ach of the drawings is beautiful. 4&er"one at the part" was ha&ing a good time. (vii: $ollective nouns take sin)ular or plural verbs# dependin) on meanin). 3f the collective noun is thou)ht of as a unit# a sin)ular verb or pronoun is usedH if the members of the collective noun are thou)ht of as individuals# a plural verb or pronoun is used. The 5ur" retires to consider its &erdict. The 5ur" retire to consider their &erdict. +s! him to tal! about his famil" and he can tal! for two hours about it. 0e is proud of his famil" 1 he !nows that the" will support e&er" decision he ma!es. (viii: 0se sin)ular verbs for subjects plural in form but sin)ular in meanin). The news is on at noon. 6h"sics is m" pet sub5ect. (i7: 0se plural verbs for subjects plural in form and meanin). The scissors are in the drawer. These trousers are custom-made. Dollars are used here. (2owever# a sum of money reAuires a sin)ular verb9 Fi&e hundred dollars is a lot of mone" for this set of boo!s.: (7: 3n sentences be)innin) with >There is? or >There are?# the subject follows the verb. >There? is not the subject# so the verb a)rees with what follows. There are ten boo!s on the shelf. There is a problem. (7i: Ehen >number of? is preceded by >the?# use a sin)ular verbH when >number of? is preceded by >a?# use a plural verb. The number of &isitors to the fair is big. + number of &olunteers ha&e agreed to help at the e&ent.

%. Cases of Nouns and Pronouns $ase is a form of a noun or a pronoun that indicates its function in a sentence. Subjective !O0!S Singular 6lural P45SO!(B P5O!O0!S Singular 1st person 2nd person rd person 1st person 2nd person rd person 54B(T3'4 (!1 3!T455OF(T3'4 P5O!O0!S 6lural 3!14C3!3T4 P5O!O0!S cat ;ohn teacher cats teachers 3 you he she it we you they Possessive cat=s ;ohn=s teacher=s cats= teachers= my# mine your# yours his her# hers its our# ours your# yours their# theirs Objective cat ;ohn teacher cats teachers me you him her it us you them

who whose whom whoever && whomever whichIthatIwhat && whichIthatIwhat everyone everyone=s everyone

The cat (subjective: lic!ed its paw. 0e accidentall" bro!e the cat(s (possessive: saucer. ' ga&e her a cat (objective:. John (subjective: is the winner. ' am John(s (possessive: friend. The woman scolded John (objective:. She (subjective: won a pri7e. She introduced me to her (possessive: boss. ' li!e her (objective:. 4&er"one (subjective: had a great time at the part". The 5anitor !new e&er"one(s (possessive: name at the office. 0e ga&e e&er"one (objective: at the part" a gift. &. '(pes of Nouns

( noun is a word (other than a pronoun: used to identify any of a class of people# places or thin)s (common noun:# or to name a particular one of these ( proper noun:. ($oncise O7ford 4n)lish 1ictionary: $O//O! !O0!S (a: $oncrete nouns 8thin)s you can see or touch. 47amples9 flower# sky. (b: !on&countable nouns (mass nouns: 8 thin)s you cannot count. 47amples9 water# blood. (c: (bstract nouns 8 thin)s you cannot see or touch. 47amples9 happiness# patience. (d: $ollective nouns 8 words to describe )roups. 47amples9 jury# family. (e: Ferunds 8 nouns that represent actions. 47amples9 swimmin)# bo7in). (See also #erbals: (f: $ompound nouns 8 nouns that contain more than one word. 47amples9 mother&in& law# heart sur)eon# headache. (): Fender&specific nouns 8 words which are definitely male or female. 47amples9 headmistress# vi7en. P5OP45 !O0!S ( proper noun is always capitali@ed. 47amples9 Guala Bumpur# (ustralia# 0ncle Gevin# 0niversity of !ew South Eales# Genyir Bake# Superman# /erdeka Stadium# 4lvis Presley. ). Prepositions Prepositions are words that show the relationship between a noun or a pronoun and some other word or element in the rest of the sentence. (4n)lish Frammar 5evolution: This is an interestin) idea from 4n)lish Frammar 5evolution9 Think of a preposition as any word that describes the relationship between a caterpillar and an apple 8 above the apple# on the apple# throu)h the apple# up the apple# within the apple# beside the apple# below the apple# inside the apple# down the apple. Bet us form sentences from 4n)lish Frammar 5evolution=s drawin) of an apple and nine caterpillars in various named positions9 The pupil(s drawing shows a caterpillar abo&e an apple. + caterpillar is resting on the apple. ' thin! the caterpillar wants to eat its wa" through the apple. The caterpillar is crawling up the apple. 't(s a beautiful drawing of a caterpillar within an apple. 0is drawing shows a caterpillar sleeping beside an apple. The child(s illustration shows a caterpillar below an apple. ' almost ate a caterpillar that was inside an apple. The caterpillar is crawling down the apple. There are many prepositions# but the common ones include about, abo&e, across, after, along, among, around, at, because of, before, behind, below, beside, between, b", b"

means of, considering, down, excluding, from, in, inside, instead of, into, near, of, off, on, on behalf of, onto, opposite, outside, o&er, past, regarding, through, to, towards, under, until, up, with and within. 2ere are more e7amples of how prepositions are used9 She sat b" the broo!. 's there a mouse under the bed3 0e ran across the street. The dri&er 5umped off the bus. This spoon is made of plastic. She is going to the mall. There is some hot water in the flas!. The guests sat around the table. The bo" fell into the stream. The child sat between her parents. 0e hid behind the pillar. She stood before me. 0e will return after two wee!s. She did the wor! uite well, considering her inexperience. ( preposition# unlike an adverb# always has an object9 0e fell off the ladder. (Preposition9 offH object9 ladder: The bird flew off. ((dverb9 off: *. 'ense Tense refers to the time of an action or situation. 6elow are the main tenses of the verb to eat9 Singular 2umber Present Tense 1st Person 2nd Person rd Person Past Tense 1st Person 2nd Person rd Person Cuture Tense 1st Person 2nd Person rd Person 3 eat Dou eat 2eISheI3t eats 3 ate Dou ate 2eISheI3t ate 3 will eat Dou will eat 2eISheI3t will eat 6lural 2umber Ee eat Dou eat They eat Ee ate Dou ate They ate Ee will eat Dou will eat They will eat

The four P54S4!T T4!S4S9 (i: the simple present# which is chiefly used (a: to describe habitual actions.

' drin! coffee e&er" morning. ' 5og e&er" morning at eight o(cloc!. (b: to make factual statements. Sugar is sweet. Triangles ha&e three sides. (c: to refer to a future event that is part of an arran)ement. )e fl" to Singapore next .onda". The supermar!et opens in fifteen minutes. (d: in clauses of time and condition. ' will wait until "ou complete the wor!. 'f ' fail the test, ' will be disappointed. (ii: the present continuous# which emphasi@es the continuin) nature of an action# is used (a: to indicate a future action. ' am going to the club this e&ening. (b: to indicate an action at the time of speakin). The children are pla"ing chess. (c: to indicate an action which may not be happenin) at the time of speakin). ' am ta!ing .andarin lessons. (iii: the present perfect is used (a: to refer to actions or situations which be)an in the past but still continue in the present. ' ha&e li&ed here for ten "ears. (3 still live here.: (b: to refer to past actions which still have an effect in the present. She has bought a tic!et for tomorrow(s bus 5ourne". (She still has the ticket now.: 0e has &isited the museum e&er" da" this wee!. (The visit continues into the present.: (iv: the present perfect continuous is used to describe an action that be)an in the past and is still continuin). The bab" has been cr"ing for ten minutes. The children ha&e been pla"ing football since fi&e o(cloc!. The four P(ST T4!S4S9 (i: the simple past describes an action that happened in the past. 0e scored the winning goal in the football match "esterda". She ga&e the beggar fi&e dollars. 0e did not go to the part" last Saturda". (ii: the past continuous describes an action that was )oin) on at some time in the past. The action has no connection to the present. The phone rang while ' was ta!ing a bath. The !ids were pla"ing in the garden all morning.

(iii: the past perfect is used to indicate that an action in the past was completed before another past action be)an. ' had cleaned the room before she arri&ed. )hen ' reached home, she had gone out. (iv: the past perfect continuous is used to show that a continuin) action in the past be)an before the start of another past action. The stra" dog had been bar!ing outside m" house for ten minutes before ' shooed it awa". )hen she 5oined the compan" in 89:9, ' had alread" been wor!ing there for ten "ears. The four C0T054 T4!S4S9 (i: the simple future is used to refer to an action that has still to happen. ' will let "ou !now m" decision tomorrow. ' will meet "ou at the new hotel. (ii: the future continuous is used to show a continuin) action that will happen in the future. 0er cousins will be &isiting her next wee!. ' will be fl"ing to Singapore tomorrow. (iii: the future perfect is used (a: to show that an action will be completed in the future before another action happens. ' will ha&e cleaned the house b" the time she arri&es. She will ha&e prepared brea!fast b" the time "ou get out of bed. (b: to e7press certainty or probability in the present or past. '(m glad that "ou ha&e read m" article. /ou will ha&e noticed that ' used &er" few ad5ecti&es and ad&erbs in it. (iv: the future perfect continuous indicates an action in pro)ress that will be completed in some specified time in the future. ;" next month, ' will ha&e been wor!ing here for ten "ears. )hen he reaches home, his wife will ha&e been sleeping for three hours. J J J
</ou put a mouse in "our sister(s schoolbag3= the mother said to her six-"ear-old son. <0ow could "ou do that3= The bo" replied, <' couldn(t find a frog.=

<0ow could "ou do that3= should be <0ow could "ou ha&e done that3= Ee use the present perfect tense because the action (>that?: has already been done. J J J

1+. 'he Present Participle and the Past Participle 2ere are the present participles and past participles of some verbs9 6ase 'erb lau)h break worry cry eat talk Past Tense lau)hed broke worried cried ate talked Present Participle lau)hin) breakin) worryin) cryin) eatin) talkin) Past Participle lau)hed broken worried cried eaten talked

The P54S4!T P(5T3$3PB4 The present participle has the form base &erb > ing and is used (i: as part of the continuous forms of a verb 8 present continuous# present perfect continuous# past continuous# past perfect continuous# future continuous# future perfect continuous. Cor e7amples# see 'ense. (ii: after a verb of movement or position (verb K present participle:. The child came running towards his mother. She la" on the sofa tal!ing on her cellphone. (iii: after a verb of perception (verb K object K present participle:. 0e heard her singing in the bathroom. She saw a salesman wal!ing towards the house. ' can smell something burning in the !itchen. Ehen such a sentence contains a bare infinitive (e7ample9 sing: rather than a present participle# the subject sees or hears the complete action. 6ut when the present participle is used# the subject sees or hears only part of the action. $ompare9 ' heard Jim whistling. *?he had started before ' heard him, and probabl" continued with his whistling afterwards) ' heard Jim whistle. *?' heard his performance from start to finish) (iv: when the subject does two actions at the same time. The beggar tal!ed to himself. 0e wal!ed from house to house. Tal!ing to himself, the beggar wal!ed from house to house. (v: when the subject does two actions in Auick succession. 0e finished his drin! and left the pub. Finishing his drin!, he left the pub. (vi: to replace a clause that starts with as, since or because.

;ecause he was hungr", he went to the !itchen and ate some instant noodles. Feeling hungr", he went to the !itchen and ate some instant noodles. +s he !new that his editor was &er" fuss", he chec!ed the t"ped script se&eral times. Knowing that his editor was &er" fuss", he chec!ed the t"ped script se&eral times. +s ' was sitting on the swing, the wind made me feel cold when it blew against m" face. Sitting on the swing, ' felt cold when the wind blew against m" face. 1an)lin) Participle 1o not write >Sittin) on the swin)# the wind blew a)ainst my face and made me feel cold?. 2ere# the word >Sittin)? is a dan)lin) participle 8 it does not relate to the noun it should. The sentence reads as if it is the wind (the subject of this faulty sentence: that is sittin) on the swin). (vii: as an adjective. (See also #erbals: The e&il ueen decided to consult the tal!ing mirror. The P(ST P(5T3$3PB4 The past participle is used (i: in the present perfect# the past perfect and the future perfect tenses. Cor e7amples# see 'ense. (ii: in the conditional perfect tense. 'f "ou had o&erslept, "ou would ha&e missed the bus. (iii: in the passive voice. (See also $cti,e #oice and Passi,e #oice: The tree was struc! b" lightning. 0is wallet was stolen b" a pic!poc!et. (iv: as an adjective. (See also #erbals: The naught" bo" came home with a bro!en arm. 5e)ular 'erbs and 3rre)ular 'erbs ( re)ular verb follows a normal type of infle7ion 8 wal!, wal!ed, wal!ed@ tal!, tal!ed, tal!ed. (n irre)ular verb does not follow a normal type of infle7ion 8 eat, ate, eaten@ cut, cut, cut. Some verbs are both re)ular and irre)ular 8 dream, dreamed%dreamt, dreamed%dreamt. The three most common irre)ular verbs are ha&e, do and be. The be verbs are am# are# is (present tense# sin)ular: are (present tense# plural: -as (past tense# sin)ular# 1st and rd persons: -ere (past tense# sin)ular# 2nd person I past tense plural: be (present subjunctive: -ere (past subjunctive:

being (present participle: been (past participle: The ha&e verbs are ha,e# has and had. The do verbs are do# does# did and done. The followin) table is from Purdue OEB (Online Eritin) Bab:9 P54S4!T 2ave 3# you# we# they (or any plural noun: 2ave 2e# she# it (or any sin)ular noun: 1o 3# you# we# they (or any plural noun: 1o 2e# she# it (or any sin)ular noun: 6e 3 6e 2e# she# it (or any sin)ular noun: 6e Dou# we# they (or any plural noun: 11. '(pes of #erbs ( verb is a word or )roup of words that is used to describe an action# state or occurrence. The three types of verbs are S3/PB4 P(ST P(ST P(5T3$3PB4 (used with has, ha&e, or had: 2ad 2ad

2ave

2as

2ad

2ad

1o

1id

1one

1oes (m

1id Eas

1one 6een

3s

Eas

6een

(re

Eere

6een

($T3O! '456S (n action verb e7presses action# tellin) what a person or thin) does. (ction verbs belon) to two )roups9 (a: ( transiti,e ,erb takes an object9 The pla"er throws the ball. The action denoted by the verb (throws: passes over from the subject (pla"er: to some object (ball:. Some transitive verbs take two objects after them 8 an indirect object denotin) the person to whom somethin) is )iven or for whom somethin) is done# and a direct object which is usually the name of a thin)9 She ga&e me (indirect object: a gift (direct object:. (b: (n intransiti,e ,erb does not take an object9 The girl smiles widel". The action denoted by the verb (smiles: stops with the subject (girl: and does not pass over to an object. ( transitive verb has a passive voice9 The torpedo san! the boat. The boat was sun! b" the torpedo. (Passive 'oice: (n intransitive verb does not have a passive voice9 The boat san! uic!l". (!o Passive 'oice: /any verbs can be used both transitively and intransitively (e.). san! in the above sentences:. (See also the e7ample of turn below.: B3!G3!F '456S ( linkin) verb does not e7press an action. 3t links the subject to a complement# which is the part of the sentence that )ives information about the subject. The complement is usually an adjective# a noun# a pronoun# a noun phrase# a noun clause# or an adverbial. This soup tastes terrible. ((djective 8 tastes here is not an action verb# because the subject is not doin) any tastin). 3t just tastes terrible.: 0is name is Jim. (!oun: This boo! is hers. (Pronoun: This is a nice dress. (!oun Phrase: The truth is that he doesn(t want to go to the meeting. (!oun $lause: She is in the !itchen. ((dverbial: Binkin) verbs are intransitive verbs. 6ut linkin) verbs are not complete in themselves (as are other intransitive verbs9 She snored: but reAuire a complement to complete their meanin). 3n other words# linkin) verbs are always intransitive# but not all intransitive verbs are linkin) verbs. 'erbs that are always linkin) verbs are become, seem and all forms of the verb be (am, is, are, was, were, had been, is being, might ha&e been, etc.:. 'erbs that are sometimes linkin) verbs and sometimes action verbs include appear, taste, turn, remain, smell, sound, feel, grow, loo! and pro&e. (Dou can use a test to determine whether a verb is an action verb or a linkin) verb 8 substitute the verb with am, is or are. 3f the sentence still makes sense after the substitution# the verb is a linkin) verbH if the sentence does not make sense# the verb is an action verb. 2owever# this test does not work with appear 8 you have to analy@e the function of this verb in the sentence.:

The mil! turned sour. (Binkin) 'erb: The student turned the pages slowl". ((ction 'erb 8 transitive: The teacher turned suddenl" towards the bac! of the classroom. ((ction 'erb 8 intransitive: (0L3B3(5D '456S (n au7iliary verb is a verb that is used to form the tense or time of action# voice and mood of another verb. 3t is sometimes called a >helpin)? verb because it >helps out? the main verb. The primar( au.iliaries are be, do and ha&e and all their forms. The modal au.iliaries (which indicate necessity# possibility# permission# obli)ation# ability or habit: include can, could, ma", might, shall, should, will, would, must and ought to. 0nlike primary au7iliaries# modal au7iliaries cannot be the main verbs in a sentence. Cor e7ample# ' shall is meanin)less unless it works with another verb or another verb is understood to be workin) with it. /odal au7iliaries are used with main verbs and before ha&e or be. The followin) e7amples show how au7iliary verbs are used9 She is cleaning her room. The box was opened. ' can sol&e this Sudo!u pu77le. )e should ta!e a rest. The medicine should be !ept awa" from children. 'n another six months, ' will ha&e been wor!ing here for twent" "ears. 12. 'he /oods of #erbs /ood is the manner in which the action of a verb is e7pressed. 4n)lish has three moods9 The 3!13$(T3'4 /OO1 The indicative mood is used (a: to state a fact ( She writes on the board.)@ (b: to ask a Auestion (+re "ou ill3:H (c: to e7press a conditional fact ( 'f it rains, ' will not go out. % 'f he is the culprit, he deser&es to be punished.:. The 3/P45(T3'4 /OO1 The imperative mood is used (a: to make a reAuest ( Ta!e care of m" pet.:H (b: to make an entreaty (0a&e merc" on me.:H (c: to )ive a command ()ait here.:. The subject of a verb in the imperative mood is usually omitted. Thus# )ait here M (/ou: wait here. The S06;0!$T3'4 /OO1 The subjunctive mood has two forms9 (i: The present subjuncti,e has two uses9

(a: The mandative subjunctive (the term >mandative? derives from the Batin root for >mandate?# >a command or order?: is used in a that&clause after a verb# adjective or noun of demand# proposal# recommendation or some other similar idea. 3t is identical to the base form of the verb# and is easily noticeable in the third person sin)ular# which has no final 1s# and in the case of the verb be# which has the form be instead of am, is or are. 0e demanded that the" lea&e immediatel". 0e insists that she cancel the trip. She suggested that he not pursue the matter an" further. 't is necessar" that she be appointed secretar". The proposal that the chairman resign was supported b" the members. (b: The formulaic subjunctive is used in certain traditional e7pressions9 Aod bless "ou. *? .a" Aod bless "ou. % ' wish that Aod bless "ou.) Aod sa&e the Bueen. *? .a" Aod sa&e the Bueen. % )e wish that Aod sa&e the Bueen.) (ii: The past subjuncti,e is used after if, as if and as though to indicate unreality or improbability# and after the verb wish to indicate a situation that is contrary to fact. 3t is identical with the past tense e7cept in the case of the verb be# which uses were for all persons. 'f this computer wor!ed better, '(d ha&e finished the article b" now. 'f ' were "ou, '(d ta!e the 5ob. She orders him as though he were her ser&ant. ' wish m" emplo"ees wor!ed harder. ' wish ' were rich. ' wish "ou were here. ' wish the" were here. 3f an if&clause is not presupposed to be false# that clause must contain an indicative verb# not a subjunctive9 'f she was out all da", it ma!es sense that she couldn(t answer m" call. % The father as!ed his daughter if she was going to gi&e her teacher a farewell gift. Subjunctives can usually be replaced by modal au7iliaries such as would and shouldC )e recommend that all participants be present at noon ? )e recommend that all participants should be present at noon. 0e demanded that she explain the matter in detail ? 0e demanded that she should explain the matter in detail. The subjunctive is also used after it is 0high1 time 2 subject to imply that it is late9 't is time we left. 't is high time we went home and too! our dinner. (lternative sentences9 't is time for us to lea&e.

't is high time for us to go home and ta!e our dinner. (The >to? before >take? is understood.: 13. '(pes of Pronouns P45SO!(B P5O!O0!S Personal pronouns have three cases9 The nominative case e7presses the subject of a verb. The possessive case e7presses possession or ownership. The objective case is used for the object of a transitive verb or a preposition. ( subject pronoun is used when the person or thin) is the subject of the sentence or clause9 ' li!e ad&enture mo&ies, but he does not. (n object pronoun is used when the person or thin) is the object of the sentence or clause9 She li!es me but not him. ( possessive pronoun is used to show possession or ownership9 These boo!s are mine. % ' lost m" cellphone. (Strictly speakin)# pronouns such as m" are actually possessive adjectives (determiners:# as they do not substitute for a noun or noun phrase.: !ominative 3 we you he she it they J J J
Tommy=s mother# who had been away for a few months# was Auestionin) him about events durin) her absence. >Eell# there was a thunderstorm the other ni)ht#? said the little boy# >and 3 was very scared# so 1addy and me slept to)ether.? >Tommy#? said the maid# >you mean N1addy and 3=.? >!o#? said Tommy. >That was last Saturday. 3=m takin) about Tuesday !i)ht.?

Possessive my# mine our# ours your# yours his her# hers its their# theirs

Objective me us you him her it them

3n the above story# >1addy and me? should be >1addy and 3?. >1addy and 3? are the subjects of the verb >slept?. J J J 54CB4L3'4 and 4/P2(T3$ P5O!O0!S Ehen 1self is added to m", "our, him, her and it# and 1sel&es to our, "our and them# we )et compound personal pronouns. $ompound personal pronouns are either refle7ive pronouns or emphatic pronouns.

( compound personal pronoun is a refle.i,e pronoun when the action performed by the subject turns back (reflects: upon the subject. ' hurt m"self when ' fell from the ladder. (Eithout m"self# the sentence does not stand.: ( compound personal pronoun is an emphatic pronoun when it is used for emphasis. ' m"self saw him steal the purse. (Eithout m"self# the sentence still stands.: ( compound personal pronoun may team up with the preposition b" to show that the subject does somethin) alone (' went to the par! b" m"self.) or without help (0e painted the fence b" himself.:. 54$3P5O$(B P5O!O0!S 5eciprocal pronouns include each other and one another. They indicate a reciprocal or mutual relationship. The" helped each other. 54B(T3'4 P5O!O0!S 5elative pronouns include who, whom, whose, which and that when they introduce relative (adjectival: clauses. Eho vs Ehom
The little )irl scrutini@ed her )randfather# who had just arrived and who she had never seen before. >3=m your )randfather#? he said# >on your father=s side.? >That=s not the ri)ht thin) to do#? she said. >Dou should stick up for both of them.?

3n the above story# the first sentence should read9 The little girl scrutini7ed her grandfather, who had 5ust arri&ed and whom she had ne&er seen before. >Eho? (subject pronoun: )oes with heIsheIthey (subject pronouns:. >Ehom? (object pronoun: )oes with himIherIthem (object pronouns:. To decide when to use >who? or >whom?# apply this test9 if the thou)ht in the whoIwhom clause is best e7pressed by heIsheIthey# use >who?H if the thou)ht is best e7pressed by himIherIthem# use >whom?. whoIwhom had just arrived heIhim had just arrived he had just arrived >who? is correct whoIwhom she had never seen before she had never seen heIhim before she had never seen him before >whom? is correct 0se the same test for sentences that ask Auestions9 EhoIEhom did you say called< 1id you say sheIher called< 1id you say she called< >Eho? is correct

EhoIEhom did you meet at the park< 1id you meet heIhim at the park< 1id you meet him at the park< >Ehom? is correct (althou)h >Eho? is acceptable in informal 4n)lish: Omission of the 5elative Pronoun ( relative pronoun introduces a relative clause# and it usually has the immediately precedin) noun or noun substitute as its antecedent. ((n antecedent is the word or phrase that a pronoun represents.: The relative pronouns who, whom, which and that can be omitted (that is# they are treated as understood: when they function as the object of a verb or as the object of a preposition. Bet us look at the followin) three sentences9 (a: 2e donated some money to a charity that he )reatly admired. (>That? is the object of the verb >admired?# so it can be omitted M 2e donated some money to a charity he )reatly admired. (b: The man whom she Auarrelled with was her e7&boyfriend. (>Ehom? is the object of the preposition >with?# so it can be omitted M The man she Auarrelled with was her e7& boyfriend. (2owever# >whom? cannot be omitted if it is preceded by the preposition9 The man with whom she Auarrelled was her e7&boyfriend.: (c: She avoids foods that are too spicy. (>That? is the subject of the verb >are?# so it cannot be omitted.: J J J $an you identify the relative pronouns that can be omitted in the sentences below< 1. People who live in )lass houses shouldn=t throw parties. 2. /y best friend# who is a lawyer# has decided to name her dau)hter Sue. . 1rinkin) is a habit that 3 detest. ". The best )ift to )ive a person who has everythin) is a bur)lar alarm. %. ( smart husband is one who thinks twice before sayin) nothin). *. 2e is no lawyer who cannot take two sides. ($harles Bamb: +. Bove is a )ame that two can play and both win. (4va Fabor: ,. Gindness is one thin) which you can=t )ive away 8 it comes back to you. ((uthor 0nknown: -. She was the Food Samaritan who helped me yesterday. 1.. 2e=s the famous ventriloAuist whom 3 told you about. +nswers The relative pronouns in sentences # +# , and 1. can be omitted. J J J 3!14C3!3T4 P5O!O0!S 3ndefinite pronouns include either and each (unless they are adjectives:H someone, an"one, somebod", e&er"one and oneH and the relative pronouns whoe&er, whome&er and whiche&er.

3ndefinite pronouns refer to persons or thin)s in a )eneral way 8 they do not refer to any specific person or thin). 4ach must do his part. Someone has stolen m" pen. #ne must not spea! highl" of one(s own success. 4&er"one is in&ited to the part". 3!T455OF(T3'4 P5O!O0!S 3nterro)ative pronouns include who, whom, whose, which and what when they introduce Auestions# includin) indirect Auestions. )ho are "ou3 Tell me what "ou said to her. 14/O!ST5(T3'4 P5O!O0!S 1emonstrative pronouns include this, that, these and those. They are used to point out the objects they refer to. This is a gift from m" boss. Ehen demonstrative pronouns are used as modifiers# they are not pronouns but demonstrative adjectives9 This car is expensi&e. 3/P45SO!(B P5O!O0! 6esides bein) a personal pronoun# it is also an impersonal pronoun (also called a dummy pronoun:. 3t does not have an antecedent. ((n antecedent is an earlier word or phrase which a pronoun refers to.: 47ample9 't rained. J J J 4veryone and Their >Their? (plural: can be used with >everyone? (sin)ular:. There was great 5o" in the !ingdom on Dapun7el(s wedding da", and e&er"one let their hair down. (>Their? sounds better than >his or her?.: 2ere are two e7amples from $oncise O7ford 4n)lish 1ictionary (2..": of >a person K their?9 Patriot (n: 8 a person who vi)orously supports their country and is prepared to defend it. Sho-"off (n: 8 a person who boastfully displays their abilities or accomplishments. 14. Coordinating Conjunctions and Subordinating Conjunctions $oordinatin) conjunctions mainly join words# phrases and independent clauses. ' bought apples and oranges. (joins words: 2urses in uniforms and actors in costumes 5oined the parade. (joins phrases:

0e agreed to organi7e the e&ent, and she promised to help him. (joins main (independent: clauses: The seven coordinatin) conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, "et and so 8 which can be remembered mnemonically with C(!6ODS. Subordinatin) conjunctions are used in subordinate (dependent: clauses. Subordinate clauses cannot stand by themselves 8 they work with main (independent: clauses. 0e agreed to organi7e the e&ent if she promised to help him. She did not go to the part" because she was not feeling well. ;ecause she was not feeling well, she did not go to the part". The subordinatin) conjunctions are after, although, as, as far as, as if, as long as, as soon as, as though, because, before, e&en if, e&en though, if, in order that, once, pro&ided that, rather than, since, so, so that, than, that, though, unless, until, when, whene&er, where, whereas, where&er, while and wh". 1!. Some Notes on $djecti,es $omparison of (djectives (djectives chan)e in form to show comparison. Cor e7ample# the adjective short is in the positive de)reeH the adjective shorter is in the comparative de)reeH the adjective shortest is in the superlative de)ree. 2ere are some more e7amples9 Positive $omparative Superlative tall taller tallest wise wiser wisest happy happier happiest red redder reddest thin thinner thinnest beautiful more beautiful most beautiful far farther farthest (distance: much more most ( uantit": many more most (number: 0e is taller than ' *am). She is the thinnest girl in the class. The second contestant is more beautiful than the first contestant. (ttributive (djective (n attributive adjective is used directly beside the noun it modifies. She bro!e the beautiful &ase. ' ate a bowl of delicious noodles. Predicative (djective

( predicative adjective is used after a linkin) verb. The child is asleep. The &ictim is ali&e. /ost adjectives are both attributive and predicative. She has big e"es. 0er e"es are big. (bsolute (djective (n absolute adjective describes a Auality that cannot be intensified or compared. 3t should only be modified by adverbs such as >almost? and >nearly?. 47amples9 perfect, dead, s uare. Substantive (djective ( substantive adjective is used without an e7pressed noun# but always with the definite article# the. 47amples9 the poor# the blind. Post&positional (djective ( post&positional adjective is placed after the noun it modifies. 47amples9 script proper, eggs sunn"-side up, battle ro"al. (rticles The adjectives a (an before a vowel sound: and the are called articles. $ (or an: is the indefinite article 8 it leaves indefinite the person or thin) spoken of. 47ample9 a teacher (that is# an" teacher: 'he is the definite article 8 it refers to some particular person or thin). 47ample9 0e li!ed the teacher. (The refers to some particular teacher.: The choice between a and an is determined by sound. Ee use a before a word be)innin) with a consonant sound. 47amples9 a man, a rooster, a horse, a hole, a union, a unicorn, a 4uropean, a useful boo!, a uni&ersit". (The last five e7amples be)in with the consonant sound >yu?.: Ee use an before a word be)innin) with a vowel sound. 47amples9 an animal, an orange, an enem", an umbrella, an heir, an hour, an honest wor!er. (3n the last three e7amples# the consonant >h? is silent (not pronounced:.: 1%. $ntecedents (n antecedent is an earlier word or phrase which a pronoun refers to. Sam, who is a great eater, li!es to gorge himself on the delicious foods which his wife coo!s for him. 3n the e7ample above# the pronouns who# himself# his and him all have Sam as their antecedent. J J J

Steve called 1avid one evenin) while he was on holiday. (fter they had talked awhile# Steve said# >/y wife=s credit card was stolen.? >1id you report the theft<? 1avid asked. >!o#? said Steve. >0nlike my wife# the thief is not )ood at spendin).?

The antecedent of a pronoun must be unambi)uous. 3n the first sentence of the story# the pronoun >he? has two possible antecedents 8 >Steve? and >1avid?. The sentence should read9 )hen Ste&e was on holida", he called Da&id one e&ening. J J J
>Take off your muddy shoes before you enter the house#? the mother said to her son. >This mornin)# the maid removed the carpet from the livin) room and cleaned it.? The little boy# who had been playin) football with his friends# replied# >/um# 3=m not wearin) any shoesO?

The pronoun >it? in the story has two possible antecedents 8 >carpet? and >livin) room?. To prevent ambi)uity# the sentence can be recast in one of two ways (dependin) on which meanin) is intended:9 This morning, the maid cleaned the carpet after remo&ing it from the li&ing room. This morning, the maid cleaned the li&ing room after remo&ing the carpet from it. J J J Pronoun before antecedent 3t is all ri)ht to place a pronoun before its antecedent9 Joe (antecedent: loo!s fierce and unapproachable, but he (pronoun: is actuall" &er" !ind and helpful. 0e (pronoun: loo!s fierce and unapproachable, but Joe (antecedent: is actuall" &er" !ind and helpful. 1&. /odifiers ( modifier is a word# phrase or clause that provides description in a sentence. (djectives as modifiers (n adjective modifies the meanin) of a noun. Kuala Lumpur is a large cit". She is an efficient secretar". ' bought six durians. She did not eat an" food. She has much patience. .ost men li!e football. (dverbs as modifiers (n adverb modifies a verb# another modifier (an adjective or another adverb:# a )erund# or the whole sentence. She wal!ed slowl" to the !itchen. (modifies verb:

0is e"es are unusuall" big. (modifies adjective: She wal!ed &er" slowl" to the !itchen. (modifies another adverb: )al!ing bris!l" is a popular form of exercise. (modifies )erund: Fortunatel", he was helped b" a Aood Samaritan. (modifies whole sentence: Phrases as modifiers The pupils in the !indergarten are pla"ing in the field. (in the !indergarten M prepositional phrase functionin) as an adjective to modify the noun pupils. in the field M prepositional phrase functionin) as an adverb to modify the verb are pla"ing.: )al!ing towards the door, Da&e wa&ed goodb"e to his friends. ()al!ing towards the door M participial phrase functionin) as an adjective to modify the noun Da&e.: The best wa" to impro&e "our 4nglish is to read a lot. (to impro&e "our 4nglish M infinitive phrase functionin) as an adjective to modify the noun wa".: The tax auditor came to chec! the accounting boo!s. (to chec! the accounting boo!s M infinitive phrase functionin) as an adverb to modify the verb came.: (djectival clauses as modifiers This is the boo! that "ou are loo!ing for. 0er bo"friend, who is a businessman, has bought a new car. 6eople who li&e in glass houses should not throw stones. This DED, which costs fift" dollars, is m" fa&ourite mo&ie. !ote9 That and which are used for restrictive relative clauses (these clauses are essential to the meanin) of the sentence:. )hich# but not that# is used for non&restrictive relative clauses (these clauses )ive additional information and are not essential to the meanin) of the sentence:. Deading is a hobb" which ' li!e &er" much. ($orrect: Deading is a hobb" that ' li!e &er" much. ($orrect: The song that she sang at the school concert is &er" catch". ($orrect: The song, that she sang at the school concert, is &er" catch". (3ncorrect: )here&clauses This is the hospital where ' was born. (restrictive: The three bears escorted Aoldiloc!s to her house, where she made a clean breast of her misdemeanour to her mother. (non&restrictive: See also Common 3ses of the Comma /isplaced modifiers

The youn) woman was walkin) the do) in faded blue jeans. ( nei)hbour approached her and said# >1id you know that it barked all ni)ht<? >Des# but don=t worry#? the youn) woman replied. >3t sleeps all day.?

The do) is definitely not >in faded blue jeans?. 6ecause the modifier is misplaced# the intended meanin) of the sentence is not immediately obvious. The sentence should read9 The "oung woman in faded blue 5eans was wal!ing the dog. J J J
Santa $laus had a ni)htmare in which he entered a house throu)h the chimney and helped himself to a )lass of milk. Ehen he had finished his drink# he noticed a note on the frid)e door. The note read9 >3f you leave a new cellphone in the kitchen# 3 will )ive you the antidote to the poison 3 put in the milk. 3n previous years# every Santa who took the antidote Auickly recovered. 8 Timmy.?

The last sentence in the story contains a sAuintin) modifier. ( sAuintin) modifier# also called a two&way modifier# can modify the word or words on either side of it. The sentence has two possible meanin)s9 (i: took AuicklyH (ii: recovered Auickly. To prevent ambi)uity# it can be recast in one of two ways (dependin) on which meanin) is intended:9 'n pre&ious "ears, e&er" Santa who too! the antidote reco&ered uic!l". 'n pre&ious "ears, e&er" Santa who uic!l" too! the antidote reco&ered. J J J
>Students who miss classes freAuently )et poor )rades#? the father said to his son# who often played truant and wrote his own sick notes. >3 don=t )et the hi)hest marks in my class# 1ad#? the boy replied. >1o you )et the hi)hest salary at your office<?

The first sentence contains a sAuintin) modifier. The sentence has two possible meanin)s9 (i: miss classes freAuentlyH (ii: freAuently )et poor )rades. 3t can be disambi)uated in one of two ways (dependin) on which meanin) is intended:9 Students who fre uentl" miss classes get poor grades. Fre uentl", students who miss classes get poor grades. J J J Bimitin) modifiers Eords such as onl", nearl", almost, e&en and 5ust are called limitin) modifiers.
Two men were havin) a drinkin) session at a bar when one of them said to the other# >Dou nearly drank a whole crate of beer. Dour wife will hit the ceilin) when you )et home.? >She sure will#? said the second man. >She=s a lousy shotO?

3f you tell someone# >Dou nearly drank a whole crate of beer?# it means nothin) happened 8 the man didn=t Auite )et around to doin) any drinkin)H he only >nearly? drank it.

The modifier should be placed correctly to show what is intended9 /ou dran! nearl" a whole crate of beer. J J J Bet us look at the common patterns re)ardin) the use of >only?9 #nl" she is a child. (the others are adults: She is onl" a child. (not older: She is a child onl". (nothin) more: She is an onl" child. (has no siblin)s: !evertheless# the imprecise placement of >only? is hardly noticed when the meanin) of the sentence is sufficiently clear 8 e.). ' onl" failed once. % ' failed onl" once. (Sometimes# the >correct? version may not sound as smooth as the alternativeO: J J J (dverb or Preposition< (n adverb does not have an object9 The bird flew off. ( preposition always has an object9 The dri&er 5umped off the bus. $an you tell whether the italici@ed words below are adverbs or prepositions< 1. /other Gan)aroo says to her child# >Fo outside and )et some fresh air. 1on=t be a pouch potatoO? 2. ( fi)ht broke out outside the warden=s office when one prisoner called another a dirty number. . 2e put a mirror on his television set so that he could see what his children looked like. ". The town bore called out my name several times# but 3 walked on# not wishin) to suffer any >earitation?. %. The secretary failed to send the letter off because she didn=t understand what the boss said between >1ear Sir? and >Dours faithfully?. *. 2e dined off a special sandwich 8 one slice of bread between two slices of ham. +. She )ot through the novel even thou)h someone had written the name of the murderer on the first pa)e. ,. The eccentric man at the bus stop did not want to open his present# an umbrella# before $hristmas# and he was soaked through. -. ( motorist who had stopped his car on a country road to ask for directions to his cousin=s house )ot this reply from a farmer9 >Eell# the way you are )oin) it=s about fifty kilometres# but if you turn around it=s only two.? 1.. >Fet me a book about lionsO? he roared. +nswers 1.adverb 2.prepostion .preposition ".adverb %.adverb *.preposition +.preposition ,.adverb -.adverb 1..preposition

J J J (djectives and (dverbs with the Same Corm $an you tell whether the italici@ed words below are adjectives or adverbs< 1. The skilful ma)ician pulled a hat with a wide brim out of a fluffy little rabbit. 2. The avid punster read from his collection of puns9 >Cindin) it wide open# the bur)lar climbed intruder window.? . 3t was a prett" silly idea 8 his invention of an e)) opener. ". >3 wanted to )et you a prett" dress#? the bur)lar says to his wife# >but the darn shop was still openO? %. 2e says jestin)ly to her# >Dou must be dead tired from all the runnin) you did in my dream last ni)ht.? *. The nau)hty boy said he put a dead mouse in his sister=s bed because he couldn=t find a toad. +. /other $at says to her kitten# >Stay away from dan)er. Dou have onl" nine livesO? ,. The hummin)bird is the onl" bird that can fly backwards. -. >3 just don=t know what went wrong. (ccordin) to the cookbook# this is supposed to be a delicious dish.? 1.. She wore her weddin) rin) on the wrong fin)er because she married the wron) man. +nswers 1.adjective 2.adverb .adverb ".adjective %.adverb *.adjective +.adverb ,.adjective -.adverb 1..adjective J J J (dverbs with Two Corms Some adverbs have two forms# namely the form which is the same as the adjective# and the form endin) in 1l"C The" laughed loud. The" laughed loudl". Sometimes# the two forms have different meanin)s9 't was a prett" (Mfairly: exciting race. The hostess was prettil" (Mele)antly: dressed. $hoose the correct adverb within each pair of brackets below9 1. 3 was (high, highl": amused when she said that 5obinson $rusoe was a model worker 8 he had all the work done by Criday. 2. >(ll ri)ht# you may take this ball for a test dribble# but please don=t kick it ( high, highl": in the air.? . 2e is so la@y that he takes (near, nearl": five days to put in a )ood day=s work. ". >$ome (near, nearl": so that 3 don=t have to shout#? she says to her henpecked husband. %. Eork (hard, hardl": 8 success comes before work only in the dictionary.

*. The lion and 3 were (hard, hardl": five feet apart 8 and then 3 moved on to the ne7t ca)e. +. The Star is the most (wide, widel": read 4n)lish newspaper in the country. ,. The )oalkeeper stood with his le)s ( wide, widel": apart# and the ball rolled between them# strai)ht into the )oal. -. 2e is the (most, mostl": persuasive salesman 3 have ever met 8 he can sell a comb to a bald man. 1.. 2e reads a novel occasionally# but (most, mostl": he reads T&shirts. 11. >$ome ( uic!, uic!l":O /y do) is )ettin) ready to break&danceO? +nswers 1.hi)hly 2.hi)h .nearly ".near %.hard *.hardly +.widely ,.wide -.most 1..mostly 11. both >Auick? and >Auickly? are correct 1). #erbals ( verbal is a verb that functions as a different part of speech. There are three types of verbals9 F450!1 ( )erund is formed by addin) 8ing to a verb. 3t always functions as a noun. )al!ing is a popular form of exercise. (The )erund functions as the subject of the verb is.: J J J
>3 hope you will e7cuse me leavin) early yesterday#? the worker said to the boss. >3 had to return a 1'1 to the shop.? >6ut you left the office when it was only three o=clock#? said the boss. >Eell# 3 had to watch the 1'1 before 3 returned it.?

The word >leavin)? here is a )erund# and it must be preceded by the possessive form of the pronoun9 ' hope "ou will excuse m" lea&ing earl" "esterda". J J J P(5T3$3PB4 (a: Present Participle Ehen it is used as a verbal# a present participle functions as an adjective. The man said to the cr"ing woman, <.a" ' help "ou3= (The present participle modifies the noun woman.: (b: Past Participle Ehen it is used as a verbal# a past participle functions as an adjective. The naught" bo" came home with a bro!en arm. (The past participle modifies the noun arm.:

3!C3!3T3'4 (n infinitive is the base form of a verbH it is usually used with the word >to?. (n infinitive can function as a noun# an adverb or an adjective. ' lo&e to sing. (The infinitive functions as a noun 8 the object of the verb lo&e.: The students were eager to listen to the tal!. (The infinitive functions as an adverb# modifyin) the adjective eager.: 0e bra&ed the rain to wait for his girlfriend. (The infinitive functions as an adverb# modifyin) the verb bra&ed.: )hene&er ' ta!e a train or a bus, ' bring a sandwich to eat. (The infinitive functions as an adjective# modifyin) the noun sandwich.: J J J The split infinitive ( split infinitive is a phrase in which an adverb or other word is inserted between >to? and the verb of a to&infinitive. 4ric Partrid)e# author of Fsage and +busage# says# >(void the split infinitive wherever possibleH but if it is the clearest and the most natural construction# use it boldly.? Speakin) of boldness# the Star Tre! ta) line contains a split infinitive9 >to boldly )o? 8 which is certainly more natural than >to )o boldly?. Bet=s consider another e7ample where an infinitive seems to improve on bein) split9 >3 cannot brin) myself to really like the fellow? (from The 4lements of St"le:. J J J The forms of the infinitive (n infinitive (both the to&infinitive and the bare infinitive: on the main verb to indicate the time of the action. There are four types of infinitive9 (ctive Present to love Present continuous to be lovin) Perfect to have loved Perfect continuous to have been lovin) has no tense# so it depends Passive to be loved && to have been loved &&

(a: Present The present infinitive refers to the same time as that of the main verb9 She was willing to help him. (b: Present continuous

The present continuous infinitive refers to the same time as that of the main verb# and emphasi@es the continuin) nature of an action9 ' am happ" to be working here. (c: Perfect The perfect infinitive refers to a time before that of the main verb9 ' am delighted to have won the first pri7e. (d: Perfect continuous The perfect continuous infinitive refers to a time before that of the main verb# and emphasi@es the continuin) nature of an action9 ' am happ" to have been working here for the last fi&e "ears. (3 still work here.: Passive infinitives The spelling mista!es ha&e to be corrected. (Passive present: ." wallet seems to have been stolen. (Passive perfect: 1*. $ppositi,es (n appositive is a noun# pronoun or noun eAuivalent (often with modifiers: that names or e7plains another noun or pronoun beside it. The appositive can be)in the sentence# interrupt the sentence# or end the sentence. The appositives in the e7amples below are underlined. 1. 2is best friend# $harlie# is a playboy who can say >3 love you? in many lan)ua)es. (The appositive is non&restrictive 8 not essential to the basic meanin) of the sentence 8 and is therefore set off from the rest of the sentence with commas.: 2. The actress 1aisy 1ou)h likes to talk about her last movie or her ne7t husband. (The appositive is restrictive 8 essential to the meanin) of the sentence 8 and is therefore not set off from the rest of the sentence with commas. Eithout the appositive# we wouldn=t know which actress is bein) referred to.: . /eow# Tina=s pet cat# can say his own name. ". /y nei)hbour=s old car# a blue saloon with dented doors# )ets homesick whenever it passes a scrapyard. %. 3n the fable about the crow and the fo7# the crow san) her favourite son)# N3 ;ust $aw to Say 3 Bove Dou=. *. That beautiful cocktail waitress# she with the bi) sense of humour# likes to tell her customers that money )rows on trays. +. She has trained /a7# her si7&year&old bea)le# to sit on the hole in the carpet whenever she has visitors. ,. 1avid# a skilful ma)ician# thrilled the audience by pullin) a hat out of a rabbit. -. ( skilful ma)ician# 1avid thrilled the audience by pullin) a hat out of a rabbit. 1.. The audience applauded 1avid# a skilful ma)ician who thrilled them by pullin) a hat out of a rabbit.

2+. Possessi,es Ehen we want to show that somethin) belon)s to someone or somethin)# we usually add an apostrophe plus s to a sin)ular noun and just an apostrophe to a plural noun# but there are e7ceptions. the boy=s football the boys= football the child=s toy the children=s toys ;ames=s job for )oodness= sake my brother&in&law=s car the criminal=s escape one=s ri)hts somebody else=s ba) the do)=s tail her sons&in&law=s houses I the houses of her sons&in&law five dollars= worth of titbits $inderella=s stepmother=s cotta)e 1ouble Possessives
(n elderly man met a friend of his )randdau)hter. >This is my )randfather#? said the )randdau)hter to her friend. >2e=s in his early nineties.? 4yein) the beautiful friend# the old )ee@er said with a flirtatious twinkle in his eye# >4arly nineties.?

The first sentence should read9 +n elderl" man met a friend of his granddaughter(s. This is an e7ample of the double possessive. (lthou)h the double possessive may sound awkward# it is especially helpful# for instance# in distin)uishin) between a painting of m( father (M a portrait of him: and a painting of m( father4s (M one owned by him:. Dou can avoid the double possessive by recastin) the sentence9 +n elderl" man met one of his granddaughter(s friends. J J J ;oint Possession and Separate Possession
The little boy had just returned home after spendin) a week at his aunt=s and uncle=s ranch. >/um#? he said e7citedly# >3 even saw a man who makes horses.? >(re you sure<? asked the mother# pu@@led. >Des#? he replied. >3 couldn=t believe my eyes. 2e had a horse almost completed when 3 saw him# and he was just nailin) on the feet.?

The first sentence should read9 The little bo" had 5ust returned home after spending a wee! at his aunt and uncle(s farm. 3f two (or more: nouns or names have joint possession# only the second (or the last: noun or name takes the possessive form. (nother e7ample9 Arace and 4mil"(s 5oint birthda" part" will be held this Saturda". 3f the possession is separate# each noun or name takes the possessive form9 John(s and Aar"(s birthda"s both fall in December. 0e in&ited his son(s and daughter(s friends to the part". The cat(s and dogs( names were gi&en b" me. J J J Possessives as (ntecedents
The mother blew her top when she found out that a window in the house had been bro!en. <,an(t "ou sta" out of trouble for 5ust one da"3= she shouted at her son. Thin!ing that he could ma!e his friend the scapegoat, the little bo" said, <The fault is Da&id(s, who duc!ed his head when ' threw a stone at him.=

The sentence >The fault is 1avid=s# who ducked his head when 3 threw a stone at him? is awkward. Possessives (e7cept for independent possessives: function as adjectives. Strictly speakin)# adjectives cannot be the antecedents of pronouns. (The >faulty? sentence uses >1avid=s? as the antecedent of the pronoun >who?.: The sentence should read9 The bro!en window is the fault of Da&id, who duc!ed his head when ' threw a stone at him. % Da&id bro!e the window b" duc!ing his head when ' threw a stone at him. The sentence >3f you need a racAuet# you may borrow Steve=s# which he bou)ht a few days a)o? is# however# correct. 2ere# >Steve=s? is an independent possessive# a possessive form that functions as a noun. There is an ellipsis of >racAuet? in the antecedent (M Steve=s racAuet:# which the relative pronoun >which? refers to. Other e7amples of independent possessives are >yours? and >mine?9 ." new cellphone is not as &ersatile as "ours *? "our cellphone), which is more expensi&e. % 'f "ou ha&e mislaid "our cellphone, "ou ma" use mine *? m" cellphone), which is on the des! behind "ou. The )eneral opinion is that a possessive can be the antecedent of a pronoun as lon) as the meanin) of the pronoun is clear and the sentence is not awkward9 The principal(s illness forced her to retire earl". *+lternati&eC The principal decided to retire earl" because of her illness.) .ichael(s la7iness caused him to lose his 5ob. *+lternati&eC .ichael lost his 5ob because he was la7".) 21. Common 3ses of the Comma (i: Ehen a coordinatin) conjunction joins two independent clauses# we put a comma before the conjunction.

,inderella alighted from her ornate coach, and the prince stepped forward to greet her. ' !noc!ed on the door se&eral times, but there was no answer. Ee omit the comma if (a: the independent clauses are very short9 ' sta"ed but she left. (b: the independent clauses are conceptually interdependent (6arbara Eallraff# )ord ,ourt:9 ,ome inside the house now and ' will explain e&er"thing to "ou. (The subject of the first clause is understood9 ,ome inside the house now ? */ou) come inside the house now.: I <Ai&e me "our wallet or '(ll beat "ou up,= the robber said to his &ictim. (ii: The serial comma ( serial comma is a comma placed after the last but one item in a list of three or more items. 3t is not really necessary in a simple series. 47ample9 ' bought pens, pencils and erasers. The serial comma is essential if its omission can cause misreadin). 47ample9 The" ate fried rice, &egetable soup, and fish and chips. Two verb phrases describin) the action of the same subject do not need a comma if and is the conjunction separatin) them9 0e wal!ed into the li&ing room and sat down on the sofa. (( verb phrase is a phrase that is headed by a verb.: Three or more verb phrases describin) the action of the same subject need commas to separate them9 0e wal!ed into the li&ing room, sat down on the sofa, and read the newspaper. (( comma is needed with two verb phrases if there is an obvious pause9 The little bo" notices a film-li!e substance on his plate, and as!s his mother, <.um, is m" plate clean3=: (iii: 5estrictive relative clauses and non&restrictive relative clauses ( restrictive relative clause is not set off by commas from the rest of the sentence. 47ample9 6eople who li&e in glass houses should not throw stones. (The clause is essential to the meanin) of the sentence. 3f we leave out the clause# the sentence does not make sense.: ( non&restrictive relative clause is set off by commas from the rest of the sentence. 47ample9 0er father, who is a law"er, won the first pri7e. (The clause is not essential to the meanin) of the sentence 8 it is merely >additional information?. 3f we leave out the clause# the sentence still makes sense.: (iv: 3n a complete sentence# a comma must follow the last element of an address or )eo)raphical location. 47ample9 The cloc! tower in Telu! 'ntan, 6era!, is a uni ue building. The lo)ic can be clearly seen if we replace the two commas with a pair of brackets9 The cloc! tower in Telu! 'ntan *6era!) is a uni ue building. (v: (n infinitive phrase used as an adverb needs a comma after it if it is placed at the be)innin) of the sentence. 47ample9 To sta" fit and health", he wal!s three !ilometres

e&er" morning. (The comma disappears if we put the infinitive phrase in the second part of the sentence9 0e wal!s three !ilometres e&er" morning to sta" fit and health".: (vi: ( dependent (subordinate: clause that starts a sentence must be followed by a comma. 47ample9 'f "ou get up late, "ou(ll miss the bus. (The comma disappears if we put the independent clause first9 /ou(ll miss the bus if "ou get up late.: (vii: Participial phrases sometimes need commas. 47amples9 Dunning up to m" porch, the mongrel hoped that ' had some dog food with me. % ;itten b" mos uitoes, ' wished that ' had brought along an insect repellent for the camping trip. (Participial phrases always function as adjectives.: The mongrel running up to m" porch hoped that ' had some food with me. (!o comma: (viii: Ee use a comma after a lon) introductory phrase. 47ample9 +fter a long wait for the bus, ' decided to wal! home. (The comma disappears if we put the phrase in the second part of the sentence9 ' decided to wal! home after a long wait for the bus.: (i7: Ee use commas to set off non&restrictive appositive phrases. 47ample9 +n acti&e member of the club, Sam has a good chance of being elected its president. % Sam, an acti&e member of the club, has a good chance of being elected its president. (7: Parenthetical e7pressions are set off by commas. 47ample9 .ar", on the other hand, li!es swimming and 5ogging. (7i: $ommas are used in elliptical sentences. ( sentence that is elliptical omits one or more words that the reader (or listener: is e7pected to provide. The missin) word or phrase is called an ellipsis. 47ample9 0is first boo! sold onl" one thousand copies, but his second, twent" thousand. (This sentence is the short version of >2is first book sold only one thousand copies# but his second book sold twenty thousand?.: (7ii: Ee use commas wherever necessary to avoid confusion or misreadin). 47amples9 She wal!ed in, in tears. % To John, Lennon will alwa"s be the most famous ;eatle. (7iii: $ommas play an important role in direct speech. See 5irect Speech and 6ndirect Speech for sentence e7amples. (7iv: $ommas are used in sentences containin) absolute phrases9 The secretar" ha&ing entered the room, we started our club meeting. ((n absolute phrase modifies the whole sentence instead of a sin)le word in the sentence. 3n the e7ample# the subject of the phrase (secretar": is not the same as the subject of the main clause (we:.: (7v: $omma before >because?
Two rabbits saw a pac! of wol&es a short distance awa". The rabbits didn(t run because the" were afraid.

+fter a while, one of the rabbits said, <'f we get to wor! now, we can outnumber them$=

The second sentence in the story is unclear 8 it mi)ht mean that the rabbits ran# but not because they were afraid. Cor clarity# we sometimes put a comma before a because&clause that follows the main clause. (The $hica)o /anual of Style: The second sentence in the story should therefore read9 The rabbits didn(t run, because the" were afraid. (Ee can also let the because&clause be)in the sentence9 ;ecause the" were afraid, the rabbits didn(t run. % ;ecause the rabbits were afraid, the" didn(t run.: ( comma before >because? is needed if there is an obvious pause9 ,inderella said to the prince, <' forgi&e m" stepmother and stepsisters, because ' want to feel 5o".= (7vi: $ommas and multiple adjectives /ultiple adjectives follow a certain order# namely9 5eterminer 7bser,ation I 7pinion 8 beautiful# dull# interestin)# etc. Si8e 8 small# bi)# lar)e# etc. $ge 8 old# new# ancient# etc. Shape 8 round# sAuare# rectan)ular# etc. Colour 8 blue# yellow# white# etc. 7rigin 8 /alaysian# (merican# ;apanese# etc. /aterial 8 rubber# )old# silk# etc. 9ualifier 8 limiters for compound nouns (1eterminers are modifyin) words that restrict the meanin) of a noun# e.). a, an, the, m", "our. Puantifiers are determiners or pronouns showin) Auantity# e.). all, a few, three.: Two adjectives of the same type are separated by and9 0e is a sh" and timid man. (observation# observation: (Ee can replace the conjunction with a comma9 0e is a sh", timid man.: Three or more adjectives of the same type are separated by commas# with and for the last9 This is a dar!, dirt" and stuff" room. (observation# observation# observation: (djectives of different types do not reAuire commas9 ' found an old rectangular box in the room. (a)e# shape: She has long blac! hair. (shape# colour: ' need a s uare cardboard hat box. (shape# material# Aualifier: There are se&eral blind white mice in the attic. (observation# colour: (Ee can also say that the adjective >blind? modifies the compound noun >white mice?.: )e ate some appeti7ing .ala" food. (opinion# ori)in:

She met a handsome "oung man. (observationIopinion# a)e: (Ee can also say that the adjective >handsome? modifies the compound noun >youn) man?.: J J J The comma splice
<' reached the office at noon toda", m" boss ga&e me a se&ere warning.= <)h" were "ou late3= <' had a boo! rental that was due bac! this morning.= <+nd that too! three hours3= <)ell, ' had to read it first.=

The comma after >today? is an e7ample of a comma splice# which is the improper use of a comma to connect two independent clauses. Ee can fi7 a comma splice in several ways9 (i: 0se a semi&colon9 <' reached the office at noon toda"@ m" boss ga&e me a se&ere warning.= (ii: 0se a full stop9 <' reached the office at noon toda". ." boss ga&e me a se&ere warning.= (iii: 0se a coordinatin) conjunction9 <' reached the office at noon toda", and m" boss ga&e me a se&ere warning.= (iv: 0se a subordinate (dependent: clause9 <." boss ga&e me a se&ere warning because ' reached the office at noon toda".= % <;ecause ' reached the office at noon toda", m" boss ga&e me a se&ere warning.= $omma splices also occur with conjunctive adverbs (howe&er, ne&ertheless, conse uentl", accordingl", moreo&er, therefore, etc.:9 0e has a rare disease, howe&er, it is not life-threatening. (3ncorrect: 0e has a rare disease@ howe&er, it is not life-threatening. ($orrect: 0e has a rare disease@ it is, howe&er, not life-threatening. ($orrect: $omma splices are probably all ri)ht if the independent clauses are very short (especially if the subject is the same for the clauses:9 ' came, ' saw, ' con uered. The path was long, the wind was cold. 't(s not a fox, it(s a ci&et. ' can eat twent" pies, '(m so hungr". The comma splices in ta) Auestions are acceptable (they are hardly noticed:9 't(s a beautiful da", isn(t it3 /ou are coming with us, aren(t "ou3 (( ta) Auestion is a device used to turn a statement into a Auestion.: J J J QQQQQQQQQQT0D44 ST#D'4SRRRRRRRRRR

(n 4n)lish teacher who had a @ero tolerance approach to punctuation wrote these words on the blackboard9 Eoman without her man is nothin) She asked her students to form a correctly punctuated sentence with the words. The boys wrote9 >Eoman# without her man# is nothin).? The )irls wrote9 >Eoman 8 without her# man is nothin).? J J J /any years a)o# a 5ussian tsar sentenced a prisoner to death. Ehen the tsar received a tele)ram about a pardon for the condemned man# he wrote a reply that read9 >Pardon impossible# to be e7ecuted?. 2owever# the tsar=s wife believed that the man was innocent. She mana)ed to intercept the out)oin) tele)ram# and made a punctuation chan)e in it. The tele)ram that reached the prison read9 >Pardon# impossible to be e7ecuted?. J J J ( woman on tour in a forei)n country cabled her husband the followin) messa)e9 >Cound perfect bracelet. Price fifty thousand dollars. /ay 3 buy it<? The husband frowned heavily when he read the messa)e# and he wrote out his reply9 >!o# price too hi)h?. 2owever# the tele)raph operator missed one small but important detail in his transmission 8 the si)nal for a comma after the word >!o?. The wife literally jumped for joy when she read her husband=s messa)e9 >!o price too hi)h?. She bou)ht the bracelet. Ehen she reached home and showed the bracelet to her husband# he hit the ceilin). 2e filed a lawsuit a)ainst the tele)raph company 8 and wonO *+ll three stories adapted from material on the 'nternet)

22. Causati,e #erbs

<The surgeon made me laughed during the operation.= <Deall"3= </es, he had me in stitches$=

The first sentence should read9 <The surgeon made me laugh during the operation.= 2ere# >made? is a causative verb. The causative verb is used when someone or somethin) causes another person or thin) to do somethin). The causative verbs ma:e# let and ha,e take the bare infinitive (without >to?:9 The cold made me shi&er. 0e let me 5oin his group. ' had +nd" wash m" car. The causative verbs that reAuire to&infinitives include tell# get# persuade# force# allo-# help# con,ince and encourage. ' told him to wash m" car. ' got him to chec! m" car. ' persuaded him to clean the room.

The passive causative Some causative verbs can be used in a form similar to the passive9 ' had m" car washed. ' got m" car chec!ed. 23. Parallelism Parallelism (also called parallel construction: is a principle of )rammatical construction that reAuires the use of the same pattern of words to show that two or more elements or ideas are of eAual importance. ' li!e 5ogging and to swim. (Caulty parallelism 9 )erund K infinitive: ' li!e 5ogging and swimming. (Food parallelism9 )erund K )erund: ' li!e to 5og and to swim. (Food parallelism9 infinitive K infinitive: /ore e7amples of )ood parallelism9 She will either go to uni&ersit" or loo! for a 5ob. 0e neither drin!s nor smo!es. J J J
Tom and his wife are uarrelling furiousl". She sa"s, <'f it weren(t for m" mone", man" things wouldn(t be here. ' not onl" bought a new car but also a new massage chair.= 0e sa"s, <'f it weren(t for "our mone", ' wouldn(t be here$=

The sentence >3 not only bou)ht a new car but also a new massa)e chair? is not parallel. (s with other correlative conjunctions (eitherGor, neitherGnor, bothGand:# we should follow each part of the >not onl"Gbut alsoG? construction with an element of the same )rammatical form. The sentence in Auestion should read9 ' bought not only a new car but also a new massage chair. (3n this correct version# both >not only? and >but also? are followed by noun phrases.: J J J (bsolute parallelism is not always necessary. (Eriter=s 4ncyclopedia: 3f the )rammatical functions are parallel# the )rammatical forms need not be. 47ample9 0e spea!s carelessl" and without consideration for other people(s feelings. 6oth >carelessly? and >without consideration for other people=s feelin)s? modify the verb >speaks?. Since their )rammatical functions are similar# the construction is parallel. 24. 5ouble Negati,es
+ salesman enters a general store and sa"s to the proprietor, <'(d li!e to spea! to ;ill.= <;ill doesn(t wor! here an" more,= sa"s the proprietor.

<'n that case, let me spea! with the man who filled the &acanc".= <;ill didn(t lea&e no &acanc".=

>6ill didn=t leave no vacancy? should be >6ill didn=t leave any vacancy.? I >6ill left no vacancy.? J J J 1ouble (or multiple: ne)atives 8 the use of two or more ne)atives in the same construction 8 fall into two cate)ories9 (i: 3f the meanin) is emphatically ne)ative ( <' didn(t lend him no mone"= % <' don(t need no ad&ice from no members=:# the construction is not part of formal 4n)lish. 2owever# the use of double ne)atives to convey emphasis is all ri)ht when the second ne)ative appears in a separate phrase or clause (separated by a comma:9 The" do not see! fortune, no more than the" see! fame ? The" do not see! fortune an" more than the" see! fame. (ii: 3f the meanin) is positive (<She is not unpopular=:# the construction is absolutely correct. 2ere# the double ne)ative conveys a weaker affirmative than would be conveyed by the positive adjective >popular?. Thus# someone who is >not unpopular? does not enjoy as much popularity as another person who is >popular?. 1ouble ne)atives are also unacceptable when the ne)atives combine with adverbs such as barel(# hardl( and scarcel(. /eanin) >almost not? or >almost none at all?# these adverbs severely curtail the effect of the verb. The plant scarcel" needs no water. (3ncorrect: The plant scarcel" needs an" water. ($orrect: ' barel" ha&e no time left. (3ncorrect: ' barel" ha&e an" time left. ($orrect: 2!. Common 3ses of the ;(phen 2yphens have three main uses9 (i: to join words into a compound wordH (ii: to join an affi7 to a base wordH (iii: to break a word at the end of a line. There are three forms of compound words9 (a: closed or solid compounds (written as sin)le words with no hyphenation:# e.). teapot, toothacheH (b: hyphenated compounds# e.). mother-to-be, passer-b"H (c: open compounds (written as separate words:# e.). heart surgeon, seat belt. The proper use of hyphenation can help to clarify the meanin) of a sentence. (i: Put a hyphen between the elements in a compound word. 47ample9 0e bought a new house for his mother-in-law. (ii: 2yphenate compound numbers from twenty&one to ninety&nine. 47ample9 0e too! fort"-fi&e minutes to wash the car. (iii: Put a hyphen after a prefi7 that is followed by a proper noun. 47ample9 0is rudeness is un-.ala"sian.

(iv: Put a hyphen after >self?. 47ample9 0e is self-emplo"ed. (v: Put a hyphen after >e7?. 47ample9 0e met his ex-secretar" at the mall. (vi: Fenerally# use a hyphen when a base word be)ins with the letter that ends the prefi7. 47ample9 The members decided to re-elect him as the chairman of the club. (vii: 2yphenate a suspended compound# in which a word common to several compound adjectives is not repeated. 47amples9 0e bought some fi&e- and eight-"ear bonds. % She dreamed about a three-e"ed and 1armed alien. (viii: 0se a hyphen to prevent a word from bein) confused with another word whose meanin) is different. 47ample9 0e decided to resign as secretar". % She as!ed her boss to re-sign the document. (i7: 2yphenate an adjective K noun which has been added with 8 ed or 8d. 47amples9 She ga&e the tear"-e"ed orphan a to". % The red-e"ed frog as!ed the princess to !iss him because he espied a fl" on her upper lip. (7: 2yphenate a compound consistin) of noun K past participle. 47ample9 The compan" bought a wind-powered generator. (7i: 2yphenate a compound consistin) of adjective K present participle. 47ample9 0er cat has an odd-sounding name. (7ii: 2yphenate a compound consistin) of noun K present participle. 47ample9 't is a time-consuming acti&it". (7iii: 0se a hyphen in a temporary compound. 47ample9 +merican-histor" teacher M The teacher teaches (merican history. +merican histor"-teacher M The history teacher is an (merican. J J J 1on=t hyphenate an adverb endin) in 8l" K participle. 47amples9 The school principal ad&ised the students not to swim in the swiftl" mo&ing canal. I That beautifull" dressed woman o&er there is m" boss. 1on=t hyphenate an adverb endin) in 8l" K adjective. 47ample9 The teacher was extremel" patient with her pupils. 1on=t hyphenate independent adjectives precedin) or followin) a noun. 47ample9 )hen he came bac! from a long and tiring trip to Eenice, he complained that the whole place was flooded.

(2yphenated compounds containin) >and? function as a sin)le idea9 an up-and-coming politicianH it=s not a hard-and-fast rule.: 2%. 7ther Punctuation /ar:s The Cull Stop 0se a full stop at the end of a sentence9 Jac! climbed up the beanstal!. 0se a full stop after a polite reAuest that is put as a Auestion9 )ill "ou please read this script and gi&e me "our comments. 0se a full stop after each initial in a proper name and after most abbreviations9 T. K. Lee Dr. .r. 6h.D. etc. i.e. F.S.+. The full stop is also used as a decimal9 The patient(s temperature is HI.J degrees. This cellphone costs D.JJ9.I9. The headmaster is pleased that HI.J per cent of the students passed the exam. The Puestion /ark 0se a Auestion mark at the end of a direct Auestion9 +re "ou hungr"3 1on=t put a Auestion mark at the end of an indirect Auestion9 ' as!ed her whether she was hungr". Ta) Auestions reAuire Auestion marks9 't(s a beautiful da", isn(t it3 (( ta) Auestion is a device used to turn a statement into a Auestion.: The 47clamation /ark The e7clamation mark is used to e7press emotion 8 an)er# surprise# pleasure# determination. She shouted, <0e won(t get awa" with this$= 0e said, </ou bought a present for me3 That(s wonderful$= <'(m going to win the first pri7e$= 3f an e7clamation mark forms part of an italici@ed title# the e7clamation mark is also italici@ed9 /y favourite book is 1r. Seuss=s /ou(re #nl" #ld #nce$ (1o not add a full stop. The e7clamation mark is sufficient to end the sentence.: 3f the e7clamation mark is not part of the sentence&endin) title# don=t italici@e the e7clamation mark9 Someone has stolen my copy of To Kill a .oc!ingbirdO

The Semi&colon 0se a semi&colon to separate items in a series when the items contain other types of punctuation marks9 The winners were from Telu! 'ntan, 6era!@ Kuching, Sarawa!@ Kulim, Kedah@ and Klang, Selangor. % The new committee comprised ;rown, the chairman@ Areen, the secretar"@ and )hite, the treasurer. 0se a semi&colon to separate closely related independent clauses9 She alwa"s loo!s under the bed before she sleeps@ she(s afraid a monster ma" be hiding under it. The $olon 0se a colon before a list or an e7planation that follows a clause9 ' bought twent" dollars( worth of stationer"C pens, pencils, rulers and erasers. (The word after the colon is not capitali@ed because what follows is not a complete sentence.: )e ha&e onl" two choicesC )e could reduce the si7e of the wor!force or wind up the compan". (The word after the colon is capitali@ed because what follows is a complete sentence.: There were three &olunteersC ;rown, Areen and )hite. (The word after the colon is capitali@ed because it is a proper noun.: The colon is often used before a lon) statement9 To the !ing, the frog saidC <This morning, the princess lost her golden ball when it rolled into the pond, and she promised me that ' could li&e with her if ' retrie&ed it for her.= 0se a colon after a salutation in a business letter9 Dear .r. LeeC 0se a colon to desi)nate a speaker in a play9 J#4C )hat do we do now3 J+24 (frownin):9 ' reall" don(t !now. The (postrophe (postrophes are used for (a: $ontractions9 47amples9 3 am 3=m you are you=re it is it=s who is who=s he will he=ll they would have they would=ve they had they=d where did where=d where would where=d (b: Possessives9 47amples9 the children=s father the child=s toy

;ames=s car (c: Some Plurals9 47amples9 6aul got K+(s in the exam. (3f the plural is clear# the apostrophe can be omitted9 6aul got K+s, L;s and 8,s.: 0e wrote man" songs in the :HM9(s % 0e wrote man" songs in the :HM9s. The 1ash $ommon uses9 (a: To set off an appositive that is a series9 The three culprits 1 +nd", ;en and ,harlie 1 were punished b" the teacher. (b: To connect independent clauses9 .other Duc! thought that she had to spea! to the ugl" duc!ling 1 he was feeling mood" e&er" da". (c: To connect a phrase to the rest of the sentence9 Deading, writing and collecting stamps 1 these are the three hobbies that fill his free time. % 0e has three hobbies that fill his free time 1 reading, writing and collecting stamps. (d: To indicate interruption when another speaker interrupts the first speaker9 <' must spea! to "ou about "our tardiness,= the boss said. </ou ha&e been late for wor! for the past six wee!s, and 1= <;ut ' 5oined the compan" onl" three da"s ago$= interrupted the cler!. (e: To indicate interruption when the ori)inal speaker interrupts himself9 <' 1 = ' stopped, feeling confused. (f: To set off words describin) the speaker in direct speech9 <'(&e waited twent" "ears to ha&e m" own house, and now that ' ha&e reali7ed m" dream= 1 her &oice bro!e with emotion 1 <' don(t ha&e the words to describe how happ" ' am.= Puotation /arks Puotation marks are chiefly used to set off a person=s spoken or written words9 She said to her husband, <' ha&e coo!ed "our fa&ourite food.= <' didn(t see him,= he said, <but ' heard his &oice.= Da&e said to his wife, <Sam said to me this morning, N/our wife is a fantastic coo!.(= <Didn(t he sa" to "ou, NDon(t ' !now "ou3(= as!ed John. (( sin)le Auestion mark is enou)h to end a Auoted Auestion within a Auestion.: Ee use Auotation marks to enclose slan) e7pressions# epithets and nicknames9 The boss dismissed her suggestion as <far out=. )e call him <0e )ho )ins in 4&er" ,ontest=$ 0er siblings ha&e alwa"s called her <2at=. 6rackets 6rackets (also called round brackets: are used to enclose some words from other words in a sentence# or some sentences from other sentences in the same para)raph. The isolated material is only sli)htly connected with the content. The efficient secretar" completed the document in less than two hours *she t"pes o&er eight" words per minute).

There are two wa"s to mnemonicall" remember the six rules *both of them e uall" helpful), and "ou can choose the one "ou li!e. The witch ordered Aretel to coo! panca!es and other foods. *The heartless hag didn(t li!e to put all her eggs in one biscuit$) 0se brackets to enclose a source note followin) a Auotation9 (s 1ickens put it# >!o man is useless in this world who li)htens the burden of it for anyone else? ( #ur .utual Friend:. The 4llipsis The ellipsis is a set of three dots indicatin) an omission. 3t is chiefly used (a: to represent a trailin) off of thou)ht9 <'f ' hadGit(s no use tal!ing about it now, ' guess.= (b: to indicate hesitation9 <)ellG'G'Gcan(t be sure about that.= (c: to shorten a Auotation which you are Auotin) (without chan)in) the meanin) of the Auotation:. The Slash $ommon uses9 (a: in certain abbreviations9 a%c number (account:H John Tan, c%o Jane Tan (care of:H n%a (not applicable# not available:H w%o (without:. (b: in fractions9 O (one half:H 8%K (two thirds:. (c: to indicate >per? in measurements of speed# prices# and so on9 The speed limit is H9 !m%h. (-. kilometres per hour: The pencils cost D.:9%do7en. (5/1. per do@en: The mineral water costs J9 cents%litre. (%. cents per litre: The new secretar" t"pes at I9 w%m. (,. words per minute: (d: to indicate >or?9 Dear Sir%.adam (Sir or /adam: (e: in website addresses. 2&. $cti,e #oice and Passi,e #oice 'oice is that form of a verb which indicates whether the subject of the sentence does somethin) or has somethin) done to it. ( verb is in the active voice when it indicates that the subject is the doer of the action9 The bo" !ic!ed the ball. The verb >kicked? is in the active voice 8 the subject# the boy# performs the action indicated by the verb. ( verb is in the passive voice when it indicates that somethin) is done to the subject9 The ball was !ic!ed b" the bo".

The verb >kicked? is in the passive voice 8 the subject# the ball# receives the action indicated by the verb. The passive voice has a simple structure9 sub5ect > auxiliar" &erb *be) > main &erb *past participle) The main verb is always in the past participle form. Fenerally# the active voice is stron)er than the passive voice. Cor e7ample# >3 love you? is better than >Dou are loved by me?O 2owever# the passive voice is necessary in two instances9 (i: when we want to make the active object more important9 The president was assassinated b" his chief bod"guard. The mo&ie was filmed in Kuala Lumpur. (ii: when we do not know the active subject9 0er purse has been stolen. 2). 5irect Speech and 6ndirect Speech Ee report the spoken words# thou)hts and feelin)s of a person in two ways# namely# direct speech (sometimes called Auoted speech: and indirect speech (sometimes called reported speech:. 3n direct speech# the person=s words appear within Auotation marks# and they should be word for word. 3ndirect speech doesn=t use Auotation marks to enclose the person=s words# which don=t have to be word for word. 3ndirect speech is introduced by verbs such as sa", tell, explain, complain, repl", thin! and hope# in the past tense. Tense $han)e Ehen we chan)e from direct speech to indirect speech# the verb freAuently chan)es9 (i: ( simple present becomes a simple past. 1irect9 She said# >3 am hun)ry.? 3ndirect9 She said that she was hun)ry. (ii: ( present perfect becomes a past perfect. 1irect9 2e said# >3 ha&e painted the wall.? 3ndirect9 2e said that he had painted the wall. (iii: ( present continuous becomes a past continuous. 1irect9 She said# >/y mother is ba!ing a cake.? 3ndirect9 She said that her mother was ba!ing a cake.

(iv: ( simple past becomes a past perfect. 1irect9 >She sang the son) beautifully#? 3 thou)ht. 3ndirect9 3 thou)ht that she had sung the son) beautifully. (v: ( past continuous becomes a past perfect continuous. 1irect9 2e said# >3 was pla"ing badminton last ni)ht.? 3ndirect9 2e said that he had been pla"ing badminton the previous ni)ht. (vi: ( past perfect becomes (!o $han)e:. 1irect9 2e said# >The movie had already ended when she arrived.? 3ndirect9 2e said that the movie had already ended when she arrived. (vii: ( past perfect continuous becomes (!o $han)e:. 1irect9 2e said# >3 had already been watching the movie for fifteen minutes.? 3ndirect9 2e said that he had already been watching the movie for fifteen minutes. Ee can use the present tense in indirect speech if (a: we want to say that somethin) is still true9 1irect9 >/y name is 2elen#? she said. 3ndirect9 She said that her name was 2elen. or She said that her name is 2elen. (b: we are talkin) about a future event9 1irect9 The speaker said# >!e7t week=s talk is on meditation.? 3ndirect9 The speaker said that ne7t week=s talk is on meditation. /odal 'erbs Some modal verbs chan)e from direct speech to indirect speech9 1irect9 She said# >3 will visit Penan) ne7t week.? 3ndirect9 She said that she would visit Penan) ne7t week. 1irect9 2e said# >3 can )et a second job to earn more money.? 3ndirect9 2e said that he could )et a second job to earn more money. 1irect9 2e said# >3 must have a cellphone.? 3ndirect9 2e said that he had to )et a cellphone. 1irect9 She said# >Ehat movie shall we watch<?

3ndirect9 She asked what movie we should watch. 1irect9 2e said# >.a" 3 borrow your umbrella<? 3ndirect9 2e asked if he might borrow my umbrella. There is no chan)e to could, would, should, might and ought to. 1irect9 2e said# >3 would like to open a new account.? 3ndirect9 2e said that he would like to open a new account. Pronouns Ee chan)e the pronouns to keep the meanin) of the sentence9 1irect9 2e said# >' am the best contestant.? 3ndirect9 2e said that he was the best contestant. 1irect9 She said# >' can edit "our article.? 3ndirect9 She said that she could edit m" article. 1irect9 1avid said# >0e slapped her.? 3ndirect9 1avid said that the man slapped her. 1irect9 >They will take a holiday this year#? he said. 3ndirect9 2e said that they would take a holiday that year. Time and Place 1irect Speech now here a)o today tomorrow yesterday last ni)ht 3ndirect Speech then there before that day the ne7t day the day before the ni)ht before

1irect9 2e said# >3 will meet her here this evenin).? 3ndirect9 2e said that he would meet her there that evenin). 3f the speech is reported durin) the same period or at the same place# the words of time and place do not chan)e9 1irect9 2e says# >3 will meet her here this evenin).? 3ndirect9 2e says that he will meet her here this evenin). Puestions

3n indirect speech# Auestions become statements9 1irect9 >2ave you eaten<? 3ndirect9 2e asked me whether 3 had eaten. 1irect9 >1o you want to dance with me<? 3ndirect9 She asked me whether 3 wanted to dance with her. $ommands and 5eAuests To chan)e from direct speech to indirect speech# use to%not to K &erb (infinitive without >to?:# 1irect9 2e said to her# >Please wait here for a short while.? 3ndirect9 2e reAuested her to wait there for a short while. 1irect9 >Fet enou)h sleep#? the doctor said to her. 3ndirect9 The doctor advised her to )et enou)h sleep. 1irect9 The boss shouted at me# >Fet out of the roomO? 3ndirect9 The boss ordered me to )et out of the room. 1irect9 >1on=t moveO? 3ndirect9 The robber ordered us not to move. 1irect9 2e said# >$lose the door.? 3ndirect9 2e told me to close the door. 1irect9 She said# >1on=t be late.? 3ndirect9 She asked me not to be late. 0se of NThat= NThat= is often used in indirect speech. 2owever# the word is optional9 She told me that she had passed the test. She told me she had passed the test. 2*. '(pes of Sentences 1. ( S3/PB4 S4!T4!$4 is a sin)le independent clause containin) a subject (or a subject )roup: and a verb (or a verb )roup:. 47ample9 + crow perched in a tree to eat a stolen morsel of meat. 2. ( $O/PO0!1 S4!T4!$4 contains two (or more: simple sentences that are linked by a coordinatin) conjunction or a semi&colon. 47ample9 The delicious food fell from the crow(s bea!, and the fox gobbled it up at once. % The delicious food fell from the crow(s bea!@ the fox gobbled it up at once.

. ( $O/PB4L S4!T4!$4 contains an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. 47ample9 The crow was embarrassed when she reali7ed that the fox had tric!ed her. ". ( $O/PO0!1&$O/PB4L S4!T4!$4 contains two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. 47ample9 +s the crow flew awa" from the tree, the fox bro!e into a little foxtrot, and she could hear the cunning &ulpine animal shout, <+ crushing blow to a blushing crow$= 3+. /iscellaneous altogether# all together (lto)ether means (i: in total (The teacher as!s the pupil, <'f ' add the three eggs o&er there to the two eggs here, how man" eggs will ' ha&e altogether3= :H (ii: completely (' wasn(t altogether surprised that she won the singing contest. :H (iii: on the whole ()e encountered a few problems, but altogether the e&ent was a success.: (ll to)ether means (i: all in one place (The children are all together in the garden.:H (ii: all at once (The three naught" pupils wal!ed into the principal(s office all together.: an( more# an(more (ny more can be (i: an adverb (' don(t lo&e "ou an" more:H (ii: an adverb plus adjective (' don(t want an" more soup.: (iii: an adjective plus noun (' don(t want an" more.: (iv: an adverb modifyin) another adverb (' couldn(t wor! an" more uic!l".:. +n"more (adverb: is the variant of >any more?. (' don(t lo&e "ou an"more.: 3t can=t be used as an adjective or as an adverb modifyin) an adjective or another adverb. bet-een# among 6etween is used with two people or objects9 0e di&ided his mone" between his two children. (mon) is used with three or more people or objects9 0e di&ided his mone" among his three children. 2owever# >between? is used with three or more people or objects if the units in the )roup are considered individually# their relationship bein) one&to&one. 3f the units in the )roup are considered collectively# >amon)? is used. ;etween "ou, me and the lamp post, ' thin! the boss is a s!inflint. The coo! had batter between his fingers. The ri&alr" between the three teams was intense. She hid the photo among some documents in the drawer. The" found the blac! box among the wrec!age. bring# ta:e (ccordin) to Bon)man 1ictionary of $ontemporary 4n)lish# brin) su))ests movement of somethin) towards the speaker or the place where the speaker is# while take su))ests movement of somethin) to another place. 6lease bring me the boo! when "ou next &isit me.

' ha&e filled the form, which ' will ta!e with me when ' go to the office. can# ma( $an is used to e7press ability. $an and may are used to e7press >permission?. ' can pla" chess now. /ou can borrow m" mower tomorrow. .a" ' borrow "our lighter3 >$ould? (the past tense of >can?: is a less definite form of >can? 8 the former means >would be able to?9 This pro5ect could create man" new 5obs. >$ould? is also used to make polite reAuests9 ,ould "ou please close the door3 compare -ith# compare to $ompare with is used to compare two similar thin)s# notin) resemblances or differences9 'f we compare ,hinese cuisine with 'ndian cuisine, we find man" differences. % )hat he did to me is nothing compared with what he did to himself. $ompare to is used to compare two unlike thin)s# likenin) one to the other9 Shall ' compare thee to a summer(s da"3 (Shakespeare: % 0e compared his fiancPe to a red rose. comprise# include $omprise means >consist of?9 The boo! comprises twent" chapters. 3nclude basically means >contain in addition to other parts?9 The price includes sales tax. 2owever# >include? is a tricky word in that it can also be used to mean >consist of?9 The team included twent" pla"ers, three officials, one doctor and one ph"siotherapist. (M There are no other people in the team.: 6arbara Eallraff# author of )ord ,ourt (2arcourt 3nc.# Clorida:# says that include >can be le)itimately used in a way that leaves what is or isn=t included a bit va)ue.? continual# continuous $ontinual means >very freAuentH always happenin)H occurrin) at short intervals?9 0e is sic! of her continual nagging. $ontinuous means >uninterruptedH unbroken?9 The brain needs a continuous suppl" of ox"gen. e,er( da(# e,er(da( 4very day (adverb phrase: means >without missin) a day?9 ' wal! three !ilometres e&er" da". 4veryday (adjective: means >dailyH commonplace?9 The husband said to his wife, </our nagging is becoming an e&er"da" happening.= e,er(one# e,er( one 4veryone is a pronoun meanin) >every person?H it can only be used of people and is never followed by >of?9 4&er"one is in&ited to the part". 4very one is a pronoun phrase meanin) >each one? (person or thin):# and is often followed by >of?9 4&er" one of the tables has been cleaned.

farther# further Carther is used for distance and nothin) else9 The conductor as!ed the passengers to mo&e farther to the bac! of the bus. Curther is used for addition (Auantity or time: and distance9 ' was relie&ed that he did not extend his sta" further. % 0e is too tired to wal! an" further. fe-er# less Cewer is used with nouns that can be counted9 The child should eat fewer sweets. Bess is used with nouns that cannot be counted (mass nouns:9 She has less patience than he. 2owever# less is used to describe time# money and distance9 The concert lasted less than two hours. This cellphone costs less than fi&e hundred dollars. 0is house is less than two !ilometres from hers. hanged# hung 2an)ed (the past tense and past participle of the re)ular verb hang: is used when we talk of the form of e7ecution (or suicide: called han)in). 2un) (the past tense and past participle of the irre)ular verb hang: is used in all other conte7ts9 0e hung the picture on the wall. % She hung her head in shame. into# in to 3nto is a preposition. Cor e7ample# in the sentence >She walked into the room?# >into? is part of the prepositional phrase >into the room?# which functions adverbially to modify the verb >walked?. 3n to is an adverb K preposition. Cor e7ample# in the sentence >She went in to dinner?# the adverb >in? modifies the verb >went?# and >to? is a preposition with the object >dinner?. Ehen >into? is misused for >in to?# the result can be hilarious9 The pupil turned her essa" in to the teacher. ($orrect: The pupil turned her essa" into the teacher. (3ncorrect 8 the pupil has suddenly acAuired ma)ical powersO: it# its# it4s 3t is a personal pronoun (used as subject and object:9 't is on the table. % The cat ate it. 3t is also the impersonal pronoun 8 without an antecedent9 't is raining. 3ts is the possessive form of the pronoun it9 The cat lic!ed its paw. 3t=s is the contraction of >it is? and >it has?9 't(s raining. % 't(s been raining non-stop for three da"s. la(# lie The verb to lay (past tense9 laidH past participle9 laidH present participle9 la"ing: is a transitive verb which means >to place or arran)e somethin)# especially hori@ontally?. 3t takes a direct object9 The hen laid two eggs "esterda". % She laid her coat o&er the chair. The verb to lie (past tense9 la"H past participle9 lainH present participle9 l"ing: is an intransitive verb which means >to recline?. 3t does not take an object# and is usually

followed by the adverb down or a prepositional phrase9 0e is l"ing down for a while. % She la" on the floor reading a maga7ine. % The guide informed us that the cottage la" in a beautiful glade. The confusion between the two words arises because the past tense of lie is la"# which is the present tense of the other verb. (The verb to lie (past tense9 liedH past participle9 liedH present participle9 l"ing: means >not to tell the truth?9 ' was angr" that she lied to me.: onto# on to Onto is the variant of the compound preposition on to9 0e 5umped onto the horse. % 6our the coconut mil! on to the batter. Ehen on to consists of adverb K preposition# it is not spelt as onto9 ;efore we go on to the next chapter, do "ou ha&e an" uestions3 (2ere# the adverb on modifies the verb go# and the preposition to has the noun phrase the next chapter as its object.: tr( and# tr( to
)hen six-"ear-old ;ill" wal!ed into the house after pla"ing with his friends in the garden, his mother said to him, <)h" do "ou li!e to get "ourself dirt"3= The bo" said, <.um, tr" and remember that '(m much closer to the ground than "ou are.=

(lthou)h try and is rela7ed and acceptable# try to is precise. (Strunk and Ehite: 0se try to when you are writin) formal prose. -hether# if Ehether is used (a: to present two alternatives (neither of which is a condition:9 Let the librarian !now whether "ou need the boo!. (The two alternatives are >need the book? and >does not need the book?. 3n either case# the librarian has to be informed.: $ompare9 Let the librarian !now if "ou need the boo!. (This is a conditional sentence. The librarian is only to be informed if you need the book.: (b: after prepositions9 't depends on whether she(s free or not. (The word >on? here is a preposition.: (c: before to&infinitives9 ' ha&e been thin!ing whether to learn .andarin this "ear. (>To learn? is an infinitive.: (d: when it starts a clause that is the sentence subject or complement9 )hether "ou succeed or fail is none of m" business. (>Ehether you succeed or fail? is the subject of the sentence.: ' don(t care whether "ou succeed or fail. (>Ehether you succeed or fail? is the complement of the verb >to care?.: 3f is used to introduce a condition in a conditional sentence. 3n a conditional sentence# a condition has to be satisfied before somethin) happens. /our father will punish "ou if "ou fail the exam. 'f "ou lea&e me, '(ll be heartbro!en. Ehether and 3f (interchan)eable:

Ehether and if can be used interchan)eably (a: when reportin) yesIno Auestions9 ' am not sure whether%if ' will be going to the concert. .rs. Lim wondered whether%if she had turned off the tap. (b: in whetherIifSorSconstructions9 ' ha&e to find out whether%if the stor" is true or false. ' would li!e to find out whether%if he is guilt" or innocent. (3n formal writin)# when whether and if are interchan)eable# use whether.: Ehether or not CreAuently# the or not is unnecessary. 2owever# when whether or not means >re)ardless of whether?# the or not part is necessary9 The football match will be pla"ed whether it rains or not. ((dapted from Frammar /onster: -hile# a-hile Ehile (noun: means >a (short: period of time?9 6lease wait for a while. (while (adverb: means >for a short time?. This word is never preceded by the preposition for9 ,ome inside and tal! with me awhile. -ill# shall 0se will to e7press the future tense9 )e will paint the room next wee!. 0se shall in Auestions# su))estions or offers with >3? and >we?. <Shall we as! him for his opinion3= (Puestion: <Shall we see the mo&ie tonight3= (Su))estion: <Shall ' ma!e "ou a sandwich3= (Offer: (>Should? is the past form of both >shall? and >should?. >Eould you? is used to e7press a polite reAuest9 )ould "ou please lend me "our pen3: J J J Present Tense !arrative The use of the present tense to tell a story is to maintain suspense. 2owever# some facts and actions in the story belon) in the past# and the relevant verbs should therefore be in the past tense. 47ample9 Sam wa!es up with a massi&e hango&er after attending his compan"(s ,hristmas part". For the life of him, he can(t remember how he got home from the part". J J J 2. 5ules for Eriters 1. (bout those sentence fra)ments. 2. (lways pick on the correct idiom.

. (nd avoid all asinine alliteration. ". (nd don=t start a sentence with a conjunction. %. (void clichTs like the pla)ue. *. 6etween you and 3# case is important. +. $orrect spellin) is esential. ,. 1o not put statements in the ne)ative form. -. 1on=t overuse e7clamation marksOO 1.. 1on=t use commas# which aren=t necessary. 11. 1on=t use no double ne)atives. 12. 3ts important to use apostrophe=s correctly. 1 . !ever use a preposition to end a sentence with. 1". Proofread carefully to see if you words out. 1%. 5emember to never split an infinitive. 1*. Take the bull by the hand and avoid mi7in) metaphors. 1+. The adverb always follows the verb. 1,. The passive voice should never be used. 1-. 'erbs has to a)ree with their subjects. 2.. Eritin) carefully# dan)lin) participles must be avoided. (6y Eilliam Safire# drawn from se&eral sources: J J J 'i)orous writin) is concise. ( sentence should contain no unnecessary words# a para)raph no unnecessary sentences# for the same reason that a drawin) should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts. This reAuires not that the writer make all his sentences short# or that he avoid all detail and treat his subjects only in outline# but that every word tell. 8 Eilliam Strunk ;r. J J J J J J J J J J J J J J J
The writer is the author of 3diomania# which is a&ailable at boo!shops. 4mail9 ottheamUyahoo.com

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