F4 (p, P , t) F4 (p, P , t) = F1 (q, Q, t) q p + Q P , Legendre transforms q p, Q P . So dF4 = p dq P dQ (H K )dt q dp p dq + Q dP + P dQ = q dp + Q dP (H K )dt F4 F4 F4 dp + dt .

dP + p t P

This gives qi = F4 , pi Qi = F4 , Pi K=H+ F4 , t F3 F3 (p, P , t) .

4.2.3

Examples of canonical transformations

Identity transformation: F2 (q, P , t) = q P pi = F2 = Pi , qi Qi = F2 = qi , Pi K =H.

Point transformation: F2 (q, P , t) = f (q, t) P Qi = F2 = fi (q, ) . Pi

[Point transformations are transformations where the new coordinates are determined solely by the old coordinates.] Exchange transformation F1 (q, Q, t) = q Q pi = F1 = Qi , qi Pi = F2 = qi , Qi K =H,

interchanges coordinates and momenta. Note that we have to choose carefully which generating function you use. For example for the exchange transformation cannot use F2 , as pi = F2 (q, P )/qi is not a function of Q.

49

One dimensional Harmonic Oscillator H (q, p) = 1 p2 + m 2 q 2 . 2m 2

We want to guess a time independent transformation to make q cyclic. Try p = f (P ) cos Q (P ) q = fm sin Q Now taking ratio gives p = mq cot Q giving 1 F1 (q, Q) = mq 2 cot Q , 2 (if added a constant h(Q) then nd that need to take h = 0 for consistency; also canonical transformations only dened up to a constant, hence h = 0). So P = giving q= Thus K = P , and so = K = 0 or P = const. = E P Q = K = or Q(t) = t + Q(0) , Q P or q (t) = 2E sin(t + Q(0)) . m 2 2P sin Q = f (P ) = 2mP . m 1 F1 = mq 2 cosec2 Q , Q 2 F1 (q, Q) , Q K= f (P )2 2m ie Q cyclic .

We have solved the problem by solving only trivial dierential equations canonical transformations are an algebraic approach. 50

4.2.4

Innitesimal canonical transformations

These are transformations close to the identity. Suppose (q, p) (Q, P ) is generated from F2 (q, P , t) = q P + G(q, P , t) , which implies that pi = Qi or Pi = pi + O () Qi = qi + O () , so G(q, P , t) G(q, p, t) = + O (2 ) Pi pi G(q, P , t) G(q, p, t) = + O (2 ) . pi (q, p, t) = Pi pi = qi qi qi (q, p, t) = Qi qi = G(q, p, t) is the generator of the innitesimal canonical transformation. For example consider the innitesimal coordinate transformation dened by Hamiltons equations Qi qi (t + t) = qi (t) + q i t = qi + t H pi Pi pi (t + t) = pi (t) + p i t = pi t, H qi G=H where = t . F2 G = Pi + qi qi G F2 = qi + , = Pi Pi

4.2.5

Matrix form for innitesimal canonical transformations

q p

In general writing f + f = 2f dimensional objects, = and a 2f 2f dimensional matrix J= 0 I I 0 51 J T = J , ,

This is a more compact notation. For example Hamiltons equations are now given by i = Jij Now let = Q P , H . j

and then innitesimal transformations are i = i + i = i + Jij Dene Mij = i j 2G = Gji Gij i j G . j

= ij + Jik Gkj or M = I + JG . Now consider

MJM T = (I + JG) J (I + JG)T = J + (JGJ + J (JG)T ) + O (2 ) = J + O (2 ) , as GT = G , J T = J , and thus M J MT = J Symplectic Condition ,

So innitesimal canonical transformations obey the symplectic condition, including (q (t), p(t)) (q(t + t), p(t + t)) Volumes in phase space are invariant as rst we have d2f = det Also MJM T = 1 = det M det J det M T = det J = (det M )2 = 1 , 52 i j d2f = det M d2f .

and so det M = +1 , as can get continuously to the identity (by denition). So V = d2f = df q df p is a canonical or a Poincar e invariant .

Note that for generator G = H , then this is just Liouvilles theorem again. Now consider two innitesimal transformations
T M1 JM1 =J T M2 JM2 = J

(M1 )ij = (M2 )ij =

i j i j

then the combined transformation has Mij = so MJM T = = = = M2 M1 J (M2 M1 )T T T M2 M1 JM1 M2 M2 JM2 J, i k i = = (M2 M1 )ij j k j

ie combined transformation again obeys the symplectic condition.

4.2.6

Finite Canonical Transformations

Also obey symplectic condition Direct proof is tedious (according to Goldstein) Problem is that not all canonical transformations can be continuously connected the identity (eg exchange transformation Q = p, P = q ). So use a trick: Consider (q, p) (Q, P ) as paths A B A . A, A Apply succession of innitesimal transformations with H as the generator. Since (t) (t + t) obeys the symplectic condition, so does (t) (t), t, t ; just divide the time interval [t, t ] into steps of size t. So Hamiltons equations may be regarded as a gradual succession of innitesimal canonical transformations with generator H . 53

Q, P time q, p A A q, p t0 B

Now at xed time t0 we make the canonical transformation (t0 ) (, t0 ) so i = i j j no explicit time dependence

H k l H no explicit time dependence, so K = H = Mij Jjk k l H = (MJM T )ij j H Jij K =H. j = Mij Jjk Hence we have MJM T = J again with Mij = i /j . A B A = All canonical transformations obey symplectic condition (even those that are time dependent). The inverse is also true: if the transformation obeys the sympletic condition then it is canonical [no proof] Hence we have the result sympletic canonical Miscellaneous points: Useful identities: since J 2 = I or J 1 = J then so M T JM = J , or M 1 JM T 1 = J . 54

MJM T = J = MJ = JM T 1 JMJ 2 = J 2 M T 1 J JM = M T 1 J ,

 Canonical transformations form a group Sympletic group, Sp(2f ) with elements M , where MJM T = J : the identity transformation is canonical if a transformation is canonical then so is its inverse (M 1 JM T 1 = J ) two successive canonical transformations (product) dene a canonical transformation (proof identical to given innitesimal case) the product is associative It can be shown that the symplectic condition det M = +1 ie there is no det M = 1 in distinction to eg O (3), which has reections as well as rotations. As an example of a transformation which cannot be built from innitesimal transformations close to the identity (which obviously have det M = +1) consider the exchange transformation, which interchanges coordinates and momenta, Qi = pi , Pi = qi . This gives M = J so det M = det J = +1. Symplectic condition transformation preserves the metric Jij .

4.3

Poisson Brackets
[u, v ]q,p =
def

u v u v , qi pi pi qi

u = u(q, p, t) , v = v (q, p, t) .

4.3.1

Fundamental relations

The fundamental Poisson brackets are [qi , qj ]q,p = 0 = [pi , pj ]q,p , and [qi , pj ]q,p = ij = [pi , qj ]q,p . Using again = (q, p) we may re-write the Poisson bracket as [u, v ] = u v Jij . i j

55

4.3.2

Invariance under canonical transformations

Poisson brackets are invariant under canonical transformations Proof Also writing = (Q, P ) then [u, v ] = = = = = u v Jij i j v l k u Jij i k l j u v Mki Jij Mlj k l u v Jkl k l [u, v ] .

Mij =

i j

So we do not need to specify with respect to which set of canonical variables Poisson brackets are dened. Equations expressed entirely in terms of Poisson brackets are invariant in form under canonical transformations. Invariance of fundamental Poisson brackets symplectic condition [i , j ] = Jij i Jkl jl = (MJM T )ij [i, j ] = k So if under the transformation we nd that [i , j ] = Jij then symplectic condition MJM T = J transformation is canonical . (Note, test not involving the generating function.)

4.3.3

Algebraic Properties
[u, v ] = [v, u]

1. Antisymmetry

(so [u, u] = 0) 2. Bilinearity [au + bv, w ] = a[u, w ] + b[u, w ] (a, b constants) 56