BASIC CONSTRUCTION SKILLS

PART I SUBSTRUCTURE 1. 2. !. Site Works and Setting out Excavations and Tim ering "oundations

PART II SUPERSTRUCTURE #. '. *. +. Stone$ork% Brick$ork% and B&ock$ork. ()enings in Wa&&s. "&ooring. Roo,ing.

PART III "I-IS.ES A-/ "ITTI-0S 1. 2. /oors and Windo$s. "inis3es 4 "&oor% Wa&& and Cei&ing.

15. Painting and /ecorating. REFERENCE: 1. Construction Tec3no&og6 4 7o&. 1 4 # 8B6 R. C3ud&e6% 122*9 2. Rura& Construction 4 7o&. 1:#.

PART I

SUPERSTRUCTURE

1. Site Works and Setting o t

A ui&der is )rovided $it3 a site &a6:out )&an and t3e necessar6 dra$ings. T3e task o, )re)aring ,or and setting out t3e ui&ding can e grou)ed under t3ree 3eadings; 1. 2. !. C&earing t3e site Setting out t3e ui&ding. Esta &is3ing a datum &eve&.

C&earing a site ma6 invo&ve t3e demo&ition o, existing ui&dings% t3e gru ing out o,
us3es and trees and t3e remova& o, soi& to reduced &eve&s.

Setting out t3e site invo&ves t3e ,o&&o$ing ste)s.

Esta &is3 a ase &ine. <arked and c3ecked t3e main &ines o, a ui&ding can e set out% eac3 corner eing marked $it3 a stout )eg. Pro,i&e oards are set u) c&ear o, t3e ,oundation trenc3 )ositions to &ocate t3e trenc3% ,oundations and $a&&s. T3e6 are &ocated at a&& trenc3 and $a&& intersections.

A&& &eve&s in a ui&ding are taken ,rom a ,ixed )oint ca&&ed a =datum>. Benc3 marks are ,ound cut or &et into 3e sides o, $a&&s and ui&dings. A site datum or tem)orar6 enc3:mark cou&d e a )ost set in concrete or a concrete
)&int3 set u) on a site.

S&o)ing sites Be,ore an6 ui&ding $ork can e commenced t3e area covered 6 t3e ui&ding must e
&eve&ed 8reducing &eve&s9.

T3e t3ree met3ods o, &eve&ing are 8a9 cut and ,i&& 8 9 cut 8c9 ,i&&.

!. E"#a$ations and Ti%&ering

Trenc3 u) to t3e re?uired de)t3 and $idt3 is needed ,or ,oundation. "or sma&& $orks 6 3and and ,or &arge $orks mec3anica& trenc3 digger is re?uired. Some excavation $i&& need su))ort 8tim ering% )&anking and strutting9 to; )rotect t3e o)eratives $3i&e $orking in t3e excavation. kee) t3e excavation o)en 6 acting as a retaining $a&& to t3e sides o, t3e trenc3. T3e t6)e and amount o, tim ering re?uired $i&& de)end u)on weather conditions, depth, type of soil and duration of the operations.

'. Fo ndations
A ,oundation is t3e ase on $3ic3 a ui&ding rests and its )ur)ose is sa,e&6 trans,er t3e &oad o, a ui&ding to a suita &e su soi&. Ter%ino(og) Back,i&& ; materia&s excavated ,rom site and i, suita &e used to ,i&& in around t3e $a&&s and ,oundations. Bearing ca)acit6 ; sa,e &oad )er unit area $3ic3 t3e ground can carr6. Bearing )ressure ; t3e )ressure )roduced on t3e ground 6 t3e &oads. <ade ground ; re,use% excavated rock or soi& de)osited ,or t3e )ur)ose o, ,i&&ing in a de)ression or ,or raising t3e site a ove its natura& &eve&. Sett&ement ; ground movement $3ic3 ma6 e caused 6 ;

a9 /e,ormation o, t3e soi& due to im)osed &oads. 9 7o&ume c3anges o, t3e soi& as a resu&t o, seasona& conditions. c9 <ass movement o, t3e ground in unsta &e areas. T3e nature and earing ca)acit6 o, t3e su soi& can e determined 6; 1. Tria& 3o&es and su se?uent investigation. 2. Bore 3o&es and core ana&6sis. !. @oca& kno$&edge. C&a6 is t3e most di,,icu&t o, a&& su soi&s $it3 $3ic3 to dea&.

T)*es o+ Fo ndations
.aving ascertained 3e nature and earing ca)acit6 o, t3e su soi& t3e $idt3 o, t3e ,oundation can e determined 6 eit3er; 1. Tria& 3o&es and su se?uent investigation. 2.
Tota& &oad o, ui&ding )er meter = <inimum $idt3 . Bearing ca)acit6 o, su soi&

"oundations are usua&&6 made o, eit3er mass or rein,orced concrete and can e considered under t$o 3eadings; S,a((o- +o ndations ; t3ose $3ic3 trans,er t3e &oads to su soi& at a )oint near to t3e ground ,&oor o, t3e ui&ding suc3 as stri)s and ra,ts. .ee* +o ndations ; t3ose $3ic3 trans,er t3e &oads to a su soi& some distance e&o$ t3e ground ,&oor o, t3e ui&ding suc3 as a )i&e. Ra,t ,oundations are o,ten used on )oor soi&s ,or &ig3t&6 &oaded ui&dings and are considered ca)a &e o, accommodating sma&& sett&ements o, t3e soi&.

PART II

SUPERSTRUCTURE

/.

Stone-ork0 Bri#k-ork and B(o#k-ork

Stone-ork
Stones used in ui&ding can e divided into t3ree c&asses as ,o&&o$s ;

Igneous stones.
(riginated ,rom vo&canic action eing ,ormed 6 t3e cr6sta&&iAation o, mo&ten rock matter derived ,rom dee) in t3e eart3s crust. T6)ica& exam)&e is granite.

Sedimentar6 stones.
@arge&6 com)osed o, materia& derived ,rom t3e reakdo$n and erosion o, existing rocks de)osited in &a6ers under t3e $aters. T6)ica& exam)&es are sandstone and &imestone.

<etamor)3ic stones.
C3anged ,rom igneous or sedimentar6 rocks 6 geo&ogica& )rocesses suc3 as )ressure% movement% 3eat and c3emica& reaction due to t3e in,i&tration o, ,&uids. T6)ica& exam)&es inc&ude mar &e and s&ates.

Stones are o tained ,rom ?uarries 6 &asting and $edging t3e &ocks a$a6 ,rom t3e so&id
mass. T3e6 are )art&6 $orked in t3e ?uarr6 and t3en sent to store 6ards $3ere t3e6 can e sa$n% cut mo&ded% dressed and )o&is3ed to t3e customer>s re?uirements.

Toda6% natura& stones are sometimes used ,or ,acing )restige ui&dings% constructing oundar6
or simi&ar $a&&s in t3ose areas $3ere stones occur.

Stone $a&&ing com)osed o, care,u&&6 $orked stones% regu&ar&6 coursed % onded and set $it3 t3in and rusticated Boints and is used ,or t3e maBorit6 o, 3ig3 c&ass ,acing $ork in stone is kno$n as as3&ar $a&&ing. Wa&& consisting o, stones $3ic3 are &e,t in a roug3 or uneven state t3us )resenting a natura& a))earance to t3e ,ace o, t3e $a&& is ca&&ed ru &e $a&&ing.

Bri#k-ork
Brick$ork is used )rimari&6 in t3e construction o, $a&&s 6 t3e edding and Bointing o, ricks into esta &is3ed onding arrangements. T3e maBorit6 o, t3e ricks used toda6 are t3ose made ,rom c&a6 or s3a&e. Technical Terms (Fig. 4.2) 1eader; A &ock is kno$n as a 3eader $3en it is )&aced in a $a&& so t3at its sma&&est ,ace is ex)osed. Bed; T3e under:sur,ace o, a &ock% or t3e mortar on $3ic3 t3e &ock is &aid. Stret#,er; I, t3e iggest ,ace o, a &ock is ex)osed% t3e &ock is ca&&ed a stretc3er. T3is is t3e $a6 most &ocks are &aid. Co rse; T3is is t3e term a))&ied to eac3 &a6er or ro$ o, &ocks% $it3 t3e ed Boint inc&uded. Bed 2oint; T3is is t3e 3oriAonta& mortar Boint et$een t$o courses. Cross 2oint; T3e vertica& Boints et$een t3e &ocks. 3 oin; T3e ?uoin is t3e outside corner o, a $a&& or t3e externa& ang&e on t3e ,ace side o, t3e $a&&. Bonding of walls T3e )ractice o, &ock &a6ing re?uires a com)&ete understanding o, t3e correct arrangement o, t3e &ocks ,orming a $a&&. T3is correct arrangement o, &ocks% regard&ess o, t3e met3od% is kno$n as onding. T3e &ocks are )&aced so t3at t3e6 over&a) eac3 ot3er and care must e taken to ensure

'

t3at as ,ar as )ossi &e no vertica& Boint is immediate&6 a ove anot3er vertica& Boint in t3e course e&o$. I, a $a&& is ui&t u) 6 sim)&6 )&acing &ocks direct&6 a ove eac3 ot3er% $e sa6 t3e $a&& is ui&t $it3out ond. I, a 3eav6 &oad is )ut on to) o, t3is $a&& 8"ig. #.! : ,ig. #9 t3e co&umn o, &ocks immediate&6 under t3e &oad tends to give $a6 and sink do$n. In order to make t3e $a&& stronger in itse&, and a &e to distri ute &oads )ro)er&6% t3e ui&der a))&ies t3e so:ca&&ed 3a&,: &ock 8Stretc3er or .eader% "ig. #.# : ,ig. 19 ond. A )ro)er&6 onded $a&& $3ic3 receives a 3eav6 &oad $i&& distri ute t3e )ressure over a &arge num er o, &ocks and t3ere,ore over a muc3 greater area 8"ig. #.! : ,ig. '9. T3ere are man6 t6)es o, onds in use% t3e t$o most common eing t3e English Bond 8"ig. #.# 4 ,ig. 29 and t3e Flemish Bond 8"ig. #.# 4 ,ig. !9% ot3 o, $3ic3 are used $it3 ricks. Bricks are sma&&er &ocks $it3 a))roximate dimensions o, 2# cm x 11.' cm x + cm. Eng(is, Bond; T3is ond consists o, a&ternate courses o, 3eaders and stretc3ers. T3e center o, an6 stretc3er is in &ine $it3 t3e center o, t3e 3eader in t3e course a ove and e&o$. F(e%is, Bond; T3is ond consists o, a&ternate 3eaders and stretc3ers in t3e same course. Again% t3e center o, an6 stretc3er is in &ine $it3 t3e center o, t3e 3eader in t3e course a ove and e&o$.

4. F(ooring
T3e construction o, a so&id ground ,&oor can e considered under t3ree 3eadings 8"ig. '.19; 8i9 .ard core 8ii9 B&inding 8iii9 Concrete ed or s&a

T3e )ur)ose o, 3ardcore is to ,i&& in an6 sma&& )ockets $3ic3 3ave ,ormed during over site excavations% to )rovide a ,irm ase on $3ic3 to )&ace a concrete ed and to 3e&) s)read an6 )oint &oads over a greater area. It a&so acts against ca)i&&ar6 action o, moisture $it3in t3e soi&.

.ardcore is usua&&6 &aid in 155 4 1'5mm &a6ers to t3e re?uired de)t3 and it is im)ortant t3at eac3 &a6er is $e&& com)acted. B&inding is used to even o,, t3e sur,ace o, 3ardcore i, a dam):)roo, mem rane is to e )&aced under t3e concrete ed or i, a rein,orced concrete ed is s)eci,ied. "irst&6% it $i&& )revent t3e dam):)roo, mem rane ,rom eing )unctured 6 t3e 3ardcore and% second&6% it $i&& )rovide a tue sur,ace ,rom $3ic3 t3e rein,orcement can e )ositioned. B&inding genera&&6 consists o, a &a6er o, ,ine as3 or sand 2' 4 '5mm t3ick or a '5 4 +'mm &a6er o, $eak concrete 81;12 mix usua&&6 suita &e9 i, a true sur,ace ,or rein,orced concrete is re?uired. T3icknesses genera&&6 s)eci,ied ,or concrete ed are; 8i9 Unrein,orced or )&ain in situ concrete% 155 : 1'5mm t3ick. 8ii9 Rein,orced concrete% 1'5mm minimum. Suita &e concrete mixes are; 8a9 P&ain in situ concrete% 1 ; ! ; * 8 9 Rein,orced concrete% 1 ; 2 ; ! 4 # T3e ground ,&oor is so constructed as to )revent t3e )assage o, moisture ,rom t3e ground to t3e u))er sur,ace o, t3e ,&oor. T3e re?uirements o, t3is regu&ation can on&6 e )ro)er&6 satis,ied 6 t3e )rovision o, a suita &e arrier in t3e ,orm o, a dam) )roo, mem rane $it3in t3e ,&oor 8"ig. '.19. T3e mem rane s3ou&d e turned u) at t3e edges to meet and &end $it3 t3e dam):)roo, course in t3e $a&&s to )revent an6 )enetration o, moisture 6 ca)i&&ar6 action at edges o, t3e ed. Suita &e materia&s ,or dam):)roo, mem ranes are; 8i9 Water)roo, ui&ding )a)ers. 8ii9 Po&6t3ene s3eet 1555 gauge s3eet $it3 sea& Boints. 8iii9 .ot )oured itumen 4 s3ou&d e at &east !mm t3ick. er emu&sions 4 s3ou&d e a))&ied in not &ess t3an t3ree coats. 8iv9 Co&d a))&ied itumenC ru

8v9 As)3a&t 4 cou&d e dua& )ur)ose ,inis3 and dam):)roo, mem rane. T3e )osition o, a dam):)roo, mem rane can e a ove or e&o$ t3e concrete ed. A mem rane )&aced a ove t3e ed is t3e easiest met3od ,rom a )ractica& as)ect and is t3ere,ore genera&&6

used. A mem rane )&aced e&o$ t3e ed 3as t$o advantages; ,irst&6% it $i&& kee) t3e concrete ed dr6 and in so doing $i&& make t3e ed a etter t3erma& insu&ator and% second&6% during construction it $i&& act as a se)arating &a6er )reventing &eakage o, t3e cement matrix into t3e 3ardcore &a6er $3ic3 cou&d resu&t in a $eak concrete mix.

5. Roo+ing
A roo, can e de,ined as t3e u))er covering o, a ui&ding and in t3is )osition it is ,u&&6 ex)osed to t3e rain% sno$% $ind% sun and genera& atmos)3ere% t3ere,ore t3e covering to an6 roo, structure must 3ave good dura i&it6 to meet t3eses conditions. (t3er ,actors to taken into account are $eig3t% maintenance and cost. Roo,s are su Bected to $ind )ressures% ot3 )ositive and negative% t3e &atter causing u)&i,t and suction $3ic3 can e overcome 6 ,irm&6 anc3oring &ig3t$eig3t coverings to t3e structure or 6 re&6ing u)on t3e dead$eig3t o, t3e covering materia&. T3e roo,s ma6 e c&assi,ied as ,o&&o$s; 8i9 Pitc3ed or s&o)ing roo,s. 8ii9 "&at roo,s. 8iii9 S3e&& roo,s. 8iv9 /omes.

Technical Terms Used

S*an; It is c&ear distance et$een t3e su))orts o, eams% roo,s truss% or arc3. Rise; It is t3e vertica& distance et$een t3e to) o, t3e ridge and t3e $a&& )&ate. Pit#,; It is t3e inc&ination o, sides o, a roo, to t3e 3oriAonta& and is ex)ressed eit3er in degrees or as ratio o, rise to s)an. Ridge; It is an a)ex &ine o, a s&o)ing roo,. 6a((e); It is a de)ression or gutter ,ormed 6 t3e intersection o, to s&o)es in a )itc3ed roo,. 1

E$es; It is t3e &o$er edge o, t3e inc&ined roo, sur,ace. P r(ins; T3ese are 3oriAonta& mem ers )&aced over )rinci)a& ra,ters to su))ort common ra,ters. Co%%on ra+ters; T3ese are inc&ined mem ers s)aced !55 to #'5mm a)art &aid ,rom t3e ridge to t3e eves over t3e )ur&ins. C(eates; T3e6 are sma&& sections o, stee& or tim er% ,ixed to t3e ra,ters o, t3e truss to su))ort )ur&ins. Tr ss; It is a ,rame$ork o, triang&es and used to carr6 t3e &oad o, roo, covering materia&s and ot3er mem ers o, t3e roo,. T3e most common&6 used roo,s are )ent roo,s and ga &ed roo,s 8"ig. '.#9

7.1 Quantity Survey

Dimension Paper Eac3 dimension s3eet is s)&it into t$o identica&&6 ru&ed )arts% eac3 consisting o, ,our co&umns. T3e )ur)ose o, eac3 co&umn $i&& no$ e indicated.

Co( %n 1 is ca&&ed t3e =timesing co&umn> in $3ic3 mu&ti)&6ing ,igures are entered $3en t3ere is more t3an one o, t3e )articu&ar item eing measured. Co( %n ! is ca&&ed t3e =dimension co&umn> in $3ic3 t3e actua& dimensions% as sca&ed or aken direct ,rom t3e dra$ings% are entered. T3ere ma6 e one% t$o or t3ree &ines o, dimensions in an item de)ending on $3et3er it is &inear% s?uare or cu ic. Co( %n ' is ca&&ed t3e =s?uaring co&umn> in $3ic3 t3e &engt3% area or vo&ume o tained 6 mu&ti)&6ing toget3er t3e ,igures in co&umns 1 and 2 is recorded% read6 to trans,er to t3e a stract or i&&. Co( %n / is ca&&ed t3e =descri)tion co&umn> in $3ic3 t3e $ritten descri)tion o, eac3 item is entered. T3e rig3t 3and side o, t3is $ider co&umn is ,re?uent&6 used to accommodate )re&iminar6 ca&cu&ations% sometimes termed =sidecasts>% and ot3er asic in,ormation needed in ui&ding u) t3e dimensions% $3ic3 is re,erred to as =$aste>. @avationa& notes are more o,ten inserted on t3e &e,t 3and side o, t3e descri)tion co&umn inside a racket.

15

In t3e $orked exam)&e t3at ,o&&o$s t3e reader $i&& notice t3at one set o, co&umns on&6 is used on eac3 dimension s3eet% $it3 t3e remainder used ,or ex)&anator6 notes% ut in )ractice ot3 sets o, co&umns $i&& e used ,or taking o,,. /imensions )a)er is a&most universa&&6 o, internationa& )a)er siAe A# 8215mm x 22+mm9.

11

7.1 Example of Quantity Calculations of Foundation Work

12

1!

1#

1'

1*

1+

11

12

25

21

22

2!

ii

Fig. !.1 Tren#, e"#a$ations

Fig. !.! T)*i#a( ti%&ering in ,ard soi(s

iii

Fig. !.' T)*i#a( ti%&ering in +ir% soi(s

Fig. !.4 T)*i#a( ti%&ering in (oose -et soi(s

Fig. !./ T)*i#a( ti%&ering in dr) (oose soi(s

Fig. !.5 Ad2 st%ent %eta( str ts 7 BS /89/

iv

Fig. '.1 Stri* Fo ndations and B i(ding Reg (ations

Fig. '.' T)*i#a( ra+t +o ndations Fig. '.! A(ternati$e +o ndations +or #(a) soi(s

vi

Fig. /.1

vii

Fig. /.!

viii

Fig. /.'

ix

Fig. /./

Fig. /.4

xi

Fig. 4.1 T)*i#a( so(id +(oor detai(s at e"terna( -a((s

xii

Fig. 4.! T)*i#a( so(id +(oor detai(s at interna( -a((s

xiii

8a9

8 9 Fig. 4.' :ain E(e%ents o+ a roo+ ; <a= P(an $ie- <&= Side $ie-

xiv

<a=

<&= Fig. 4./ Co%%on roo+s ; <a= Pent roo+ <&= >a&(e roo+

xv