Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii Fluid Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Fluid Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Absolute Zero Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Atmospheric Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Gauge, Vacuum, and Absolute Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Typical Pressures in SONGS Plant Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Density () and Specific Volume () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Hydrostatic Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Saturation Temperature and Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Determining TSAT/PSAT From Steam Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Subcooled Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Saturated Liquid Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Density of Subcooled and Saturated Liquid Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Use of Steam Tables to Determine Density of Saturated Liquid Water . . . . . . . 25 Use of Steam Tables to Determine Density of Subcooled Liquid Water . . . . . . 26 Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Working Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Closed System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Open System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 28 28 28
0FD121
Fluid Energy Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heat added, Qin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heat removed, Qout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Work done on the fluid, Won . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Work done by the fluid, Wby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Energies Possessed By the Flowing Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kinetic energy, KE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Gravitational) potential energy, PE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internal energy, U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flow energy, FE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The General Energy Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 The Basic Bernoulli Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Effect of Friction in a Fluid Flow System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Fluid Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Laminar and Turbulent Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Buoyant Force and Drag Force on Reactor Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Fluid Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Water Hammer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Causes/Methods of Prevention of Water Hammer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Exercise Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
0FD121
ii
Given a gauge pressure reading or a vacuum pressure reading, convert the reading to an absolute pressure reading. Define fluid density and fluid specific volume, and state the relationship between them. Given a table of conversion factors, perform conversions between pressures expressed in the following pressure units: C C C Pounds per square inch (psi) Inches of mercury (in. Hg.) Feet of water (ft. H20)
4.
State how the density and the specific volume of liquid water change as C C the temperature of the water changes the pressure of the water changes
5.
State and apply the mathematical formulas for: C C Volumetric Flow Rate Mass Flow Rate
6. 7. 8. 9.
Apply the General Energy Equation to determine the effect of system configuration changes on system pressure. Describe the concept of fluid viscosity. Compare/contrast laminar flow and turbulent flow characteristics. Describe the buoyant force exerted by a fluid on an object partially or totally submersed in that fluid.
0FD121
iii
Identify characteristics of water hammer, including: its definition fluid flow conditions that can trigger a water hammer event potential consequences of a water hammer event methods that will minimize the possibility of a water hammer event occurring
0FD121
iv
Fluid Characteristics
Fluid Mechanics is the area of physics which mathematically describes the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics) and in motion (fluid dynamics). Fluid: Any substance that flows; a substance which will always take on the shape of its container. A fluid may be classified as either a liquid or gas/vapor (the terms gas and vapor will be used interchangeably). Water can exist in the solid, liquid, or gas/vapor state. Usually, when the term water is used, it means water in the liquid state. Fluid properties will now be defined.
Fluid Pressure
Fluid Pressure: the ratio of the total force exerted by a fluid to the total area to which the force is applied; it is force per unit area. The equation for pressure is given below: Pressure ' Force Area F A
P '
0FD121
In the English system of measurement, pressure is normally expressed in units of pounds force per square inch (lbf/in2), abbreviated psi. For static fluids (i.e., fluids at rest) the pressure on or by any particle of the fluid is the same in all directions. Figure 1 demonstrates for a static fluid under a pressure of 25 lbf/in2:
Figure 1 Pressure is transmitted from particle to particle so that the pressure at the same elevation in the fluid will be constant as shown by Figure 2.
Figure 2
0FD121
The pressure for a static fluid at a given elevation will always be constant regardless of the size or shape of the connecting pipe as long as the two locations are connected by the same intervening fluid (see Figure 3).
Figure 3
0FD121
Because the air that surrounds us has weight, it is exerting force onto the area of our bodies. The force per unit area exerted by the atmosphere is called atmospheric pressure: Atmospheric Pressure: the pressure that is produced by the weight of the air, which makes up the atmosphere, acting over the entire surface of the earth; it is the force per unit area of contact exerted by the atmosphere. All objects on the earth experience atmospheric pressure. Additionally, atmospheric pressure varies with changes in altitude. As the altitude increases, the atmospheric pressure decreases, because the weight of the air above this altitude is less. A reference pressure, call standard atmospheric pressure, is defined: Standard sea level atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi.
0FD121
Gauge pressure is defined relative to the atmospheric pressure level: Gauge Pressure (psig): pressure expressed relative to atmospheric pressure as the zero reference; it is equal in magnitude to the number of psi above atmospheric pressure. For example, if the pressure in a tank is 20 psia, and atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia, the tank pressure expressed as a gauge pressure would be 5.3 psig. The g attached to the psi unit indicates that the value given is a gauge pressure. The magnitude of the pressure (5.3 psi) indicates that the pressure exceeds atmospheric pressure by 5.3 psi. Vacuum pressure, like gauge pressure, is defined relative to the atmospheric pressure level: Vacuum Pressure (psiv): pressure expressed relative to atmospheric pressure as the zero reference; it is equal in magnitude to the number of psi below atmospheric pressure, expressed as a positive number. For example, if the pressure in a tank is 10 psia, and atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia, the tank vacuum pressure would be 4.7 psiv. The v attached to the psi unit indicates that the value given is a vacuum pressure. The magnitude of the pressure (4.7 psi) indicates that the pressure is 4.7 psi below atmospheric pressure.
0FD121
Figure 4 illustrates the concepts of absolute, gauge, and vacuum pressures, and their relationships to their reference pressure levels:
Figure 4 With the aid of Figure 4, two equations can be written to relate gauge pressure and vacuum pressure to the equivalent absolute pressure: To convert gauge pressure to absolute pressure, add the absolute atmospheric pressure to the pressure indicated by the pressure gauge:
0FD121
A pressure gauge attached to the shell side of a feedwater heater reads 92 psig. Determine the equivalent absolute pressure. SOLUTION Atmospheric pressure must be added to the gauge reading to obtain the absolute pressure: Pabs ' Patm % % Pgauge 92 psi ' 106.7 psia
Therefore, 92 psig is equivalent to 106.7 psia. EXAMPLE B A vacuum gauge on a steam condenser indicates 13.0 psiv. Determine the equivalent absolute pressure. SOLUTION The pressure indicated by the vacuum gauge must be subtracted from the atmospheric pressure to obtain the absolute pressure: Pabs ' Patm & Pvac ' 1.7 psia
Pabs ' 14.7 psi & 13.0 psi Therefore, 13.0 psiv is equivalent to 1.7 psia.
0FD121
These plant-specific pressures are provided as examples, only. You are not expected to know these pressure values for your pre-employment exam. 8
0FD121
Fluid specific volume (): the ratio of the volume occupied by the fluid to the mass it possesses. Thus, specific volume is volume per unit mass, with units of ft3/lbm: ' where: V m
Both density and specific volume measure the same property, namely how close the molecules or atoms making up a substance are to each other: A relatively high value of specific volume (or low value of density) implies that the molecules or atoms in the substance are relatively far apart. This is true of gases and vapors such as hydrogen, oxygen, and steam. Conversely, a relatively low value of specific volume (or high value of density) implies that the molecules are relatively close together. This is true of liquids and solids such as water and ice.
0FD121
A container is filled with a water having a specific volume of 0.016026 ft3/lbm. Calculate the density of the water. SOLUTION ' ' 1 1 0.016026 ' ft 3 lbm
62.4 lbm/ft3 is called the standard density of water. Water at 14.7 psia and 60EF has this density.
0FD121
10
A column of fluid has a pressure at the bottom of the column which is equal to the pressure at the top of the column plus the pressure due to the weight of the fluid in the column. The pressure due to the weight of a column of fluid is called hydrostatic pressure: Hydrostatic pressure (psi): the pressure produced by the weight of a fluid column; it is the difference between the pressure at the bottom of the fluid column and the pressure at the top of the column. In Figure 5, the pressure difference P2 - P1 represents the hydrostatic pressure due to the fluid in the container:
0FD121
11
The definition of hydrostatic pressure can be used to derive a formula which can be used to calculate the hydrostatic pressure of any fluid column. Using Figure 5, the pressure at Point 2 (P2) is equal to the pressure at Point 1 (P1) plus the pressure produced by the weight of the fluid column. This can be expressed in equation form as shown below: P2 ' P1 % W . A Therefore,
Hydrostatic Pressure is
P2 & P1 '
W A lbf ft 2 lbf ft 2
W ' weight of the fluid column, lbf A ' cross§ional area of the fluid column, ft 2
Recall from the Classical Physics lesson that weight is given by the formula W = mg/gc. Therefore, substituting mg/gc for W, and multiplying the right-hand side of the equation by h/h, where h is the height of the fluid column, results in the following equation: mg gc h P2 & P1 ' , or A h P2 & P1 ' m h g A h gc
0FD121
12
The product of the cross-sectional area (A) and the height (h) is equal to the volume, V, of the fluid column (V = Ah). Therefore, the equation becomes P2 & P1 ' m g h V gc
The equation is now free of the weight and area terms. Since m/V is the density () of the fluid in the fluid column, the final form of the hydrostatic pressure equation becomes:
h ' Height (or depth) of fluid column, ft g ' gc 32.2 32.2 ft sec2 ft @ lbm ' 1 lbf 1 lbm
lbf @ sec2
Note that the formula expresses the fluids hydrostatic pressure (P2 - P1) in terms of quantities which can easily be determined, namely the fluid density () and the height (h) of the fluid column.
0FD121
13
Also, the unit of measurement of the hydrostatic pressure formula hg/gc in fundamental units of measurement of the FPS measurement system is lbf/ft2. If the pressure terms of the hydrostatic pressure equation are expressed in psi (lbf/in2), the formula will not be unit consistent. Therefore, the conversion factor, 144 in 2 1 ft 2 or 1 ft 2 144 in 2
must be used where appropriate to maintain unit consistency. The examples which follow will illustrate this. EXAMPLE D Find the hydrostatic pressure, in psi, produced by a column of water 33.92 ft high. The density of water is 62.4 lbm/ft3. SOLUTION The pressure can be found by direct substitution of the column height and the water density into the hydrostatic pressure equation. The conversion factor 1 ft2/144 in2 is inserted on the right-hand side of the equation so that the unit of measurement is psi: Phydrostatic ' h g gc lbm ft 3 lbf in 2 , 33.92 ft 1 lbf 1 lbm 1 ft 2 144 in 2
'
62.4
' 14.7
Therefore, a column of water 33.92 ft in height, with density 62.4 lbm/ft3, produces 14.7 psi (one atmosphere) of pressure.
0FD121
14
Water pressure is sometimes expressed in feet of water (ftH2O) . Since 33.92 feet of water with density 62.4 lbm/ft3 produces a hydrostatic pressure equivalent to 14.7 psi, a conversion factor can be created between these two pressure units: 33.92 ftH O ' 14.7
2
lbf in 2
or, dividing both sides by 33.92, 1 ftH O ' 0.433 psi, for standard density 62.4
2
lbm ft 3
water
Therefore, if pressure is given in feet of water, the equivalent pressure in psi units can be obtained by as follows: Pressure (psi) ' Pressure ftH
2O
NOTE: This conversion factor is valid only when the density of the water column is 62.4 lbm/ft3, i.e. the water is at its standard density. It will be shown later that the density of water will be significantly changed if the temperature of the water is changed, and this would invalidate the conversion factor above.
0FD121
15
Water pressure is sometimes expressed in inches of mercury (in Hg). Example E shows that a column of mercury 29.93 inches high will produce a pressure equivalent to 14.7 psia (atmospheric pressure): EXAMPLE E Determine the hydrostatic pressure produced by a column of mercury that is 29.93 inches in height. The density of mercury is 848.7 lbm/ft3. SOLUTION P ' h g gc (Hydrostatic pressure equation)
'
848.7
lbm ft
3
1 ft 3 1728 in
3
(29.93 in)
1 lbf 1 lbm
' 14.7
lbf in 2
Since 29.93 inches of mercury produces a hydrostatic pressure equivalent to 14.7 psi, the conversion factor then becomes 29.93 in Hg ' 14.7 psi or, dividing both sides by 29.93, 1 in Hg ' 0.491 psi
0FD121
16
Therefore, if pressure is given in inches of mercury, the equivalent absolute pressure in psi can be obtained as follows: Pressure (psi) ' Pressure (in Hg) x 0.491 psi 1 in Hg 0.491 psi 1 in Hg
psi ' in Hg x
Figure 6 shows relationships between the common pressure scales (vacuum, gauge, and absolute) in psi, ft H2O, and in Hg units. Note the inverse relationship between inches of Hgvac and inches of Hgabs (in Hgabs is referred to as inches of mercury backpressure). pounds per square inch: # inches: feet:
0FD121
17
A pressure gauge on a condenser reads 27 in Hg vacuum. Which one of the following best approximates the absolute pressure corresponding to this vacuum? A. B. C. D. 1.0 psia 1.5 psia 3.0 psia 15.0 psia
SOLUTION Converting 27 in Hg vacuum to psiv, 27 in Hgvac 0.491 psi 1 in Hg ' 13.3 psiv
Therefore, the absolute pressure can be obtained: Pabs = Patm Pvac = 14.7 13.3 = 1.4 psia
Answer: Choice B.
0FD121
18
0FD121
19
For every pressure there is a corresponding temperature, called the saturation temperature, at which water boils when heat is added. The converse of this statement is also true: For every temperature there is a pressure, called the saturation pressure, at which water boils when heat is added. Saturation temperature and saturation pressure, therefore, are dependent quantities. We cannot specify a saturation temperature unless the corresponding (saturation) pressure is known, and we cannot specify a saturation pressure unless the corresponding (saturation) temperature is known.
0FD121
20
When water (H2O) exists at a temperature below saturation temperature, it is classified as subcooled liquid water: Subcooled (liquid) water: Water that exists at a temperature below saturation temperature for the pressure of the water. If heat is added to a subcooled liquid, the temperature of the liquid will increase. For example, water at atmospheric pressure (14.7 psia) and at a temperature below 212EF is subcooled water. If the temperature of the water was, say, 100EF, and heat was added to it, its temperature would increase. As another example, consider the water in the Reactor Coolant System (RCS): The Pressurizer maintains the pressure in the RCS at 2250 psia. From the Steam Tables, saturation temperature for 2250 psia is 653EF (liquid water at 2,250 psia will not start to boil until its temperature reaches 653EF). At 100% power, the water entering the reactor core through the Cold legs is at 539EF, and the water leaving the reactor core through the Hot Legs is at 594EF. Since the hottest spot in the RCS is the Hot Legs, where the temperature is about 594EF, the entire RCS is a subcooled system. Any heat added to the water in the RCS causes its temperature to increase. Since the reactor core adds heat to subcooled, 2,250 psia water as it passes through the core, the temperature of the water continuously increases (from Cold Leg core inlet temperature of 539EF to Hot Leg core outlet temperature of 594EF).
0FD121
21
When liquid water exists at saturation temperature for the pressure of the water, the water is called saturated liquid water: Saturated liquid water: Water that exists at a temperature equal to saturation temperature for the pressure of the liquid. Since saturation temperature and saturation pressure are dependent quantities, saturated liquid water exists at saturation temperature/pressure conditions. Since saturated liquid water exists at boiling temperature for the pressure of the water, heat added to saturated liquid water will cause the water to boil (change phase from liquid to steam). When heat is added to saturated liquid water at constant pressure, the temperature of saturated liquid water and the steam that is produced remain constant until the liquid water has been converted totally into steam. For example, water at atmospheric pressure (14.7 psia) and 212EF is saturated liquid water. Any heat added to this water will cause some of the water to change phase to steam, i.e., to boil. As another example, consider the liquid water that is in the Pressurizer under normal operating conditions: Its pressure is 2250 psia, and its liquid water temperature is 653EF. Since 653EF is saturation temperature for 2250 psia, this liquid water exists at saturation temperature/pressure conditions; it is saturated liquid water. If heat is added to the water (by the Pressurizer heaters), some of the water will change phase into steam.
0FD121
22
0FD121
23
The variation of subcooled water density with temperature (for two given pressures, 1000 psia and 2000 psia) is shown in Figure 7:
Figure 7 Subcooled Water Density Versus Temperature Note that: For a given pressure, the density of the water decreases at an increasing rate as its temperature increases, an important fact relative to numerous fundamentals concepts that will be discussed during this training. For any given temperature, the density of 2000 psia water is slightly larger than the density of 1000 psia water. An increase of 1000 psi (from 1000 psia to 2000 psia) has very little effect on the density of the subcooled water.
0FD121
24
The density of subcooled water is primarily determined by the temperature of the water. Even though subcooled water pressure changes do affect the density of the water slightly, the effect of a pressure change on the density of subcooled water is essentially negligible (subcooled water is essentially incompressible.). For precise engineering calculations, the minor changes in the specific volume of subcooled water with changes in pressure must be accounted for. The source used to determine the precise specific volume of water at temperatures below saturation temperature for the given pressure is called the Subcooled Liquid Tables.
0FD121
25
Determine the specific volume and the density of saturated liquid water at 540EF (962.79 psia). SOLUTION From Steam Table 1, the specific volume of saturated liquid water at 540EF (962.79 psia) is: f ' 0.02146 ft 3 lbm
Therefore, since density is the reciprocal of specific volume, ' 1 ' f 1 0.02146 ft lbm
3
' 46.6
lbm ft 3
Example G illustrates the acceptable method for determining the density of subcooled liquid water.
0FD121
26
At 80% power conditions, the water entering the suction of a Reactor Coolant Pump (RCP) is at 540EF and 2,250 psia. Determine the density of this water. SOLUTION Since the water is at 540EF, and this temperature is below saturation temperature for the pressure of the water, the water entering the RCP is subcooled. Since the density of subcooled water is primarily determined by the temperature of the water, . 1 f, 540EF ' 1 0.02146 ft lbm
3
' 46.6
lbm ft 3
0FD121
27
A system is any particular portion of the universe which we intend to study directly. Around the system are boundaries that the mind constructs. The choice of the system, defined by its contents and its boundaries, is purely arbitrary.
Working Fluid
The working fluid of a system is any fluid (including gases) which receives, transports, and transfers energy in the system. For example, the Reactor Coolant System water is the working fluid of this system because it receives energy from the reactor core, transports this energy to the steam generators, and transfers the energy across the tubes of the steam generators to the water on the other side of the tubes.
Closed System
A system is defined to be a closed system if matter does not cross the boundaries of the system. Energy may or may not flow into or out of a closed system (may cross the boundaries of the system), but mass may not.
Open System
If matter crosses a boundary of a system, the system is called an open system. Energy may cross the boundary of an open system either alone or with the flow of mass.
0FD121
28
The concepts of volumetric flow rate and mass flow rate will now be defined: . Volumetric flow rate, V : the volume of fluid flowing past a given point in a fluid flow system per unit time. where: 0 ' Volumetric Flow Rate: V 0 ' V V t ft 3 gal , , etc. sec min
V ' Volume of fluid passing flowing past a given point in a given time interval: ft 3, gal t ' time interval: sec, min, etc. . The dot notation ( V ) is used to denote that the quantity under consideration is measured on a "per unit of time" basis (volume per unit time). Volumetric flow rate can be determined if the fluid velocity and cross-sectional area of the piping through which the fluid is flowing are known: 0 ' Av V
0FD121
29
. Mass flow rate, m : the amount of fluid mass flowing past a given point in a fluid flow system per unit of time. m 0 ' where m 0 ' Mass flow rate, lbm lbm (or , etc.) sec hr m t
m ' mass flowing past a given location in a given time interval, lbm t ' time interval, sec (or hr, etc.)
Mass flow rate can be determined if fluid density, fluid velocity, and cross-sectional area of pipe through which the fluid is flowing are known: Mass Flow Rate Equation m 0 ' Av where: m 0 ' mass flow rate, lbm sec
lbm ft 3
A ' cross§ional flow area of the pipe, ft 2 v ' magnitude of the fluid velocity, ft sec
0FD121
30
The relationship between mass flow rate and volumetric flow rate is shown by the two defining formulas on the previous page: mass flow rate is equal to fluid density multiplied by volumetric flow rate: 0 ' Av V and 0 m 0 ' Av Y m 0 ' V
EXAMPLE H For the constant mass flow rate system shown below, the fluid velocity in the 2" pipe is 10 ft/sec. How does the change in pipe diameter from 2" at point 1 to 1" at point 2 affect the fluid velocity? Assume that the fluid density is constant in the pipe.
SOLUTION Since the mass flow rate is constant, m 01 ' m 02 Therefore, 1 A1 v1 ' 2 A2 v2
0FD121
31
A1 v1 ' A2 v2
Since the area A of a circle is A = r2, A1 ' r1 A2 ' r2 Therefore, A1 v1 ' A2 v2 (3.14 in 2) 10 ft sec ' (0.785 in 2) v2 3.14 0.785 10 ft sec ' 40 ft sec
2 2
v2 '
The velocity of the fluid flow increases to 40 ft/sec as a result of the reduction in the pipe diameter.
0FD121
32
Steam flows through a 3-inch diameter pipe at 20 ft/sec. The specific volume of the steam is 1.7665 ft3/lbm. What is the mass flow rate (in lbm/hr) of the steam? SOLUTION
1.5 2 (20) lbm in 2 ft ft 2 (1.7665) (144) ft 3 1 sec in 2 lbm sec lbm 3,600 sec sec 1hr ' 2001 lbm hr
0FD121
33
Recall from Classical Physics that energy is the capacity to do work. Any characteristic of a flowing fluid that can be converted into useful work is a form of energy possessed by that fluid. There are six forms of energy that have importance in fluid flow analysis: heat, work, potential energy, kinetic energy, flow energy, and internal energy. Heat and work are energy forms that cross the boundaries of fluid flow systems; potential, kinetic, flow and internal energies are energy forms possessed by the flowing fluid. As discussed in Classical Physics, heat (Q) is defined to be energy in transition. It is energy that is transferred from one location to another because there is a temperature difference between the two locations. Heat is always transferred from a location of higher temperature to a location of lower temperature. Heat added, Qin: Energy added to the system as a result of heat crossing the boundary of the system into the fluid. Heat is added any time the temperature on the outside of the fluid system boundary is higher than the temperature on the inside of the fluid system boundary. For example, the reactor core adds heat to the RCS. This causes the coolants thermal energy (INTERNAL ENERGY) to increase as it passes through the core. Heat removed, Qout: Energy removed from the system as a result of heat crossing the system boundary out of the fluid. Heat is removed from a system any time the temperature on the outside of the fluid system boundary is less than the temperature on the inside of the fluid system boundary. For example, Steam Generators remove heat from the RCS. The thermal energy (INTERNAL ENERGY) of the reactor coolant decreases as it passes through the Steam Generator Tubes. Also, heat losses through piping carrying a hot fluid remove heat from the fluid.
0FD121
34
Also as discussed in Classical Physics, work (W) is defined as the application of a force through a distance. Work done on a system by a force external to the system increases the total energy of the system. Work done on the fluid, Won: Energy added to the system as a result of an externally supplied force acting through a distance on the fluid. For example, a pump does work ON the flowing fluid. A pump increases the FLOW ENERGY and INTERNAL ENERGY of the fluid (increases the fluid pressure and temperature) as the fluid flows through the pump. On the other hand, a fluid can do work as it moves through a system; when it does this work, its total energy decreases. Work done by the fluid, Wby: Energy removed from the system as a result of the fluid supplying a force through a distance to an object external to the system. For example, work is done BY steam as it passes through a turbine because the steam applies a force through a distance to the turbine blades. This process reduces the FLOW ENERGY and the INTERNAL ENERGY of the steam as it flows through the turbine.
0FD121
35
gc ' 32.2
If the fluid has a speed greater than zero (v > 0), then it possesses kinetic energy. The speed associated with the fluids kinetic energy is the average speed of the bulk flow of the fluid.
0FD121
36
(Gravitational) potential energy, PE: energy due to the elevation of the fluid above/below a designated reference elevation level: PE ' mgh gc
where: PE ' potential energy, (ft @ lbf) m ' mass of the fluid , (lbm) h ' elevation of the fluid above the reference level (ft) g 1 lbf ' gc 1 lbm
If the flowing fluid undergoes an increase in elevation, its potential energy increases. If the fluid undergoes an elevation decrease, its potential energy decreases. 3. Internal energy, U: energy due to the (random) molecular vibrational motion of the fluid molecules; i.e., due to the temperature of the fluid. Internal energy is thermal energy. No specific formula is given here for Internal Energy as a function of temperature. Qualitatively, however, a hot fluid has more internal energy than cool fluid, because its temperature is higher. If the temperature of the fluid increases, its internal energy increases.
0FD121
37
Finally, a flowing fluid also has the capacity to do work due to the fact that its molecules are under pressure. Similar to a coiled spring, which can apply a force through a distance (do work) if the spring is allowed to unwind, a fluid under pressure can apply a force through a distance if the pressure of the fluid is allowed to decrease. The stored energy associated with the fluid pressure is called flow energy: 4. Flow energy, FE: energy due to the fluid pressure and volume occupied by the fluid under that pressure: FE = PV where: FE ' Flow Energy, ft @ lbf P ' Fluid pressure , lbf ft 2
Differences in fluid pressures at two locations in a fluid flow system produce the driving force that maintains fluid flow. This is why this form of energy is called flow energy; it is the fluid pressure difference, and the associated flow energy difference, that causes the fluid to flow.
0FD121
38
The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed. In its most general sense, this Law says that the total energy in the Universe is constant; any event which increases the amount of one form of energy must result in an equivalent decrease in the amount of one or more other forms of energy. The General Energy Equation (GEE) is a mathematical statement of the Law of Conservation of Energy, applied to a fluid flow system. The GEE says that the total energy possessed by the fluid (potential, kinetic, internal, and flow energy) remains constant as long as no form of energy is allowed to cross the boundary into or out of the system. If work is done on the fluid by a force external to the system, or if heat is transferred across the boundary of the system into the fluid, the total energy possessed by the fluid will increase by the an amount equal to the amount which was supplied. If work is done by the system, or heat is transferred out of the system, the total energy possessed by the fluid will decrease by an amount equal to the amount which was removed. Specifically, the General Energy Equation expresses the relationship between the total energy of the fluid at two different locations in a steady flow system. It considers all of the energy forms possessed by the fluid and the forms of energy that can be transferred into or out of the fluid between the two fluid flow locations. Figure 8 (next page) represents a fluid flow system, and it indicates that: C C C At point 1, the fluid possesses potential, kinetic, flow, and internal energy. At point 2, the fluid possesses potential, kinetic, flow, and internal energy. Between points 1 and 2, energy may be ADDED to the fluid (by heat, Qin, crossing the boundary into the fluid or by work being done on the fluid, Win, by some external force), and energy may be REMOVED from the fluid (by heat, Qout, crossing the boundary out of the fluid or work being done by the fluid, Wout).
0FD121
39
Figure 8 Forms of Energy in a Fluid Flow System For a fluid flow system, the General Energy Equation can be described verbally: The total energy possessed by a fluid at a given point in a steady flow system (i.e., KE1 + PE1 + FE1 + U1), plus the net energy added to the fluid between this first point and a second point in the system (i.e., Win - Wout and Qin - Qout), is equal to the total energy possessed by the fluid at the second point in the system (i.e., KE2 + PE2 + FE2 + U2).
0FD121
40
The mathematical formula equivalent to the statement of the General Energy Equation is: KE1 % PE1 % FE1 % U1 % (Win & Wout) % (Qin & Qout) ' KE2 % PE2 % FE2 % U2 OR KE1 % PE1 % FE1 % U1 % Win % Qin ' KE2 % PE2 % FE2 % U2 % Wout % Qout where: KE: PE: FE: U: Win: Wout: Qin: Qout: Kinetic energy of the fluid Potential energy of the fluid Flow energy of the fluid Internal energy of the fluid Work done on the fluid as it moves from Point 1 to Point 2 Work done by the fluid as it moves from Point 1 to Point 2 Heat transferred into the fluid as it moves from Point 1 to Point 2 Heat transferred out of the fluid as it moves from Point 1 to Point 2
Therefore, the General Energy Equation accounts for the total energy possessed by a fluid at a given location (KE1 + PE1 + FE1 + U1), the energies added or lost between the given location and another location in the system (Win - Wout and Qin - Qout), and the resulting total energy possessed by the fluid at the second location in the system (KE2 + PE2 + FE2 + U2). The General Energy Equation (GEE) is the basis for most energy analysis calculations used in power plant fundamentals. In particular, a significant portion of the formulas that are used for calculations of heat transfer, pump work, core power, etc., are derived from the GEE. The GEE has numerous forms, each one applicable to particular analytical situations. Variations to the GEE shown above will be discussed on an as-needed basis.
0FD121
41
No energy transfers across the system boundaries, that is Win = Won = Qin = Qout = 0
The General Energy Equation applied to this special set of circumstances reduces to:
The equation above is called the Basic Bernoulli Equation for frictionless, incompressible fluid flow in a steady flow system. This Bernoulli Equation can be used to qualitatively explain how a change in fluid velocity (v), fluid elevation (h), or fluid pressure (P) will affect the value of the other two parameters. The Examples which follow will illustrate.
0FD121
42
For the constant mass flow rate system shown below, what is the effect on fluid pressure by the reduction in pipe diameter from 2" at point 1 to 1" at point 2? Assume fluid temperature remains constant from point 1 to point 2.
SOLUTION From the Bernoulli Equation, KE1 % PE1 % FE1 ' KE2 % PE2 % FE2 Because there is no fluid elevation change between point 1 and point 2, the potential energy at point 1 is equal to the potential energy at point 2, that is, PE1 = PE2. Therefore the Bernoulli Equation reduces to: KE1 % FE1 ' KE2 % FE2 Example H, earlier, showed that the reduction in piping diameter causes the fluid velocity to increase from 10 ft/sec to 40 ft/sec. Therefore, since v2 > v1, and kinetic energy depends on velocity, this means that the reduced diameter piping causes the fluid kinetic energy to increase, that is, KE2 > KE1. Since KE2 > KE1 and KE1 + FE1 = KE2 + FE2, this means that fluid flow energy must decrease as a result of the reduction in pipe diameter, that is, FE2 < FE1. Therefore, since flow energy depends on pressure, this means that the fluid pressure decreases as a result of the reduction in pipe diameter, that is P2 < P1. Conclusion: A pipe diameter reduction increases the kinetic energy of the flowing fluid (increases the fluid speed) and a consequently decreases the fluid flow energy (decreases the fluid pressure).
0FD121
43
For the constant mass flow rate system shown below, what is the effect on fluid velocity and fluid pressure by the 12" increase in fluid elevation from point 1 to point 2? The diameter of the piping at point 2 is the same as it is at point 1.
SOLUTION From the Bernoulli Equation, KE1 % PE1 % FE1 ' KE2 % PE2 % FE2 Because there is no diameter change between point 1 and point 2, the velocity of the fluid at point 1 is equal to the velocity of the fluid at point 2, that is v1 = v2. Therefore, since the velocity of the fluid does not change, the kinetic energy of the fluid does not change, that is, KE1 = KE2. Therefore the Bernoulli Equation reduces to: PE1 % FE1 ' PE2 % FE2 Because the elevation of the fluid increases, the potential energy of the fluid at point 2 is greater than the potential energy of the fluid at point 1, that is, PE2 > PE1.
0FD121
44
Since PE2 > PE1 and PE1 + FE1 = PE2 + FE2, this means that flow energy must decrease as a result of the increase in pipe elevation, that is, FE2 < FE1. Therefore, since flow energy depends on pressure, this means that the fluid pressure decreases as a result of the increase in pipe elevation, that is P2 < P1. Conclusion: A fluid flow elevation increase causes an increase in the potential energy of the flowing fluid and a consequent decrease in the fluid flow energy (a decrease in the fluid pressure).
0FD121
45
0FD121
46
The GEE for any steady flow process is: KE1 % PE1 % FE1 % U1 % Win % Qin ' KE2 % PE2 % FE2 % U2 % Wout % Qout The following assumptions apply for the fluid flow system shown: Win = Wout = 0, because no work is done or by the fluid. Qin = Qout = 0, because the pipe is perfectly insulated. KE1 = KE2, because the pipe diameter (and hence the fluid velocity) does not change. PE1 = PE2, because there is no elevation change. Thus, the GEE reduces to: FE1 % U1 ' FE2 % U2 Since fluid friction results in an increase in the temperature of the water, the internal energy of the water increases: U2 > U1 Since U2 > U1, and FE1 + U1 = FE2 + U2, this means that: FE2 < FE1 Since the fluids flow energy decreases, the fluids pressure drops. Conclusion: Fluid friction in a flowing fluid causes an increase in the fluid temperature and therefore an increase in the internal energy of the fluid. Consequently, the fluid flow energy decreases (fluid pressure drops) due to fluid friction.
0FD121
47
Viscosity is a property of a fluid that describes the readiness with which a fluid flows. The greater the viscosity of a fluid is, the more resistant that fluid is to flow. Viscosity is an indication of the cohesive properties and the relative distances between the individual molecules of the fluid. The coefficient of viscosity, designated by the symbol (mu), is a measure of the fluid's resistance to flow. The English Engineering System unit of viscosity is lbf-sec/ft2. The greater the magnitude of is, the more resistant the fluid will be to flow. The concepts of viscosity and coefficient of viscosity are often used interchangeably. The average distance between adjacent molecules of the fluid is reflected by the density of the fluid. The greater the density of the fluid is, the closer the molecules of the fluid are to each other. For example, water at 50EF has greater density than water at 200EF; the average distance between adjacent molecules of the 50EF water is less than that of the 200EF water. Consequently, the 50EF water is more likely to experience interactions between its molecules that result in more resistance to flow of the bulk fluid than is the case for 200EF water. The 50EF water is said to be more viscous than the 200EF water is; it has a greater viscosity. In a gas, viscosity is a result of intermolecular vibration and molecular collisions. Viscosity in liquids is caused predominantly by intermolecular friction: the resistance to relative motion between two bodies in contact. In liquids, increased molecular vibration caused by rising temperature tends to weaken the attraction between adjacent molecules, reducing the viscosity of the liquid. In gases, however, molecular attraction is very weak. Molecular vibration, increasing with temperature, results in more collisions and interference between molecules moving past each other. The viscosity of gases increases with temperature.
0FD121
48
Table 1 shows the effect of temperature and pressure changes on the viscosity of water and steam. Note: Steam values are italicized.
1 EF
1500 1000 500 200 100 50 32
10 psia
8.6 6.3 3.9 2.5 142.0 271.4 366.1
100 psia
8.6 6.3 3.9 62.6 142.0 271.4 366.1
500 psia
8.7 6.3 3.8 62.8 142.0 271.2 365.7
1000 psia
8.7 6.4 21.6 62.9 142.1 271.0 365.3
2000 psia
8.7 6.6 22.0 63.2 142.1 270.6 364.5
5000 psia
9.2 7.4 23.1 64.0 142.0 269.3 361.9
psia
8.6 6.3 3.9 2.5 142.0 271.4 366.1
Absolute Viscosity (lbf-sec/ft2 x 10-7) Table 1 Fluid Viscosity versus Temperature/Pressure Table 1 indicates that water maintained at the constant temperature experiences minimal changes in viscosity with increasing or decreasing pressure. However, temperature changes cause more significant changes in fluid viscosity. The viscosity of liquid water decreases with increasing temperature; the viscosity of steam increases with temperature increase. Therefore, liquid water becomes less resistant to flow as its temperature increases, and steam becomes more resistant with temperature increases.
0FD121
49
The viscosity of a flowing fluid is a direct indication of the work which must be done to maintain that fluid in steady flow (i.e., constant mass flow rate). For example, if something occurs (such as a temperature decrease of flowing water) that results in an increase in its viscosity, the fluid now offers more resistance to flow at the desired flow rate. This resistance to flow is the frictional effect which must be overcome by applied external forces (such as the forces exerted by the impeller of a pump) in order to maintain the desired flow rate. Thus, the viscosity of water is a significant factor affecting fluid flow characteristics. Viscosity is also a significant factor in the choice of lubricating fluids put between moving and stationary parts of plant components, such as rotating shafts in stationary shaft sleeves. A lubricant is chosen based on its viscosity and its expected temperature range within the component parts it lubricates, as well as the rotational speeds and clearances in the component. If a lubricant's temperature is either excessively high or excessively low relative to the normal operating temperature range, a loss of adequate lubrication will result. The reasons for the loss of lubrication can be briefly summarized as follows: C At excessively high temperatures, the decreased viscosity (decreased cohesion) and the chemical breakdown of the lubricant result in the loss of a sufficient lubricant layer between moving parts. At excessively low temperatures, high cohesive forces of the lubricant can prevent the lubricant from establishing the adequate lubricant layer between moving parts.
0FD121
50
Turbulent flow is characterized by the irregular, random motion of the fluid particles in a transverse direction to the direction of bulk flow. This is also shown in Figure 9. The majority of the bulk flow is moving at essentially constant speed. Near the stationary piping wall, however, the speed of the fluid is much slower because of the combined resistance effects created by the roughness of the pipe surface and the viscosity characteristics of the fluid.
Figure 9 Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow Characteristics Classic turbulent flow is actually a combination of turbulent flow and laminar flow. Since flow very near the piping surface moves slowly compared to the bulk flow in the center of the pipe, it has characteristics of laminar flow. This laminar region is called the boundary layer. The size of the boundary layer depends on the fluid's viscosity, surface roughness, surface geometry, and relative velocity of the fluid. Higher average fluid velocity results in a thinner boundary layer; a higher fluid viscosity results in a thicker boundary layer.
0FD121
51
Regardless of the nature of the fluid flow (laminar, turbulent, or mixed), there exists a layer of fluid immediately adjacent to the piping surface whose velocity is zero. The thickness of this layer is determined primarily by the relative roughness of the piping surface. The fluid layer immediately adjacent to the fixed layer has nonzero velocity, and relative layer velocities increase rapidly with their distance from the surface. When fluid flow is laminar, the fastest moving layer is the one found at the center of the pipe. When fluid flow is turbulent, the fastest moving layer is the last layer of the boundary layer, the layer closest to the center of the pipe. Because of the turbulence in the region outside of the boundary layer, the bulk fluid velocity at any location in this area is essentially constant. Most of the flow in SONGS systems is highly turbulent. Turbulent flow versus laminar flow results in both a positive and negative operational effect: The more turbulent the flow is through a heat source/heat exchanger, the more efficiently the flow will pick up/give up heat. That is turbulence enhances heat transfer. Factors affecting heat transfer will be discussed in detail in a later chapter. The more turbulent the flow is through any system, the greater are the frictional effects of the flow. More friction means larger pressure drops, which means larger flow energy input requirements from the pump(s) supplying the flow. The effects of turbulence on system pressure will be discussed in detail in Chapter 3.
0FD121
52
Figure 10
The liquid exerts forces on all six surfaces of the block. The horizontal forces exerted on opposite sides of the block cancel each other. However, the upward force F1 due to the fluid pressure below the block and the downward force F2 due to fluid pressure above the block do not cancel, because the pressure of the liquid at elevation 1 is greater than the pressure of the liquid at elevation 2. The difference F1 - F2 is the buoyant force exerted on the block.
0FD121
53
Since P = F/A, we know that F1 = P1A and F2 = P2A. Therefore, F1 & F2 ' P1 A & P2 A ' P1 & P2 A P1 - P2 is the hydrostatic pressure due to a column of the fluid h feet high, thus, P1 & P2 ' h g gc (1)
F1 & F2 '
The product of h and A is just the volume of the block. This volume also represents the volume of the fluid displaced by the block. Thus, F1 & F2 ' Vf g , gc
Where Vf ' Volume of Fluid Displaced Since is the fluid density and Vf is the volume of the fluid displaced, Vf represents the mass (in lbm) of the fluid displaced. Therefore, Vf(g/gc) represents the weight of the fluid displaced. The buoyant force has now been quantified: The buoyant force B exerted by a fluid on an object in the fluid is equal to the magnitude of the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. If the fluid has density and volume Vf, then the buoyant force is B ' Vf g gc
0FD121
54
Buoyant force acts on Unit 2/3 reactor cores. The Combustion Engineering System 80 reactor core sits in the reactor vessel, unsupported by any restraining devices other than its lower support. Since the vessel is full of water (the core is totally covered), the core experiences an upward force equal in magnitude to the weight of the water it displaces in the vessel. Example M below demonstrates the effect of buoyant force on the apparent weight of a reactor core.
Example M
A reactor core sits in a reactor vessel, unsupported by any restraining devices other than its lower support. The total volume of the core is 900 ft3. The weight of the core is 407,430 lbf. a. Determine the effective weight of the core if it is totally submersed in water at 564EF and 2250 psia. b. Determine the effective weight of the core if it is totally submersed in water at 70EF and 14.7 psia.
Solution
The weight of the core will be effectively reduced by an amount equal to the upward buoyant force caused by the water it displaces. a. The specific volume of the water is obtained from the Steam Tables: = 0.02221 ft3/lbm. The volume of the water displaced is 900 ft3. Therefore, B ' Vf ' g gc 1 0.02221 ' 40,522 lbf ft lbm
3
(900 ft 3)
1 lbf 1 lbm
0FD121
55
The effective weight of the core under these conditions will be Core Effective Weight ' Actual Core Weight & Buoyant Force ' 407,430 lbf & 40,522 lbf ' 366,908 lbf Therefore, the buoyant force of water under these conditions effectively reduces the weight of the core to 90% (366908/407430 X 100) of its actual value. b. The specific volume of the water is obtained from the Steam Tables: v = 0.016050 ft3/lbm. The volume of the water displaced is 900 ft3. Therefore, B ' Vf ' g gc 1 0.016050 ' 56,075 lbf The effective weight of the core under these conditions will be Core Effective Weight ' Actual Core Weight & Buoyant Force ' 407,430 lbf & 56,075 lbf ' 351,355 lbf Therefore, the buoyant force of the water under these conditions effectively reduces the weight of the core to 86% of its actual value. Example M shows that the downward force which holds the core in its reactor vessel position decreases as the temperature of the water decreases. This occurs because the buoyant force of the water is directly proportional to its density; cooler water exerts greater upward force on a totally submersed body than does hotter water. ft lbm
3
(900 ft 3)
1 lbf 1 lbm
0FD121
56
Buoyant force is not the only upward force acting on the core. The flow of the reactor coolant (water) through the core enters at the bottom of the core and flows through its fuel assemblies in the upward direction. The frictional drag forces caused by this upward coolant flow are also in the upward direction. If the magnitude of the buoyant force and the frictional drag forces combined is great enough, the core can be lifted from its normal position. Core uplift can result in consequent damage to core internals. The probability that a core uplift event will occur varies with the coolant flow rate and with the temperature of the reactor coolant: C If coolant flow rate through the core increases, the velocity of the coolant increases. Therefore, the upward drag force of the coolant on core surfaces will be greater. If coolant temperature decreases, the density of the coolant increases. Therefore, since the buoyant force on the core is directly proportional to the density of the water it displaces, lower temperature coolant will exert a greater upward force on the core. If coolant temperature decreases, the viscosity of the coolant increases (Table 1). Therefore, since the drag force of upward-flowing coolant varies directly with the viscosity (cohesiveness) of the water, a decrease in coolant temperature will increase the drag force on the core surfaces.
Combustion Engineering reactor vessels have an operating restriction that is based on both buoyant force and the coolant viscosity. Specifically, procedure restrictions prevent starting the fourth Reactor Coolant Pump with coolant temperature less than 500EF. Starting the fourth RCP increases coolant flow rate through the core, increasing the upward drag force on the core. If this is done at temperatures less than 500EF, when both bouyant force and viscous drag forces are greater than they would be at higher temperatures, the total upward force could be sufficient to lift fuel assemblies out of their lower support structure. This can result in damage to the fuel assemblies, as well as misalignment of the control element assembly (CEA) drive mechanisms.
0FD121
57
A flowing fluid has both mass and velocity, and each of these characteristics contributes to the fluids resistance to changes to its present state of motion. The property of moving fluid described by the product of its mass and its velocity is called fluid 6 momentum, and is denoted by the symbol p : Momentum: the product of the mass and velocity of a flowing fluid. 6 6 p ' mv
where: 6 p ' momentum m ' mass 6 v ' velocity Momentum results when an unbalanced force exerted on a fluid causes it to accelerate 6 it to some velocity ( v ), in accordance with Newtons Second Law of Motion. Therefore, in order to change a fluids momentum, a force must be exerted for a given amount of time.
0FD121
58
Newtons Second Law (discussed in the Classical Physics lesson) tells us that when an unbalanced force is applied to a mass over a time interval, the mass accelerates; i.e., its velocity changes. The product of the applied force and the time over which the force acts is called impulse: Impulse (I): the product of the force (F) applied to a mass and the time (t) through which the force acts: 6 6 I ' Ft
0FD121
59
Therefore, because the velocity changes, this applied force results in a change in momentum of the mass. The impulse imparted to the object is equal to the change in the momentum of the mass: Impulse ' Change in momentum Ft ' m vf & m vi Ft ' p where: m vf ' object )s momentum after the force has been applied (final momentum) m vi ' object )s momentum before the force was applied (initial momentum) p ' change in the object )s momentum ()))) is the symbol meaning ))change in ))) For example, consider the fluid flow situation shown in Figure 11. The diameter of the pipe shown is constant, and the speed of the fluid flowing through the pipe is also constant. The velocity of the fluid, however, changes at the bend of the pipe, not because the speed of the flow changes, but because the direction of flow changes. The bend in the pipe forces the fluid velocity to change, i.e., the pipe is applying a force to the fluid at the location of the bend which causes the direction of fluid flow, but not its speed, to change. Since the pipe is not moving (not accelerating), this means that the fluid is exerting a force of equal magnitude but opposite direction on the pipe bend as its direction is changed.
Figure 11
0FD121
60
The impulse equation can be used to determine the magnitude and direction of the force exerted by the pipe which is forcing the direction change of the velocity. P ' mv P2 & v P1 Ft P ' mv P2 & v P1 F t The term m/t above represents the mass flow rate of the fluid, which is constant. The speed of the fluid is the same at location 1 as it is at location 2, but the directions of flow are different at these two locations. In other words, the velocity changed from location 1 to location 2. The force exerted by the fluid on the pipe is constant, and it is directed in the same direction as the difference of the final and initial velocity vectors. If the flow rate m/t were to suddenly increase, the equation above shows that the magnitude of the force applied by the fluid on the pipe through the pipe bend would also suddenly increase. The piping structure could be seriously damaged by this. In fluid flow systems where the flow rate is variable and fluid flow must change direction at some location we frequently see piping snubbers installed to lessen the impact of the changing force.
0FD121
61
Water hammer is the term used to describe the overall effect of severe pressure transients in a piping system. More specifically, it is the formation of a fluid pressure shock wave resulting from sudden changes in fluid flow velocity, and the subsequent dissipation of shock wave energy at the locations of flow obstructions. As shown in the previous section, anytime the velocity of the fluid changes, the momentum of the fluid changes. If the speed of the flow is suddenly reduced, the momentum of the flow is also reduced. This change in momentum exerts an impulse at the location where the speed change occurred: Impulse ' Change in momentum Ft ' m vf & m vi
The magnitude of the force (F) that will be applied at the location depends on the time (t) it took for the speed of the fluid to change. If the speed change occurs in a very short time, the magnitude of the force will be much larger. Large forces exerted by quick fluid momentum changes can cause severe damage to piping and system components. The pressure shock wave produced by the quick drop in fluid kinetic energy moves at the speed of sound through the fluid, and when it hits an obstruction it is forced to change direction. A force each time the direction is changed, and the magnitude of the force is very large because the direction change occurs in a very short time. This is the hammering effect that is heard; every time the shock wave changes direction the bang of the force is heard. The hammering continues until the energy of the shock wave is totally dissipated.
0FD121
62
Cause 2: Introduction of flow to empty piping. An empty pipe offers very little resistance to flow through it. Therefore, the flow accelerates to high velocities very quickly. As soon as the flow encounters an obstruction to flow, such as an angled pipe bend, a large momentum change occurs in a short period of time; water hammer occurs. Method of Prevention: Piping systems should be filled and vented prior to starting a pump supplying the system. Cause 3: Introduction of low temperature liquid water into piping containing steam. Cool water entering a pipe containing steam will cause rapid condensation of the steam. The steam volume collapses quickly, and the water accelerates into this voided area. When the water runs into itself or a pipe wall at this location, a large fluid momentum change occurs in a very short time frame; water hammer occurs. Method of Prevention: Water flow systems should be vented to prevent steam pockets from forming, before flow of water is introduced to these systems. Cause 4: Introduction of steam flow into piping partially filled with liquid water. When steam comes in contact with the cooler water, the steam will rapidly condense. The steam volume collapses quickly, and the water accelerates into this voided area. When the water runs into itself or a pipe wall at this location, a large fluid momentum change occurs in a very short time frame; water hammer occurs. Method of Prevention: Steam flow systems should be drained before flow of steam is introduced to these systems.
0FD121
63
Absolute pressure (Pabs) - pressure expressed relative to a perfect vacuum as the zero reference. English unit: psia. Absolute Zero Temperature - the temperature at which all molecular motion of a substance ceases; it is the temperature of the substance at which its thermal energy is equal to zero. Atmospheric pressure (Patm) - pressure produced by the weight of the atmosphere. Buoyant Force - the upward force exerted by a fluid on an object partially or totally submersed in the fluid. The buoyant force on an object is always equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. Density () - ratio of the mass, m, possessed by a substance to the volume, V, it occupies. = m/V. English unit: lbm/ft3. Fluid - any substance which flows. Fluid momentum: the product of the mass and velocity of a flowing fluid. Flow Energy - energy due to the fluid pressure and the volume occupied by the fluid under that pressure. Gauge pressure (Pgauge) - pressure expressed relative to atmospheric pressure as the zero reference. English unit: psig. Hydrostatic pressure (P) - pressure exerted by the weight of a fluid column. English unit: psi. Impulse (I): the product of the force (F) applied to a mass and the time (t) through which the force acts. Internal Energy - energy due to the (random) molecular vibrational motion of the fluid molecules, i.e., due to the temperature of the fluid. Kinetic Energy - energy due to the mass and velocity of a fluid.
0FD121
64
Laminar flow - fluid flow in smooth, orderly layers Pressure (P) - ratio of the total force exerted by a substance to the total area to which the force is applied. P = F/A. English unit: lbf/in2 (psi). Potential Energy - energy possessed by a substance due to its elevation above a reference elevation level. Saturated liquid water - liquid water that is at saturation temperature for the pressure at which it exists. Any heat added to this water will cause the water to boil. Saturation pressure (Psat) - the pressure at which water will boil at a given temperature if heat is added to the water. Saturation temperature (Tsat) - the temperature at which water will boil at a given pressure if heat is added to the water. Specific volume () - ratio of the volume, V, occupied by a substance to mass, m, it possesses. = V/m. English unit: ft3/lbm. Subcooled (liquid) water - water that exists at a temperature below saturation temperature for the pressure of the water. Any heat added to this water will cause the temperature of the water to increase. Turbulent flow - fluid flow with irregular, random motion of the individual fluid particles with respect to the direction of bulk flow. Vacuum pressure (Pvac) - pressure expressed relative to atmospheric pressure as the zero reference; it is the amount by which pressure is less than atmospheric pressure, expressed as a positive number. English unit: psiv. Viscosity - Property of a fluid which quantifies the readiness with which the fluid flows. The larger the magnitude of a fluids viscosity is, the more resistance the fluid offers to flow. Water hammer - a rapid change in the momentum of a flowing fluid that creates a pressure shock wave which damages components of the fluid flow system
0FD121
65
Objective 2: Define fluid density and fluid specific volume, and state the relationship between them. 1. The specific volume of a certain liquid is 0.0190 ft3/lbm. Find the density of the liquid.
2.
The density of a certain liquid is 59.3 lbm/ft3. Find the specific volume of the liquid (to 4 decimal places).
0FD121
66
Objective 1: Given a gauge pressure reading or a vacuum pressure reading, convert the reading to an absolute pressure reading. Objective 3: Given a table of conversion factors, perform conversions between pressures expressed in the following pressure units:
C C C
1.
Pounds per square inch (psi) Inches of mercury (in. Hg.) Feet of water (ft. H20)
A pressure gauge indicates 40 psig. Calculate the equivalent absolute pressure. The atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia.
2.
The pressure of a fluid in a rigid container is 8 psiv. Determine the equivalent absolute pressure. The atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia.
3.
4. 5.
A vacuum gauge reads 24 inches Hgvac. Find the absolute pressure in psia. How many ft H2O is equivalent to a pressure difference of 200 psi? Assume the water is at standard density (62.4 lbm/ft3).
0FD121
67
(Note: Because you have no Steam Tables available, you will NOT be tested by this type of question!!) Using the C-E Steam Tables: 1. At TSAT = 364EF, determine PSAT
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
0FD121
68
Objective 4: State how the density and the specific volume of subcooled liquid water change as
C C
1.
the temperature of the water changes the pressure of the water changes
TRUE or FALSE: a. If the temperature of subcooled liquid water increases from 140EF to 160EF, then the density of the water decreases and the specific volume of the water increases. A 10EF decrease in the temperature of subcooled liquid water will cause approximately the same increase in the water density as will a 10 psi pressure increase. For subcooled liquid water, the temperature of the water (not the pressure) is the primary factor determining the density of the water.
b.
c.
0FD121
69
C C
1.
120EF, 400 psia water is flowing through an 18" diameter pipe at 12 ft/sec. a. Determine the flow rate, in gallons per minute.
b. The Steam Tables say that the specific volume of 120EF, 400 psia water is 0.016204 ft3/lbm. Determine the flow rate, in pounds mass per hour.
2.
A Reactor Coolant Pump delivers coolant flow through 30" diameter cold leg piping at 45 ft/sec. If the Reactor Coolant is at 540EF and 2,250 psia, a. Determine the flow rate, in gallons per minute. b. The Steam Tables say that the specific volume of 540EF, 2,250 psia water is 0.02146 ft3/lbm. Determine the flow rate, in pounds mass per hour.
0FD121
70
Objective 6: Apply the General Energy Equation to determine the effect of system configuration changes on system pressure. 1. A fluid flow system has a constant mass flow rate (maintained by a pump in the system). For each of the system segments show below, determine: C C a. How system pressure at point 2 compares to system pressure at point 1, and Explain why system pressure changes as it does.
b.
d1 = d2, point 1 is 8 inches higher than point 2, and frictional effects are negligible.
0FD121
71
How system pressure at point 2 compares to system pressure at point 1, and Explain why system pressure changes as it does.
d.
e.
d1 = 5 inches, d2 = 7 inches, point 1 is 8 inches higher than point 2, and frictional effects are negligible.
0FD121
72
Objective 7: Describe the concept of fluid viscosity. 1. How does the viscosity of a liquid vary with the temperature of the liquid?
2.
How does the viscosity of a fluid vary with the pressure of the liquid?
Exercise 8 Objective 8: Compare/contrast laminar flow and turbulent flow characteristics. TRUE or FALSE: 1. 2. Turbulent flow through a given length of pipe results in a greater pressure loss than does laminar flow through the same section of pipe. Laminar flow through a heat exchanger results in better heat transfer than does turbulent flow through the same heat exchanger.
0FD121
73
Objective 9: Describe the buoyant force exerted by a fluid on an object partially or totally submersed in that fluid. 1. What happens to the buoyant force exerted by the water in the reactor vessel during the time interval following a reactor trip (100% power to 0% power)? Why does this happen?
2.
If an object submersed in a liquid is freely suspended in the liquid at a particular depth, what can be said about the magnitude of the fluids buoyant force acting on the object?
0FD121
74
Objective 10: Identify characteristics of water hammer, including: 1. its definition fluid flow conditions that can trigger a water hammer event potential consequences of a water hammer event methods that will minimize the possibility of a water hammer event occurring
For each of the following fluid flow system changes, identify whether the change would increase or decrease the possibility of a water hammer event occurring: a. b. c. d. Venting a system prior to starting a pump in the system as opposed to starting the pump prior to venting. Quickly closing a valve in a flowing system as opposed to closing it more gradually. Maintaining the discharge line completely filled for an automatically starting pump as opposed to allowing it to be partially or completely empty. Draining all liquid out of a steam line before steam flow is introduced into the line as opposed to introducing the steam flow with liquid water in the line. Temperature of the flowing water increases above saturation temperature for the pressure of the water as opposed to staying constant below saturation temperature. Steam flow system lines are warmed prior to initiating steam flow as opposed to introducing steam flow into cold lines.
e.
f.
0FD121
75
' 52.6
lbm ft 3
0FD121
76
4.
24 in Hgvac
Pabs ' Patm & Pvac ' 14.7 psi & 11.8 psi ' 2.9 psia
5.
200 psi
1 ft H2 O 0.433 psi
' 462 ft H2 O
0FD121
77
From Table 2, T = 609.05EF is close to the given 609EF value. Therefore, the PSAT . 1650 psia. OR: Linear Interpolation from Table 1: 608EF -----------> 1637.3 psia 609EF -----------> ? 612EF -----------> 1686.1 psia 1 ' 4 x Y x ' 12.2 Y P ' 1637.3 % 12.2 ' 1649.5 psia 1686.1 & 1637.3
6.
0FD121
78
False. Liquid water density changes significantly as water temperature changes. Pressure changes have a negligible effect on the density of liquid water. True. The major factor determining the density of liquid water is its temperature, not its pressure.
7.48 gal 1 ft
3
60 sec 1 min
' 9,517
1b.
The specific volume of 120EF, 400 psia water is determined from the Steam Tables, Table 1: = 0.016204 ft3/lbm. Therefore, 0 m 0 ' V ' 1 0.016204 ' 4.71E6 ft lbm
3
9517
gal min
1 ft 3 7.48 gal
60 min 1 hr
lbm hr
0FD121
79
2a.
1 ft 2 144 in 2
7.48 gal 1 ft 3
60 sec 1 min
' 99,137
2b.
The specific volume of 540EF and 2,250 psia water is determined from the Steam Tables, Table 1: = 0.02146 ft3/lbm. Therefore, 0 m 0 ' V ' 1 0.02146 ' 3.71E7 ft 3 lbm 99,137 gal min 1 ft 3 7.48 gal 60 min 1 hr
lbm hr
Exercise 6 1. a. P2 is less than P1 Friction causes internal energy at point 2 to be higher than at point 1. Kinetic energy and potential energy did not change (same pipe diameter and same elevation). Since total fluid energy did not change, but internal energy increased, the flow energy had to decrease. If flow energy decreases, pressure decreases.
0FD121
80
The 8 inch elevation drop causes potential energy to decrease. Kinetic energy did not change, and internal energy did not change (same pipe diameter and frictional effects negligible). Since total fluid energy did not change, but potential energy decreased, the flow energy had to increase. If flow energy increases, pressure increases. c. P2 is greater than P1 The increase in pipe diameter causes kinetic energy to decrease. Potential energy and internal energy did not change (same pipe elevation and frictional effects negligible). Since total fluid energy did not change, but kinetic energy decreased, the flow energy had to increase. If flow energy increases, pressure increases. d. P2 is less than P1 The 8 inch elevation increase causes potential energy to increase. The smaller pipe diameter causes kinetic energy to increase. Friction causes internal energy to increase. Since total fluid energy did not change, but potential, kinetic, and internal energies all increased, the flow energy had to decrease. If flow energy decreases, pressure decreases. e. P2 is greater than P1 The 8 inch elevation drop causes potential energy to decrease. The larger pipe diameter causes kinetic energy to decrease. Internal energy did not change (frictional effects negligible). Since total fluid energy did not change, but potential energy and kinetic energy decreased, the flow energy had to increase. If flow energy increases, pressure increases.
0FD121
81
As the temperature of a liquid increases, the density of the liquid decreases. The now greater distances between the molecules of the liquid reduces the frictional interactions between the molecules. The liquid, therefore, flows more readily; it offers less resistance to flow. This means the viscosity of the liquid has decreased. As the pressure of a liquid increases, the density of the liquid increases slightly. The now smaller distances between the molecules of the liquid increases the frictional interactions between the molecules. The liquid, therefore, flows less readily; it offers more resistance to flow. This means the viscosity of the liquid has increased. (Note: the effect of pressure changes on the viscosity of a liquid are much less dramatic than is the effect of temperature changes on the liquids viscosity.
2.
Exercise 8 1. TRUE. The more turbulent the flow is, the more friction there is between fluid particles. The more friction there is, the more the internal energy of the fluid increases. The amount by which the internal energy increases is the same as the amount by which the flow energy decreases. Therefore, since internal energy increases more when the flow is turbulent, flow energy decreases more when the flow is turbulent, i.e., pressure drops more in a section of turbulent flow through a pipe than it does through the same pipe section when the flow is laminar. FALSE. The more turbulent the flow is through the heat exchanger, the more effective the heat exchanger is at transferring heat between the two fluids passing through the heat exchanger. More detail on this subject will be presented in a later chapter.
2.
0FD121
82
The buoyant force increases. The reason for this is the rapid decrease in the temperature of the reactor coolant in the core caused by the drop in reactor power level (fission rate) from 100% to 0%. Since the temperature of the water decreases, its density increases. Since buoyant force on an object is directly proportional to density of the liquid the object is submersed in, this means that the buoyant force increases. Since the object is not moving, this means the downward force due to the weight of the object is exactly canceled by the upward buoyant force exerted on the object by the fluid it is in. That is, the buoyant force on this object equals the weight of the object.
2.
Exercise 10 1a. 1b. 1c. 1d. 1e. 1f. Decrease Increase Decrease Decrease Increase Decrease
0FD121
83