Technology and Second Language Acquisition

Technology and Language Learning Methods

Virtually every type of language teaching has had its own technologies to support it. Language teachers who followed the grammar-translation method (in which the teacher explained grammatical rules and students performed translations) relied on one of the most ubiquitous technologies in U.S. education, the blackboard a perfect vehicle for the one-way transmission of information that method implied. The blackboard was later supplemented by the overhead projector, another excellent medium for the teacher-dominated classroom, as well as by early computer software programs which provided what were known as "drill-and-practice" (or, more pejoratively, "drill-and-kill") grammatical exercises. In contrast, the audio-tape was the perfect medium for the audiolingual method (which emphasized learning through oral repetition). University language classes in the 1970s and '80s usually included obligatory sessions at the audio lab where students would perform the dreaded repetition drills. By the late 1970s, the audiolingual method fell into disrepute, at least in part due to poor results achieved from expensive language laboratories. Whether in the lab or in the classroom, repetitive drills which focused only on language form and ignored communicative meaning achieved poor results. The 1980s and 1990s have seen a shift toward communicative language teaching, which emphasizes student engagement in authentic, meaningful interaction. Within this general communicative trend, we can note two distinct perspectives, both of which have their implications in terms of how to best integrate technology into the classroom. These can roughly be divided into cognitive approaches and sociocognitive approaches. Cognitive Approaches Cognitive approaches to communicative language teaching are based on the view that learning a language is an individual psycholinguistic act. From this perspective, language learners construct a mental model of a language system, based not on habit formation but rather on innate cognitive knowledge in interaction with comprehensible, meaningful language (Chomsky, 1986). Errors are seen in a new light, not as bad habits to be avoided but as natural by-products of a creative learning process that involves rule simplification, generalization, transfer, and other cognitive strategies (see Chaudron, 1987). Learners' output (i.e., what they say or write), if relevant at all, is beneficial principally to the extent that it helps make input (i.e., what they hear or read) more comprehensible or salient so that the learners can construct their own cognitive models of the language. Technologies which support a cognitive approach to language learning are those which allow learners maximum opportunity to be exposed to language in meaningful context and to construct their own individual knowledge. Sociocognitive Approaches Sociocognitive approaches, in contrast to cognitive approaches, emphasize the social aspect of language acquisition; learning a language is viewed as a process of apprenticeship or socialization into particular discourse communities (Schieffelin & Ochs, 1986; Gee, 1996). From this perspective, students need to be given maximum opportunity for authentic social interaction, not only to provide comprehensible input but also to give students practice in the kinds of communication they will later engage in outside the classroom. This can be achieved through student collaboration on authentic tasks and projects (see for example Breen, 1987; Candlin & Murphy, 1987; Long & Crookes, 1992; Prabhu, 1987) while simultaneously learning both content and language (see for example Flowerdew, 1993; Meskill, in press; Snow, 1991). The Internet is a powerful tool for assisting a sociocognitive approach to language teaching, and it is in fact this fit of the Internet with a sociocognitive approach which largely accounts for the new-found enthusiasm for using computers in the language classroom. The Internet is a vast interactive medium which can be used in a myriad of ways, as will be illustrated below.

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Problems in Technology and Second Language Learning

Technology, especially modern information and communication technology, holds great potential for significantly improving second language learning. However the potential does not automatically lead to learning gains because most of the technologies second language educators believe to have the potential to significantly improve second language learning were not necessarily invented for this purpose and thus there are no explicit straightforward directions about how each technology should be used. Neither is there any compelling internal logic to connect technology and second language learning. Hence when faced with a technology (such as the radio), second language educators need to interpret its technological capacity in the terms of second language learning. In other words, educators must work out how this technology can be used to help enhance second language learning. This figuring out process is essentially a reinventing process that translates the capacities of a technology into a solution to a problem in the second language learning process (Zhao, 2003b). Traditional conceptualization of technology uses in second language learning has a number of problems that have limited the impact of technology on second language acquisition. First, it tends to focus on the potential uses of individual technologies instead of the combined potential of all technologies. Thus we see a large amount of individual software or hardware for language education but seldom see a comprehensive environment that integrates the capacities of multiple technologies to support language learning. Second, traditional conceptualization of technology uses in second language learning tends to focus individual language learning issues instead of the learning process as a whole. Thus we see numerous individual tools and experiments that help with grammar, vocabulary, reading, or writing but rarely see a comprehensive design that coherently uses technology to help the learner with all aspects of learning. This is particularly true of uses of technology in formal language instruction. A comprehensive review of the literature suggests that the majority of journal publications about technology uses in second language learning reported uses of individual tools and experiments (Zhao, 2003a). Third, it tends to focus on newer technologies while ignoring older technologies. Thus we see repeated abandonment of promising uses of older technologies for newer technologies. Over the past century or so, we have seen multiple waves of attempts to use technology to support language learning: motion pictures, radios, televisions, main-frame computer systems, laser discs, CD ROMs, Hypermedia, and now the Internet. Each time a new technology emerged, it quickly replaced older technologies. Today, only a minority of language learning materials is available on and delivered with technologies other than the computer, with the exception of print-based technologies, which are of course rarely considered as technology any longer. The replacement of traditional audio-visual language labs with newer computer-based networked language learning centers is a telling example. It should be noted that some language learning materials are still available on audio cassette tapes, but the trend is certainly moving toward more digital technologies. Lastly, existing research on technology for language learning tends to have focused on adult language learners. Thus we see much more research and development efforts for technology for adult language learners in instructional settings than for younger learners in the home environments. After an extensive review of the research literature of computer assisted language learning, (Zhao, 2003a) concludes that: a) the settings of instruction where the studies were conducted were limited to higher education and adult learners, b) the languages studied were limited to common foreign languages and English as a foreign or second language, and c) the experiments were often short-term and about one or two aspects of language learning (e.g., vocabulary or grammar). Thus we need a new, more fruitful conceptualization of how to use technology to enhance second language learning. This conceptualization should aim to develop an effective

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language learning environment through technology instead of merely developing effective uses to support one aspect of language learning or making use of one type of technology. Furthermore, this conceptualization should be grounded in second language acquisition research and focus on supporting the whole language learning process with all available technologies. This paper outlines such a conceptualization. In the remainder of the paper, I first present a framework that captures the essential conditions for effective language learning. I then discuss how and what technology can be used to create such conditions under this framework. In this discussion, I include both available technologies and emerging technologies and how they can be integrated to create an effective language learning environments. I conclude the paper with discussions about policy, research, and development strategies and actions needed to realize this conceptualization.

Conditions for Effective Language Learning using Technology

Many language educators and researchers have been seeking ways to improve the quality of foreign/second language education. While there exists tremendous amount of disagreement about the specifics of an optimal language learning environment, research and practice seem to suggest that successful language learning can only occur when four conditions are met: 1) high quality input; 2) ample opportunities for practice; 3) high quality feedback; and 4) individualized content. High Quality Input The current approaches to second language acquisition, ranging from the universal grammar position to the input-interaction perspective, all embrace input as a necessary component, although they differ in their emphases on the type and amount of input that is considered crucial to triggering learning (Gass, 1997). Simply put, a person, regardless of her age, cannot successfully learn a second or any language without sufficient exposure to authentic, diverse, comprehensible, and demanding linguistic and cultural materials of the target language. How and What Technology Can be Used to Provide High Quality Input? Technology can be used to provide high quality input in a number of ways. First, technology provides convenient access to a large variety of target language input via different media or combinations of media. Newer technologies such as the Internet bring even more language resources. A great number of resources in different languages are available free-of-charge on the Internet, and learners can get easy access to these authentic audio and/or visual materials. CMC, like email, online chat and video/audio conferencing, connects learners with native speakers and other learners and expands their exposure to various linguistic and cultural inputs. Hand-held digital devices, like MP3 players, and PDAs, allow learners to download Internet materials, both audio and textual, and have the information at their fingertips, thus enhancing the portability of these resources and freeing learners up from the physical constraints. E-books, with their manipulability (abilities to search and add audio conversion or short video annotation), the portability and the instant access, are available in a large collection of languages and offer both classical works and up-to-date reading materials. Their use could be further boosted by the introduction of Tablet PC, which has speech recognition features and text-to-speech capabilities, and recognizes learners normal handwriting (Godwin-Jones, 2003). Moreover, electronic highlighters, like QuickLink6 pen, allow learners to copy, clip and store printed text, Internet links, tables and charts and then transfer the data to their computers, PDAs or mobile phones, or translate the text into different languages or look up its meaning from a built-in dictionary. In all, current technology not only exposes learners to unprecedented large amount of input of great variety, but provides a lot of flexibility and convenience in the access, manipulation and organization of the information.

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Communicative Opportunities for Practice In addition to high-quality input, language learners must have ample opportunities to practice what they have been exposed. Thus communication has long been recognized as beneficial and essential to effective second language learning. Views of the role of communication have gone through drastic change in the past decades. For a long time communication had been acknowledged for practicing what had been previously taught, and now it is touted as not only a medium of practice but the means by which learning takes place as well (Gass, 1997). How and What Technology Can be Used to Provide Communication Opportunities Engaging in authentic communication in the target language is another essential condition for successful language learning yet such opportunities do not exist for most learners. Technology can be used in many different ways to create opportunities for language learners to communicate in the target language.Currently, the most prevalent use of technology in this regard is computer mediated communication (CMC). CMC technologies engage learners in social interaction with their language partners, either NSs or NNSs, via email, listserv, discussion board, online chat, and audio/video conferencing. High-Quality Feedback Feedback is a classical concept in learning, whose importance is acknowledged across different learning theories. More recent research in this area focused on the facilitative role of feedback in second language learning. Positive feedback, confirmation of learners language production as being acceptable in the target language, helps learners to strengthen linguistic knowledge already registered in their interlanguage system. Whereas negative feedback, an indication that certain features in learners language production are impossible in the target language, serves more as a catalyst for the reconstruction of learners interlanguage grammar and thus has attracted more research attention. In all, current research in second language acquisition confirmed the importance of the provision of feedback, negative feedback in particular, in facilitating second language learning. In addition, it suggested that a one-for-all solution or an ideal case for the provision of feedback does not exist and there is great necessity to vary the presentation of feedback to fit different learning conditions. Furthermore, it identified several important variables that need to be taken into consideration when providing feedback: the content of the feedback (specificity, length, etc.), individual differences, saliency and immediacy of feedback. How and What Technology Can be Used to Provide High Quality Feedback The capacity for technology to provide instant and individualized feedback has long been recognized by educators, including foreign language educators(Chao, 1999; Salaberry, 2001). While early applications tended to follow the behaviorist tradition by simply assessing the learners performance and providing simplistic feedback in a correct-or-wrong fashion, more recent applications are much more contextualized and pedagogically sound(Salaberry, 2001). Technology holds several important advantages in terms of providing feedback to second language learners. First, technology could present feedback in ways that are difficult, if not impossible, to by human beings. One such example is the provision of feedback on pronunciation. Second, technology allows great flexibility in the provision of feedback, flexible in the sense of the great variability and options it provides. Technology could easily vary the types of feedback it provides in response to the specific linguistic items in question, and this adaptability is a plus compared with feedback via other means. Individualized Content Individual differences of the learner in terms of language proficiency, cognitive development, learning objectives, and learning styles are common and significant factors affecting learner motivation, language intake, and task performance. We know that not all

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language learners have the same linguistic aptitude. Some learn faster than others and some can reach a higher level of proficiency than others. In classroom situations, it is also possible that some learners may already have experiences with the target language while others in the same class may be true beginners. Furthermore, we also know that language learners differ in their purposes for learning a second language. Some learn because they want to understand and experience a foreign language. Others want to communicate and conduct business in the target language with its native speakers. Some learn the language because they hope to live and work in the target culture, while others simply want to be able to read scientific and technical publications in the target language. It is thus unwise to force all students to be at the same level of competence in all aspects of the language reading, listening, writing, and speaking. How and What Technology Can be Used to Provide Individualized Content An effective language learning program should be responsive to these individual differences and enable the learners to adjust the difficult level of the content, control the pace of learning, and select content that is appropriate for their own needs. In other words, the learning should be highly individualized and customizable in order to motivate all students, meet their diverse learning goals and styles, and accommodate their individual psychological and cognitive needs. Otherwise, the learners may not be able to benefit from the environment, fall behind, lose interest, and ultimately give up the learning.

What Needs to be Done to Develop Technology-enriched Second Language Learning Environments

It is apparent that today we have available a large set of technologies with tremendous capacities for significantly improving second language learning. However, these potentials can not be actualized unless we reconsider how we conceptualize, design, develop, and deploy technologies in support of second language learning. First, we need to change from designing and developing individual technology uses to designing and developing comprehensive second language programs enhanced by technology. Individual, isolated pieces of software or gadgets are unlikely to be adopted or have significant impact on the learning outcomes. Moreover, we cannot, and should not, expect any one piece of technology to deliver the high-quality language learning experiences we desire. Thus, we need to consider designing and developing whole language learning programs that support all aspects and all stages of language learning. We need to have language learning tools and content for the learner in the classroom as well as develop tools and content for learners outside the classroom. As discussed in this paper, an effective language learning environment should provide high quality input, ample opportunities for communication and practices, high-quality feedback, and customizable content to maximize motivation. Thus we first need to consider all sorts of technologies for enhancing inputuse video, audio, speech technology, and other multimedia technology to bring authentic language and cultural materials to students, use speech rate control technologies to enable the users to manipulate the speed of audio/video input, use digital video technology to focus the learners attention on desired content, use hyperlink tools to enable the learner to access graphical, audio, visual and text annotations, use speech technology to enable the learner to control the mode of input by converting written input into oral input and vice and versa, use concordance tools to identify and modify input, and use database technology to allow the learners to access individualized content. We need also to consider a variety of technologies that can create opportunities for communication and practice. As we have seen in the examples reviewed in the paper, learners can engage in communications with, through, and around the technology simulated conversation agents on the computer, with assistance of speech technologies, can directly communicate with the learner in simulated explorations or tasks; simpler reading and writing technologies such as the LeapPads11 and AlphaSmart tools canprovide basic interactive

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functions between the technology and the learner; computer-mediated-communication technologies, telephones, PDAs, and video conferencing systems, and other network-enabled devices provide the capacity for learners to communicate with each other and others across distance and time; technologies also provide the opportunities for learners to communicate in the target language around the content or activity enabled by the technology (for instance, students as a group can gather around to discuss a video clip, a radio story, or an electronic book). We should also expand our view of technology that can be used to provide high-quality feedback because at different stages of language development and for different users, feedback should take different forms and be delivered in different ways. Speech and sound technologies can give visual feedback on pronunciation and intonation; combined with gaming technologies, speech technology can also provide more engaging feedback in the form of actions and social consequences (e.g., a character can provide further information or perform certain actions upon correct or incorrect input from the learner); multimedia technologies can also be used to provide feedback in audio, video, or other interesting formats; database technologies can be employed to provide more relevant and individualized feedback to the learners after analysis of cumulative performances of the learner. Language education does not only occur in the classroom and should not stop after the learner leaves the school. Thus an effective language learning program should always include components for uses in and out of the classroom. It should have tools and resources to support instructional and learning activities in the classroom as well as student learning out of the classroom. In other words, technological tools and materials should be designed to be used by students, teachers, and parents/care givers. And these tools and materials should be coherently connected. In this design, we also need to consider how human instructors interact with the technology system. We need to think about the different yet complementary roles of technology and human beings. We should not expect that technology alone will deliver effective language learning. With the recognition that technology can significantly enhance the language learning experience, we need to also consider how the human adults (teachers and parents) can work together with the technology to provide effective language education to children. However, we should be mindful of the different contributions technology and human beings can make. As a general suggestion, we should let the technology do things that human beings are unable or unwilling to do or while human beings are able and willing to do, but less efficiently or less effectively. Second, we need to consider the capacities of all technologies, especially existing and inexpensive ones, instead of only cutting-edge ones, such as the computer and the Internet. Many existing technologies possess tremendous potential for language education due to their portability and availability, and more importantly, familiarity to the learner. For example, the television can be a simple and effective platform for delivering authentic language and cultural materials. It is an existing platform and simple to operate. What is, however, needed is to develop engaging and educational content. The content needs to be linguistically, culturally, and developmentally appropriate. But it should not be simple dry lectures. Good language education content can come in the formats of TV shows for children (e.g., Sesame Street, Sagwa, Dragon Tale). Other home entertainment technologies, such as CD and DVD players should also be considered as language technologies that can be used to deliver high-quality input. What is especially worth pursuing is video-game consoles. An estimate of 70 percent of American households own at least one game console but very often these powerful machines are used to deliver entertainment rather than educational content. These machines are perfect for creating powerful language learning materials to learners who may already be familiar with the system.

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Third, we need to reconsider the pedagogy of technology enhanced language learning. What has gradually emerged as a viable and promising educational approach in recent years for technology-enhanced language education is gaming and simulation. For example, the US-China Elanguage project has taken a gaming approach toward second language education. Designed as an adventure game, the software employs a multitude of technologies to help the students learn Chinese or English as a second language. Lastly, we need have a few large scale research and development programs that focus on designing and evaluating comprehensive language learning programs enhanced by technology. Traditional development in this field has been fragmented, resulting in many low-level repetition of development. Funding agencies (government and foundations) have often invested in individual projects that result in individual pieces of software or content but history has proven that these fragmented, scattered development efforts cannot mount to significant changes. I believe we have developed sufficient knowledge about what makes an effective language learning environment and what technologies may be useful for language education, we have also learned enough from past experiences that coherent programs that connect school and home are most effective for learning. It is time that we moved to create a comprehensive, coherent language learning environment that reflects our best knowledge of language acquisition, education, child development, and technology. While there are many possible conceptualizations of such an ideal system, based on what I have discussed so far in this paper, I think such a system should have the following elements: o A TV show to expose children to language and culture in context. The TV show would have a well designed curriculum presented in entertaining and engaging format to children. o DVD/CD products of the TV content and additional learning materials, including participatory activities such as family style Karaoke activities, simple language and cultural games. o Video games based on the TV show to engage students in language exercises. o Books and other print materials to expand and extend the TV content for students to use at home and in classes. o Teaching materials and tools for teachers to use in class with students. o Books and materials delivered with sound and activities on inexpensive reading devices such as PowerTouch and LeapPads. o Computer software for individual learner uses and teacher uses. o Toys and other objects that are based on the TV show content and characters for students to play with language. Although I have not seen such a comprehensive language education program, the Magic School Bus series for science education comes closest to what I am proposing. It was a TV show on PBS, accompanied by books, a magazine, and activities materials, as well as computer games.