UNIT I BASIC CONCEPTS AND ISENTROPIC FLOWS

In physics, fluid dynamics is a sub-discipline of fluid mechanics that deals with fluid flowthe natural science of fluids (liquids and gases) in motion. It has several subdisciplines itself, including aerodynamics (the study of air and other gases in motion) and hyd odynamics (the study of liquids in motion). Fluid dynamics has a wide range of applications, including calculating forces and moments on aircraft, determining the mass flow rate of petroleum through pipelines, predicting weather patterns, understanding nebulae in interstellar space and reportedly modeling fission weapon detonation. ome of its principles are even used in traffic engineering, where traffic is treated as a continuous fluid. Fluid dynamics offers a systematic structure that underlies these practical disciplines, that embraces empirical and semi-empirical laws derived from flow measurement and used to solve practical problems. !he solution to a fluid dynamics problem typically involves calculating various properties of the fluid, such as velocity, pressure, density, and temperature, as functions of space and time. "istorically, hydrodynamics meant something different than it does today. #efore the twentieth century, hydrodynamics was synonymous with fluid dynamics. !his is still reflected in names of some fluid dynamics topics, li$e magnetohydrodynamics and hydrodynamic stabilityboth also applicable in, as well as being applied to, gases.a !he foundational a%ioms of fluid dynamics are the conservation laws, specifically, conservation of mass, conservation of linear momentum (also $nown as &ewton's econd (aw of )otion), and conservation of energy (also $nown as First (aw of !hermodynamics). !hese are based on classical mechanics and are modified in quantum mechanics and general relativity. !hey are e%pressed using the *eynolds !ransport !heorem. In addition to the above, fluids are assumed to obey the continuum assumption. Fluids are composed of molecules that collide with one another and solid ob+ects. "owever, the continuum assumption considers fluids to be continuous, rather than discrete.

,onsequently, properties such as density, pressure, temperature, and velocity are ta$en to be well-defined at infinitesimally small points, and are assumed to vary continuously from one point to another. !he fact that the fluid is made up of discrete molecules is ignored. For fluids which are sufficiently dense to be a continuum, do not contain ioni-ed species, and have velocities small in relation to the speed of light, the momentum equations for &ewtonian fluids are the &avier- to$es equations, which is a non-linear set of differential equations that describes the flow of a fluid whose stress depends linearly on velocity gradients and pressure. !he unsimplified equations do not have a general closed-form solution, so they are primarily of use in ,omputational Fluid .ynamics. !he equations can be simplified in a number of ways, all of which ma$e them easier to solve. ome of them allow appropriate fluid dynamics problems to be solved in closed form. In addition to the mass, momentum, and energy conservation equations, a thermodynamical equation of state giving the pressure as a function of other thermodynamic variables for the fluid is required to completely specify the problem. /n e%ample of this would be the perfect gas equation of state0 where p is pressure, temperature.

1 is density, Ru is the gas constant, M is the molar mass and T is

Com! "ssi#l" $s incom! "ssi#l" flow /ll fluids are compressible to some e%tent, that is changes in pressure or temperature will result in changes in density. "owever, in many situations the changes in pressure and temperature are sufficiently small that the changes in density are negligible. In this case the flow can be modeled as an incompressible flow. 2therwise the more general compressible flow equations must be used. )athematically, incompressibility is e%pressed by saying that the density 1 of a fluid parcel does not change as it moves in the flow field, i.e.,

where . 3 .t is the substantial derivative, which is the sum of local and convective derivatives. !his additional constraint simplifies the governing equations, especially in the case when the fluid has a uniform density. For flow of gases, to determine whether to use compressible or incompressible fluid dynamics, the )ach number of the flow is to be evaluated. /s a rough guide, compressible effects can be ignored at )ach numbers below appro%imately 4.5. For liquids, whether the incompressible assumption is valid depends on the fluid properties (specifically the critical pressure and temperature of the fluid) and the flow conditions (how close to the critical pressure the actual flow pressure becomes). /coustic problems always require allowing compressibility, since sound waves are compression waves involving changes in pressure and density of the medium through which they propagate. $iscous $s in$iscid flow 6iscous problems are those in which fluid friction has significant effects on the fluid motion. !he *eynolds number, which is a ratio between inertial and viscous forces, can be used to evaluate whether viscous or inviscid equations are appropriate to the problem. to$es flow is flow at very low *eynolds numbers, Re778, such that inertial forces can be neglected compared to viscous forces. 2n the contrary, high *eynolds numbers indicate that the inertial forces are more significant than the viscous (friction) forces. !herefore, we may assume the flow to be an inviscid flow, an appro%imation in which we neglect viscosity completely, compared to inertial terms. !his idea can wor$ fairly well when the *eynolds number is high. "owever, certain problems such as those involving solid boundaries, may require that the viscosity be included. 6iscosity often cannot be neglected near solid boundaries because the no-slip condition can generate a thin region of large strain rate ($nown as #oundary layer) which

enhances the effect of even a small amount of viscosity, and thus generating vorticity. !herefore, to calculate net forces on bodies (such as wings) we should use viscous flow equations. /s illustrated by d'/lembert's parado%, a body in an inviscid fluid will e%perience no drag force. !he standard equations of inviscid flow are the 9uler equations. /nother often used model, especially in computational fluid dynamics, is to use the 9uler equations away from the body and the boundary layer equations, which incorporates viscosity, in a region close to the body. !he 9uler equations can be integrated along a streamline to get #ernoulli's equation. :hen the flow is everywhere irrotational and inviscid, #ernoulli's equation can be used throughout the flow field. uch flows are called potential flows. S%"ady $s uns%"ady flow :hen all the time derivatives of a flow field vanish, the flow is considered to be a s%"ady flow. teady-state flow refers to the condition where the fluid properties at a point in the system do not change over time. 2therwise, flow is called unsteady. :hether a particular flow is steady or unsteady, can depend on the chosen frame of reference. For instance, laminar flow over a sphere is steady in the frame of reference that is stationary with respect to the sphere. In a frame of reference that is stationary with respect to a bac$ground flow, the flow is unsteady. !urbulent flows are unsteady by definition. / turbulent flow can, however, be statistically stationary. !he random field U(x,t) is statistically stationary if all statistics are invariant under a shift in time. !his roughly means that all statistical properties are constant in time. 2ften, the mean field is the ob+ect of interest, and this is constant too in a statistically stationary flow. teady flows are often more tractable than otherwise similar unsteady flows. !he governing equations of a steady problem have one dimension fewer (time) than the

governing equations of the same problem without ta$ing advantage of the steadiness of the flow field. Lamina $s %u #ul"n% flow !urbulence is flow characteri-ed by recirculation, eddies, and apparent randomness. Flow in which turbulence is not e%hibited is called laminar. It should be noted, however, that the presence of eddies or recirculation alone does not necessarily indicate turbulent flow these phenomena may be present in laminar flow as well. )athematically, turbulent flow is often represented via a *eynolds decomposition, in which the flow is bro$en down into the sum of an average component and a perturbation component. It is believed that turbulent flows can be described well through the use of the &avier; to$es equations. .irect numerical simulation (.& ), based on the &avier; to$es equations, ma$es it possible to simulate turbulent flows at moderate *eynolds numbers. *estrictions depend on the power of the computer used and the efficiency of the solution algorithm. !he results of .& have been found to agree well with e%perimental data for some flows<=>. )ost flows of interest have *eynolds numbers much too high for .& to be a viable option<?>, given the state of computational power for the ne%t few decades. /ny flight vehicle large enough to carry a human (( @ 5 m), moving faster than AB $m3h (B4 m3s) is well beyond the limit of .& simulation (*e C = million). !ransport aircraft wings (such as on an /irbus /544 or #oeing A=A) have *eynolds numbers of =4 million (based on the wing chord). In order to solve these real-life flow problems, turbulence models will be a necessity for the foreseeable future. *eynolds-averaged &avier; to$es equations (*/& ) combined with turbulence modeling provides a model of the effects of the turbulent flow. uch a modeling mainly provides the additional momentum transfer by the *eynolds stresses, although the turbulence also enhances the heat and mass transfer. /nother promising methodology is large eddy simulation ((9 ), especially in the guise of detached eddy simulation (.9 )which is a combination of */& modeling and large eddy simulation. turbulence

Newtonian vs non-Newtonian fluids ir Isaac &ewton showed how stress and the rate of strain are very close to linearly related for many familiar fluids, such as water and air. !hese &ewtonian fluids are modeled by a coefficient called viscosity, which depends on the specific fluid. "owever, some of the other materials, such as emulsions and slurries and some viscoelastic materials (e.g. blood, some polymers), have more complicated non-Newtonian stress-strain behaviours. !hese materials include sticky liquids such as late%, honey, and lubricants which are studied in the sub-discipline of rheology. Subsonic vs transonic, supersonic and hypersonic flows :hile many terrestrial flows (e.g. flow of water through a pipe) occur at low mach numbers, many flows of practical interest (e.g. in aerodynamics) occur at high fractions of the )ach &umber )C8 or in e%cess of it (supersonic flows). &ew phenomena occur at these )ach number regimes (e.g. shoc$ waves for supersonic flow, transonic instability in a regime of flows with ) nearly equal to 8, non-equilibrium chemical behavior due to ioni-ation in hypersonic flows) and it is necessary to treat each of these flow regimes separately. Magnetohydrodynamics )agnetohydrodynamics is the multi-disciplinary study of the flow of electrically conducting fluids in electromagnetic fields. 9%amples of such fluids include plasmas, liquid metals, and salt water. !he fluid flow equations are solved simultaneously with )a%well's equations of electromagnetism. Other approximations !here are a large number of other possible appro%imations to fluid dynamic problems. ome of the more commonly used are listed below.

!he Boussin"s& a!! o'ima%ion neglects variations in density e%cept to calculate buoyancy forces. It is often used in free convection problems where density changes are small.

Lu# ica%ion %h"o y and ("l")Shaw flow e%ploits the large aspect ratio of the domain to show that certain terms in the equations are small and so can be neglected.

Sl"nd" )#ody %h"o y is a methodology used in to$es flow problems to estimate the force on, or flow field around, a long slender ob+ect in a viscous fluid. !he shallow)wa%" "&ua%ions can be used to describe a layer of relatively inviscid fluid with a free surface, in which surface gradients are small. !he Boussin"s& "&ua%ions are applicable to surface waves on thic$er layers of fluid and with steeper surface slopes. Da cy*s law is used for flow in porous media, and wor$s with variables averaged over several pore-widths. In rotating systems, the &uasi)+"os% o!hic a!! o'ima%ion assumes an almost perfect balance between pressure gradients and the ,oriolis force. It is useful in the study of atmospheric dynamics.

Terminology in incompressible fluid dynamics !he concepts of total pressure and dynamic pressure arise from #ernoulli's equation and are significant in the study of all fluid flows. (!hese two pressures are not pressures in the usual sensethey cannot be measured using an aneroid, #ourdon tube or mercury column.) !o avoid potential ambiguity when referring to pressure in fluid dynamics, many authors use the term static pressure to distinguish it from total pressure and dynamic pressure. tatic pressure is identical to pressure and can be identified for every point in a fluid flow field. In Aerodynamics, (.D. ,lancy writes<E>0 To distinguish it from the total and dynamic pressures, the actual pressure of the fluid, which is associated not with its motion ut with its state, is often referred to as the static pressure, ut where the term pressure alone is used it refers to this static pressure!

/ point in a fluid flow where the flow has come to rest (i.e. speed is equal to -ero ad+acent to some solid body immersed in the fluid flow) is of special significance. It is of such importance that it is given a special namea stagnation point. !he static pressure at the stagnation point is of special significance and is given its own namestagnation pressure. In incompressible flows, the stagnation pressure at a stagnation point is equal to the total pressure throughout the flow field. Terminology in compressible fluid dynamics In a compressible fluid, such as air, the temperature and density are essential when determining the state of the fluid. In addition to the concept of total pressure (also $nown as stagnation pressure), the concepts of total (or stagnation) temperature and total (or stagnation) density are also essential in any study of compressible fluid flows. !o avoid potential ambiguity when referring to temperature and density, many authors use the terms static temperature and static density. tatic temperature is identical to temperatureF and static density is identical to densityF and both can be identified for every point in a fluid flow field. !he temperature and density at a stagnation point are called stagnation temperature and stagnation density. / similar approach is also ta$en with the thermodynamic properties of compressible fluids. )any authors use the terms total (or stagnation) enthalpy and total (or stagnation) entropy. !he terms static enthalpy and static entropy appear to be less common, but where they are used they mean nothing more than enthalpy and entropy respectively, and the prefi% GstaticG is being used to avoid ambiguity with their 'total' or 'stagnation' counterparts. #ecause the 'total' flow conditions are defined by isentropically bringing the fluid to rest, the total (or stagnation) entropy is by definition always equal to the GstaticG entropy. !he )ach number is commonly used both with ob+ects traveling at high speed in a fluid, and with high-speed fluid flows inside channels such as no--les, diffusers or wind tunnels. /s it is defined as a ratio of two speeds, it is a dimensionless number. /t

tandard ea (evel conditions (corresponding to a temperature of 8? degrees ,elsius), the speed of sound is 5=4.5 m3s<5> (8BB? $m3h, or AE8.B mph, or EE8.? $nots, or 888E ft3s) in the 9arth's atmosphere. !he speed represented by )ach 8 is not a constantF for e%ample, it is mostly dependent on temperature and atmospheric composition and largely independent of pressure. In the stratosphere, where the temperatures are constant, it does not vary with altitude even though the air pressure changes significantly with altitude. ince the speed of sound increases as the temperature increases, the actual speed of an ob+ect traveling at )ach 8 will depend on the fluid temperature around it. )ach number is useful because the fluid behaves in a similar way at the same )ach number. o, an aircraft traveling at )ach 8 at B4H, or EIHF will e%perience shoc$ waves in much the same manner as when it is traveling at )ach 8 at 88,444 m (5E,444 ft) at -?4H, or -?IF, even though it is traveling at only IEJ of its speed at higher temperature li$e B4H, or EIHF. High-speed flow around objects Flight can be roughly classified in si% categories0 R"+im" Su#sonic T ansonic Sonic Su!" sonic (y!" sonic ,ach 74.A? 4.A?;8.B 8.4 8.B;?.4 ?.4;84.4 (i+h) hy!" sonic @84.4

For comparison0 the required speed for low 9arth orbit is appro%imately A.? $m3s C )ach B?.= in air at high altitudes. !he speed of light in a vacuum corresponds to a )ach number of appro%imately II8,444 (relative to air at sea level). /t transonic speeds, the flow field around the ob+ect includes both sub- and supersonic parts. !he transonic period begins when first -ones of )@8 flow appear around the ob+ect. In case of an airfoil (such as an aircraft's wing), this typically happens above the wing. upersonic flow can decelerate bac$ to subsonic only in a normal shoc$F this typically happens before the trailing edge. (Fig.8a) /s the speed increases, the -one of M@8 flow increases towards both leading and trailing edges. /s MC8 is reached and passed, the normal shoc$ reaches the trailing edge and

becomes a wea$ oblique shoc$0 the flow decelerates over the shoc$, but remains supersonic. / normal shoc$ is created ahead of the ob+ect, and the only subsonic -one in the flow field is a small area around the ob+ect's leading edge. (Fig.8b)

(a)

(b)

Fi+- .- Mach num er in transonic airflow around an airfoil" M#$ %a& and M'$ % &! :hen an aircraft e%ceeds )ach 8 (i.e. the sound barrier) a large pressure difference is created +ust in front of the aircraft. !his abrupt pressure difference, called a shoc$ wave, spreads bac$ward and outward from the aircraft in a cone shape (a so-called )ach cone). It is this shoc$ wave that causes the sonic boom heard as a fast moving aircraft travels overhead. / person inside the aircraft will not hear this. !he higher the speed, the more narrow the coneF at +ust over MC8 it is hardly a cone at all, but closer to a slightly concave plane. /t fully supersonic speed, the shoc$ wave starts to ta$e its cone shape and flow is either completely supersonic, or (in case of a blunt ob+ect), only a very small subsonic flow area remains between the ob+ect's nose and the shoc$ wave it creates ahead of itself. (In the case of a sharp ob+ect, there is no air between the nose and the shoc$ wave0 the shoc$ wave starts from the nose.) /s the )ach number increases, so does the strength of the shoc$ wave and the )ach cone becomes increasingly narrow. /s the fluid flow crosses the shoc$ wave, its speed is reduced and temperature, pressure, and density increase. !he stronger the shoc$, the greater the changes. /t high enough )ach numbers the temperature increases so much over the shoc$ that ioni-ation and dissociation of gas molecules behind the shoc$ wave begin. uch flows are called hypersonic.

It is clear that any ob+ect traveling at hypersonic speeds will li$ewise be e%posed to the same e%treme temperatures as the gas behind the nose shoc$ wave, and hence choice of heat-resistant materials becomes important. High-speed flow in a channel /s a flow in a channel crosses MC8 becomes supersonic, one significant change ta$es place. !he conservation of mass flow rate leads one to e%pect that contracting the flow channel would increase the flow speed (i.e. ma$ing the channel narrower results in faster air flow) and at subsonic speeds this holds true. "owever, once the flow becomes supersonic, the relationship of flow area and speed is reversed0 e%panding the channel actually increases the speed. !he obvious result is that in order to accelerate a flow to supersonic, one needs a convergent-divergent no--le, where the converging section accelerates the flow to MC8, sonic speeds, and the diverging section continues the acceleration. speeds ()ach 85 at B4H,). /n aircraft )achmeter or electronic flight information system (9FI ) can display )ach number derived from stagnation pressure (pitot tube) and static pressure. C i%ical ,ach num#" In aerodynamics, the c i%ical ,ach num#" /,c 0 of an aircraft is the lowest )ach number at which the airflow over a small region of the wing reaches the speed of sound.<8> For all aircraft in flight, the airflow around the aircraft is not e%actly the same as the airspeed of the aircraft due to the airflow speeding up and slowing down to travel around the aircraft structure. /t the ,ritical )ach number, local airflow in some areas near the airframe reaches the speed of sound, even though the aircraft itself has an airspeed lower than )ach 8.4. !his creates a wea$ shoc$ wave. /t speeds faster than the ,ritical )ach number0 uch no--les are called de (aval no--les and in e%treme cases they are able to reach incredible, hypersonic

drag coefficient increases suddenly, causing dramatically increased drag in aircraft not designed for transonic or supersonic speeds, changes to the airflow over the flight control surfaces lead to deterioration in control of the aircraft.

In aircraft not designed to fly at the ,ritical )ach number, shoc$ waves in the flow over the wing and tailplane were sufficient to stall the wing, ma$e control surfaces ineffective or lead to loss of control such as )ach tuc$. !he phenomena associated with problems at the ,ritical )ach number became $nown as compressibility. ,ompressibility led to a number of accidents involving high-speed military and e%perimental aircraft in the 8K54s and 8K=4s. /lthough un$nown at the time, compressibility was the cause of the phenomenon $nown as the sound barrier. ubsonic aircraft such as the upermarine pitfire, #F 84K, L-?8 )ustang, Mloster )eteor, )e BEB, L-I4 have relatively thic$, unswept wings and are incapable of reaching )ach 8.4. In 8K=A, ,huc$ Neager flew the #ell O-8 to )ach 8.4 and beyond, and the sound barrier was finally bro$en. 9arly transonic military aircraft such as the "aw$er "unter and F-IE abre were

designed to fly satisfactorily faster than their ,ritical )ach number. !hey did not possess sufficient engine thrust to reach )ach 8.4 in level flight but could be dived to )ach 8.4 and beyond, and remain controllable. )odern passenger-carrying +et aircraft such as /irbus and #oeing aircraft have )a%imum 2perating )ach numbers slower than )ach 8.4. upersonic aircraft, such as ,oncorde, the 9nglish 9lectric (ightning, (oc$heed F-84=, .assault )irage III, and )iM B8 are designed to e%ceed )ach 8.4 in level flight. !hey have very thin wings. !heir ,ritical )ach numbers are higher than those of subsonic and transonic aircraft but less than )ach 8.4. !he actual ,ritical )ach number varies from wing to wing. In general a thic$er wing will have a lower ,ritical )ach number, because a thic$er wing accelerates the airflow to a faster speed than a thinner one. For instance, the fairly thic$ wing on the L-5I (ightning led to a ,ritical )ach number of about .EK, a speed it could reach with some ease in

dives, which led to a number of crashes. !he much thinner wing on the pitfire caused this aircraft to have a ,ritical )ach number of about 4.IK Eff"c%s of ,ach num#" and com! "ssi#ili%y

upermarine

:e study the effects of )ach number and compressibility on strain-rate and vorticity dynamics in decaying isotropic turbulence employing direct numerical simulations. ince local )ach number and dilatation are two direct indicators of compressibility of a fluid element, we use these quantities as conditioning parameters to e%amine the various aspects of turbulence dynamics. everal interesting observations along with the underlying physics pertaining to the inertial (vorte% stretching and self-straining) and pressure (pressure "essian and baroclinic) terms in the budget of strain-rate and vorticity dynamics will be presented in the tal$. !he contrasting nature of these physical effects in e%panding vs. contracting and supersonic vs. subsonic fluid elements will be highlighted.

P&I!-II F(2: !"*2PM" .P,!

Rayl"i+h Flow1

*ayleigh flow refers to dia#a%ic flow through a constant area duct where the effect of heat addition or re+ection is considered. Com! "ssi#ili%y effects often come into consideration, although the *ayleigh flow model certainly also applies to incom! "ssi#l" flow. For this model, the duct area remains constant and no mass is added within the duct. !herefore, unli$e Fanno flow, the s%a+na%ion %"m!" a%u " is a variable. !he heat addition causes a decrease in s%a+na%ion ! "ssu ", which is $nown as the *ayleigh effect and is critical in the design of combustion systems. "eat addition will cause both su!" sonic and su#sonic ,ach num#" s to approach )ach 8, resulting in cho2"d flow. ,onversely, heat re+ection decreases a subsonic )ach number and increases a supersonic )ach number along the duct. It can be shown that for calorically perfect flows the ma%imum "n% o!y occurs at , C 8. *ayleigh flow is named after 3ohn S% u%%4 5 d Ba on Rayl"i+h. Fanno Flow1

Fanno flow refers to adiabatic through a constant area duct where the effect of friction is considered. ,ompressibilityflow effects often come into consideration, although the Fanno flow model certainly also applies to incompressible flow. For this model, the duct area remains constant, the flow is assumed to be steady and onedimensional, and no mass is added within the duct. !he Fanno flow model is considered an irreversible process due to viscous effects. !he viscous friction causes the flow properties to change along the duct. !he frictional effect is modeled as a shear stress at the wall acting on the fluid with uniform properties over any cross section of the duct. For a flow with an upstream )ach number greater than 8.4 in a sufficiently long enough duct, deceleration occurs and the flow can become cho$ed. 2n the other hand, for a flow with an upstream )ach number less than 8.4, acceleration occurs and the flow can become cho$ed in a sufficiently long duct. It can be shown that for flow of calorically per !he Fanno flow model begins with a differential equation that relates the change in )ach number with respect to the length of the duct, dM(dx. 2ther terms in the differential equation are the heat capacity ratio, ), the Fanning friction factor, f, and the hydraulic diameter, *h0 6a ia%ion of Fluid P o!" %i"s1 E&ua%ions of fluid dynamics !he foundational a%ioms of fluid dynamics are the conservation laws, specifically, conservation of mass, conservation of linear momentum (also $nown as &ewton's econd (aw of )otion), and conservation of energy (also $nown as First (aw of !hermodynamics). !hese are based on classical mechanics and are modified in quantum mechanics and general relativity. !hey are e%pressed using the *eynolds !ransport !heorem. In addition to the above, fluids are assumed to obey the continuum assumption. Fluids are composed of molecules that collide with one another and solid ob+ects. "owever, the continuum assumption considers fluids to be continuous, rather than discrete. ,onsequently, properties such as density, pressure, temperature, and velocity are ta$en to be well-defined at infinitesimally small points, and are assumed to vary continuously

from one point to another. !he fact that the fluid is made up of discrete molecules is ignored. For fluids which are sufficiently dense to be a continuum, do not contain ioni-ed species, and have velocities small in relation to the speed of light, the momentum equations for &ewtonian fluids are the &avier- to$es equations, which is a non-linear set of differential equations that describes the flow of a fluid whose stress depends linearly on velocity gradients and pressure. !he unsimplified equations do not have a general closed-form solution, so they are primarily of use in ,omputational Fluid .ynamics. !he equations can be simplified in a number of ways, all of which ma$e them easier to solve. ome of them allow appropriate fluid dynamics problems to be solved in closed form. In addition to the mass, momentum, and energy conservation equations, a thermodynamical equation of state giving the pressure as a function of other thermodynamic variables for the fluid is required to completely specify the problem. /n e%ample of this would be the perfect gas equation of state0

where p is pressure, 1 is density, Ru is the gas constant, M is the molar mass and T is temperature. Com! "ssi#l" $s incom! "ssi#l" flow /ll fluids are compressible to some e%tent, that is changes in pressure or temperature will result in changes in density. "owever, in many situations the changes in pressure and temperature are sufficiently small that the changes in density are negligible. In this case the flow can be modeled as an incompressible flow. 2therwise the more general compressible flow equations must be used. )athematically, incompressibility is e%pressed by saying that the density 1 of a fluid parcel does not change as it moves in the flow field, i.e.,

where . 3 .t is the substantial derivative, which is the sum of local and convective derivatives. !his additional constraint simplifies the governing equations, especially in the case when the fluid has a uniform density. For flow of gases, to determine whether to use compressible or incompressible fluid dynamics, the )ach number of the flow is to be evaluated. /s a rough guide, compressible effects can be ignored at )ach numbers below appro%imately 4.5. For liquids, whether the incompressible assumption is valid depends on the fluid properties (specifically the critical pressure and temperature of the fluid) and the flow conditions (how close to the critical pressure the actual flow pressure becomes). /coustic problems always require allowing compressibility, since sound waves are compression waves involving changes in pressure and density of the medium through which they propagate. 6iscous $s in$iscid flow 6iscous problems are those in which fluid friction has significant effects on the fluid motion. !he *eynolds number, which is a ratio between inertial and viscous forces, can be used to evaluate whether viscous or inviscid equations are appropriate to the problem. to$es flow is flow at very low *eynolds numbers, Re778, such that inertial forces can be neglected compared to viscous forces. 2n the contrary, high *eynolds numbers indicate that the inertial forces are more significant than the viscous (friction) forces. !herefore, we may assume the flow to be an inviscid flow, an appro%imation in which we neglect viscosity completely, compared to inertial terms. !his idea can wor$ fairly well when the *eynolds number is high. "owever, certain problems such as those involving solid boundaries, may require that the viscosity be

included. 6iscosity often cannot be neglected near solid boundaries because the no-slip condition can generate a thin region of large strain rate ($nown as #oundary layer) which enhances the effect of even a small amount of viscosity, and thus generating vorticity. !herefore, to calculate net forces on bodies (such as wings) we should use viscous flow equations. /s illustrated by d'/lembert's parado%, a body in an inviscid fluid will e%perience no drag force. !he standard equations of inviscid flow are the 9uler equations. /nother often used model, especially in computational fluid dynamics, is to use the 9uler equations away from the body and the boundary layer equations, which incorporates viscosity, in a region close to the body. !he 9uler equations can be integrated along a streamline to get #ernoulli's equation. :hen the flow is everywhere irrotational and inviscid, #ernoulli's equation can be used throughout the flow field. uch flows are called potential flows. S%"ady $s uns%"ady flow "ydrodynamics simulation of the *ayleigh;!aylor instability

:hen all the time derivatives of a flow field vanish, the flow is considered to be a s%"ady flow. teady-state flow refers to the condition where the fluid properties at a point in the system do not change over time. 2therwise, flow is called unsteady. :hether a particular

flow is steady or unsteady, can depend on the chosen frame of reference. For instance, laminar flow over a sphere is steady in the frame of reference that is stationary with respect to the sphere. In a frame of reference that is stationary with respect to a bac$ground flow, the flow is unsteady. !urbulent flows are unsteady by definition. / turbulent flow can, however, be statistically stationary. /ccording to Lope !he random field U(x,t) is statistically stationary if all statistics are invariant under a shift in time. !his roughly means that all statistical properties are constant in time. 2ften, the mean field is the ob+ect of interest, and this is constant too in a statistically stationary flow. teady flows are often more tractable than otherwise similar unsteady flows. !he governing equations of a steady problem have one dimension fewer (time) than the governing equations of the same problem without ta$ing advantage of the steadiness of the flow field. Lamina $s %u #ul"n% flow !urbulence is flow characteri-ed by recirculation, eddies, and apparent randomness. Flow in which turbulence is not e%hibited is called laminar. It should be noted, however, that the presence of eddies or recirculation alone does not necessarily indicate turbulent flow these phenomena may be present in laminar flow as well. )athematically, turbulent flow is often represented via a *eynolds decomposition, in which the flow is bro$en down into the sum of an average component and a perturbation component. It is believed that turbulent flows can be described well through the use of the &avier; to$es equations. .irect numerical simulation (.& ), based on the &avier; to$es equations, ma$es it possible to simulate turbulent flows at moderate *eynolds numbers. *estrictions depend on the power of the computer used and the efficiency of the solution

algorithm. !he results of .& have been found to agree well with e%perimental data for some flows. )ost flows of interest have *eynolds numbers much too high for .& to be a viable option, given the state of computational power for the ne%t few decades. /ny flight vehicle large enough to carry a human (( @ 5 m), moving faster than AB $m3h (B4 m3s) is well beyond the limit of .& simulation (*e C = million). !ransport aircraft wings (such as on an /irbus /544 or #oeing A=A) have *eynolds numbers of =4 million (based on the wing chord). In order to solve these real-life flow problems, turbulence models will be a necessity for the foreseeable future. *eynolds-averaged &avier; to$es equations (*/& ) combined with turbulence modeling provides a model of the effects of the turbulent flow. uch a modeling mainly provides the additional momentum transfer by the *eynolds stresses, although the turbulence also enhances the heat and mass transfer. /nother promising methodology is large eddy simulation ((9 ), especially in the guise of detached eddy simulation (.9 )which is a combination of */& modeling and large eddy simulation. N"w%onian $s non)N"w%onian fluids ir Isaac &ewton showed how stress and the rate of strain are very close to linearly related for many familiar fluids, such as water and air. !hese &ewtonian fluids are modeled by a coefficient called viscosity, which depends on the specific fluid. "owever, some of the other materials, such as emulsions and slurries and some viscoelastic materials (e.g. blood, some polymers), have more complicated non-Newtonian stress-strain behaviours. !hese materials include sticky liquids such as late%, honey, and lubricants which are studied in the sub-discipline of rheology. turbulence

Su#sonic $s % ansonic4 su!" sonic and hy!" sonic flows

:hile many terrestrial flows (e.g. flow of water through a pipe) occur at low mach numbers, many flows of practical interest (e.g. in aerodynamics) occur at high fractions of the )ach &umber )C8 or in e%cess of it (supersonic flows). &ew phenomena occur at these )ach number regimes (e.g. shoc$ waves for supersonic flow, transonic instability in a regime of flows with ) nearly equal to 8, non-equilibrium chemical behavior due to ioni-ation in hypersonic flows) and it is necessary to treat each of these flow regimes separately. ,a+n"%ohyd odynamics )agnetohydrodynamics is the multi-disciplinary study of the flow of electrically conducting fluids in electromagnetic fields. 9%amples of such fluids include plasmas, liquid metals, and salt water. !he fluid flow equations are solved simultaneously with )a%well's equations of electromagnetism. Us" of Ta#l"s and Cha %s1 Fanno Flow1 Fanno flow refers to adiabatic flow through a constant area duct where the effect --- !he equation above can be used to plot the Fanno line Rayl"i+h flow *ayleigh flow refers to adiabatic flow through a constant area duct where the effect --!herefore, unli$e Fanno flow , the stagnation

UNIT III NOR,AL AND OBLI7UE S(OC8S

/ shoc2 wa$" (also called shoc2 f on% or simply Gshoc2G) is a type of propagating disturbance. (i$e an ordinary wave, it carries energy and can propagate through a medium (solid, liquid, gas or plasma) or in some cases in the absence of a material medium, through a field such as the electromagnetic field. hoc$ waves are characteri-ed by an abrupt, nearly discontinuous change in the characteristics of the medium. <8> /cross a shoc$ there is always an e%tremely rapid rise in pressure, temperature and density of the flow. In supersonic flows, e%pansion is achieved through an e%pansion fan. / shoc$ wave travels through most media at a higher speed than an ordinary wave.

Pnli$e solitons (another $ind of nonlinear wave), the energy of a shoc$ wave dissipates relatively quic$ly with distance. /lso, the accompanying e%pansion wave approaches and eventually merges with the shoc$ wave, partially cancelling it out. !hus the sonic boom associated with the passage of a supersonic aircraft is the sound wave resulting from the degradation and merging of the shoc$ wave and the e%pansion wave produced by the aircraft. :hen a shoc$ wave passes through matter, the total energy is preserved but the energy which can be e%tracted as wor$ decreases and entropy increases. !his, for e%ample, creates additional drag force on aircraft with shoc$s. hoc$ waves can be0

&ormal0 at K4H (perpendicular) to the shoc$ medium's flow direction. 2blique0 at an angle to the direction of flow. #ow0 2ccurs upstream of the front (bow) of a blunt ob+ect when the upstream velocity e%ceeds )ach 8.

ome other terms

hoc$ Front0 an alternative name for the shoc$ wave itself ,ontact Front0 in a shoc$ wave caused by a driver gas (for e%ample the GimpactG of a high e%plosive on the surrounding air), the boundary between the driver (e%plosive products) and the driven (air) gases. !he ,ontact Front trails the hoc$ Front.

In supersonic flows Lressure-time diagram at an e%ternal observation point for the case of a supersonic ob+ect propagating past the observer. !he leading edge of the ob+ect causes a shoc$ (left, in red) and the trailing edge of the ob+ect causes an e%pansion (right, in blue). :hen an ob+ect (or disturbance) moves faster than the information about it can be propagated into the surrounding fluid, fluid near the disturbance cannot react or Gget out

of the wayG before the disturbance arrives. In a shoc$ wave the properties of the fluid (density, pressure, temperature, velocity, )ach number) change almost instantaneously. )easurements of the thic$ness of shoc$ waves have resulted in values appro%imately one order of magnitude greater than the mean free path of the gas investigated. hoc$ waves form when the speed of a gas changes by more than the speed of sound.<B> /t the region where this occurs sound waves traveling against the flow reach a point where they cannot travel any further upstream and the pressure progressively builds in that region, and a high pressure shoc$ wave rapidly forms. hoc$ waves are not conventional sound wavesF a shoc$ wave ta$es the form of a very sharp change in the gas properties on the order of a few mean free paths (roughly micrometers at atmospheric conditions) in thic$ness. hoc$ waves in air are heard as a loud Gcrac$G or GsnapG noise. 2ver longer distances a shoc$ wave can change from a nonlinear wave into a linear wave, degenerating into a conventional sound wave as it heats the air and loses energy. !he sound wave is heard as the familiar GthudG or GthumpG of a sonic boom, commonly created by the supersonic flight of aircraft. !he shoc$ wave is one of several different ways in which a gas in a supersonic flow can be compressed. ome other methods are isentropic compressions, including Lrandtl)eyer compressions. !he method of compression of a gas results in different temperatures and densities for a given pressure ratio, which can be analytically calculated for a non-reacting gas. / shoc$ wave compression results in a loss of total pressure, meaning that it is a less efficient method of compressing gases for some purposes, for instance in the inta$e of a scram+et. !he appearance of pressure-drag on supersonic aircraft is mostly due to the effect of shoc$ compression on the flow. Due to nonlinear steepening hoc$ waves can form due to steepening of ordinary waves. !he best-$nown e%ample of this phenomenon is ocean waves that form brea$ers on the shore. In shallow water, the speed of surface waves is dependent on the depth of the water. /n incoming ocean wave has a slightly higher wave speed near the crest of each wave than near the troughs

between waves, because the wave height is not infinitesimal compared to the depth of the water. !he crests overta$e the troughs until the leading edge of the wave forms a vertical face and spills over to form a turbulent shoc$ (a brea$er) that dissipates the wave's energy as sound and heat. imilar phenomena affect strong sound waves in gas or plasma, due to the dependence of the sound speed on temperature and pressure. trong waves heat the medium near each pressure front, due to adiabatic compression of the air itself, so that high pressure fronts outrun the corresponding pressure troughs. :hile shoc$ formation by this process does not normally happen to sound waves in 9arth's atmosphere, it is thought to be one mechanism by which the solar chromosphere and corona are heated, via waves that propagate up from the solar interior.

Analogies
/ shoc$ wave may be described as the furthest point upstream of a moving ob+ect which G$nowsG about the approach of the ob+ect. In this description, the shoc$ wave position is defined as the boundary between the -one having no information about the shoc$-driving event, and the -one aware of the shoc$-driving event, analogous with the light cone described in the theory of special relativity. !o get a shoc$ wave something has to be travelling faster than the local speed of sound. In that case some parts of the air around the aircraft are travelling at e%actly the speed of sound with the aircraft, so that the sound waves leaving the aircraft pile up on each other, similar to a tailbac$ on a road, and a shoc$ wave forms, the pressure increases, and then spreads out sideways. #ecause of this amplification effect, a shoc$ wave is very intense, more li$e an e%plosion when heard (not coincidentally, since e%plosions create shoc$ waves). /nalogous phenomena are $nown outside fluid mechanics. For e%ample, particles accelerated beyond the speed of light in a refractive medium (where the speed of light is less than that in a vacuum, such as water) create visible shoc$ effects, a phenomenon $nown as ,heren$ov radiation.

Examples
#elow are a number of e%amples of shoc$ waves, broadly grouped with similar shoc$ phenomena0

hoc$ wave propagating into a stationary medium, ahead of the fireball of an e%plosion. !he shoc$ is made visible by the shadow effect (!rinity e%plosion.)

Moving shock

Psually consists of a shoc$wave propagating into a stationary medium In this case, the gas ahead of the shoc$ is stationary (in the laboratory frame), and the gas behind the shoc$ is supersonic in the laboratory frame. !he shoc$ propagates with a wave front which is normal (at right angles) to the direction of flow. !he speed of the shoc$ is a function of the original pressure ratio between the two bodies of gas.

)oving shoc$s are usually generated by the interaction of two bodies of gas at different pressure, with a shoc$ wave propagating into the lower pressure gas, and an e%pansion wave propagating into the higher pressure gas.

9%amples0 #alloon bursting, hoc$ tube, shoc$ wave from e%plosion

etonation wave
)ain article0 .etonation

/ detonation wave is essentially a shoc$ supported by a trailing e%othermic reaction. It involves a wave traveling through a highly combustible or chemically unstable medium, such as an o%ygen-methane mi%ture or a high e%plosive. !he chemical reaction of the medium occurs following the shoc$ wave, and the chemical energy of the reaction drives the wave forward.

/ detonation wave follows slightly different rules from an ordinary shoc$ since it is driven by the chemical reaction occurring behind the shoc$ wave front. In the simplest theory for detonations, an unsupported, self-propagating detonation wave proceeds at the ,hapman-Douguet velocity. / detonation will also cause a shoc$ of type 8, above to propagate into the surrounding air due to the overpressure induced by the e%plosion.

:hen a shoc$wave is created by high e%plosives such as !&! (which has a detonation velocity of E,K44 m3s), it will always travel at high, supersonic velocity from its point of origin.

hadowgraph of the detached shoc$ on a bullet in supersonic flight, published by 9rnst )ach in 8IIA.

etached shock

!hese shoc$s are curved, and form a small distance in front of the body. .irectly in front of the body, they stand at K4 degrees to the oncoming flow, and then curve around the body. .etached shoc$s allow the same type of analytic calculations as for the attached shoc$, for the flow near the shoc$. !hey are a topic of continuing interest, because the rules governing the shoc$'s distance ahead of the blunt body are complicated, and are a function of the body's shape. /dditionally, the shoc$ standoff distance varies drastically with the temperature for a non-ideal gas, causing large differences in the heat transfer to the thermal protection system of the vehicle. ee the e%tended discussion on this topic at /tmospheric reentry. !hese follow the Gstrong-shoc$G solutions of the analytic equations, meaning that for some oblique shoc$s very close to the deflection angle limit, the downstream )ach number is subsonic. ee also bow shoc$ or oblique shoc$

uch a shoc$ occurs when the ma%imum deflection angle is e%ceeded. / detached shoc$ is commonly seen on blunt bodies, but may also be seen on sharp bodies at low )ach numbers.

9%amples0 pace return vehicles (/pollo, pace shuttle), bullets, the boundary (#ow shoc$) of a magnetosphere. !he name Gbow shoc$G comes from the e%ample of a bow wave, the detached shoc$ formed at the bow (front) of a ship or boat moving through water, whose slow surface wave speed is easily e%ceeded (see ocean surface wave).

!ttached shock

!hese shoc$s appear as GattachedG to the tip of a sharp body moving at supersonic speeds. 9%amples0 upersonic wedges and cones with small ape% angles !he attached shoc$ wave is a classic structure in aerodynamics because, for a perfect gas and inviscid flow field, an analytic solution is available, such that the pressure ratio, temperature ratio, angle of the wedge and the downstream )ach number can all be calculated $nowing the upstream )ach number and the shoc$ angle. maller shoc$ angles are associated with higher upstream )ach numbers,

and the special case where the shoc$ wave is at K4 degrees to the oncoming flow (&ormal shoc$), is associated with a )ach number of one. !hese follow the Gwea$-shoc$G solutions of the analytic equations.

"ecompression shock

!hese shoc$s appear when the flow over a transonic body is decelerated to subsonic speeds. 9%amples0 !ransonic wings, turbines :here the flow over the suction side of a transonic wing is accelerated to a supersonic speed, the resulting re-compression can be by either Lrandtl-)eyer compression or by the formation of a normal shoc$. !his shoc$ is of particular interest to ma$ers of transonic devices because it can cause separation of the boundary layer at the point where it touches the transonic profile. !his can then lead to full separation and stall on the profile, higher drag, or shoc$-buffet, a condition where the separation and the shoc$ interact in a resonance condition, causing resonating loads on the underlying structure.

Shock in a pipe flow

!his shoc$ appears when supersonic flow in a pipe is decelerated. 9%amples0 upersonic ram+et, scram+et, needle valve In this case the gas ahead of the shoc$ is supersonic (in the laboratory frame), and the gas behind the shoc$ system is either supersonic (o lique shocks) or subsonic (a normal shock) (/lthough for some oblique shoc$s very close to the deflection angle limit, the downstream )ach number is subsonic.) !he shoc$ is the result of the deceleration of the gas by a converging duct, or by the growth of the boundary layer on the wall of a parallel duct.

Shock waves in rapid granular flows

hoc$ waves can also occur in rapid flows of dense granular materials down inclined channels or slopes. trong shoc$s in rapid dense granular flows can be studied theoretically and analy-ed to compare with e%perimental data. ,onsider a configuration in which the rapidly moving material down the chute impinges on an obstruction wall erected perpendicular at the end of a long and steep channel. Impact leads to a sudden change in the flow regime from a fast moving supercritical thin layer to a stagnant thic$ heap. !his flow configuration is particularly interesting because it is analogous to some hydraulic and aerodynamic situations associated with flow regime changes from supercritical to subcritical flows. uch study is important in estimating impact pressures e%erted by avalanches and granular flows on defense structures or infrastructure along the channel and in the run-out -ones, and to study the comple% flow dynamics around the obstacles and in depositions when the mass comes suddenly to a standstill.

Shock waves in astrophysics

)ain article0 hoc$ waves in astrophysics /strophysical environments feature many different types of shoc$ waves. ome common e%amples are supernovae shoc$ waves or blast waves traveling through the interstellar medium, the bow shoc$ caused by the 9arth's magnetic field colliding with the solar wind and shoc$ waves caused by gala%ies colliding with each other. /nother interesting type of shoc$ in astrophysics is the quasi-steady reverse shoc$ or termination shoc$ that terminates the ultra relativistic wind from young pulsars.

UNIT I6 3ET PROPULSION

+enturies ago in $,, A!*!, -ero, a .reek philosopher and mathematician, demonstrated /et power in a machine called an 0aeolipile!0 A heated, water filled steel all with no11les spun as steam escaped! 2ver the course of the past half a century, +et-powered flight has vastly changed the way we all live. "owever, the basic principle of +et propulsion is neither new nor complicated. ,enturies ago in 844 /..., "ero, a Mree$ philosopher and mathematician, demonstrated +et power in a machine called an Gaeolipile.G / heated, water filled steel ball with no--les spun as steam escaped. :hyQ !he principle behind this phenomenon was not fully understood until 8EK4 /... when ir Isaac &ewton in 9ngland formulated the principle of "ero's +et propulsion GaeolipileG in scientific terms. "is !hird (aw of )otion stated0 G9very action produces a reaction ... equal in force and opposite in direction.G !he +et engine of today operates according to this same basic principle. Det engines contain three common components0 the com! "sso , the com#us%o , and the %u #in". !o this basic engine, other components may be added, including0

/ no99l" to recover and direct the gas energy and possibly divert the thrust for vertical ta$eoff and landing as well as changing direction of aircraft flight. /n af%" #u n" or au+m"n%o , a long GtailpipeG behind the turbine into which additional fuel is sprayed and burned to provide additional thrust.

/ %h us% "$" s" , which bloc$s the gas rushing toward the rear of the engine, thus forcing the gases forward to provide additional bra$ing of aircraft.

/ fan in front of the compressor to increase thrust and reduce fuel consumption. o%o .

/n additional %u #in" that can be utili-ed to drive a ! o!"ll" or h"lico!%"

Lressure and 6elocity. /ir is normally thought of in relation to its temperature, pr e s s u r e , and v o l u m e . :ithin a gas turbine engine the air is put into motion so now a n o t h e r factor must be considered, v e l o c i t y . , o n s i d e r a c o n s t a n t a i r f l o w t h r o u g h a duct. /s long as the duct crosssectional area r e m a i n s u n c h a n g e d , air will c o n t i n u e to flow at the same rate ( d i s r e g a r d f r i c t i o n a l loss). If the crosssectional area of the duct should become smaller (convergent)the a i r f l o w must i n c r e a s e v e l o c i t y if it is to c o n t i n u e to flow the same number of pounds per second of a i r f l o w (#ernoulli's Lrinciple). In order to obtain the n e c e s s a r y v e l o c i t y energy to a c c o m p l i s h this, the air must give up some p r e s s u r e and temperature energy (law of conservation of e n e r g y ) . !he net result of flow t h r o u g h this restriction would be a decrease in pressure and temperature and an i n c r e a s e in v e l o c i t y . !he opposite would be true if air were to flow from a s m a l l e r into a larger duct ( d i v e r g e n t area)F v e l o c i t y would then d e c r e a s e , and p r e s s u r e a n d t e m p e r a t u r e w o u l d i n c r e a s e . !he t h r o a t o f a n a u t o m o b i l e c a r b u r e t o r i s a good e % a m p l e of the effect of airflow t h r o u g h a restriction ( v e n t u r i ) F even on the h o t t e s t day the center portion of the c a r b u r e t o r feels cool. , o n v e r g e n t and d i v e r g e n t areas are used t h r o u g h o u t a gas t u r b i n e engine to control p r e s s u r e and v e l o c i t y of the a i r g a s stream as it flows through the engine. :"% "n+in" is a reaction engine that discharges a fast moving +et of fluid to generate thrust by /et propulsion and in accordance with &ewton's laws of motion. !his broad definition of +et engines includes turbo+ets, turbofans, roc$ets, ram+ets, pulse +ets and pump-+ets. In general, most +et engines are internal combustion engines<8> but non-combusting forms also e%ist. In common parlance, the term /et engine loosely refers to an internal combustion airbreathing +et engine (a duct engine). !hese typically consist of an engine with a rotary

(rotating) air compressor powered by a turbine (G#rayton cycleG), with the leftover power providing thrust via a propelling no--le. !hese types of +et engines are primarily used by +et aircraft for long distance travel. 9arly +et aircraft used turbo+et engines which were relatively inefficient for subsonic flight. )odern subsonic +et aircraft usually use highbypass turbofan engines which give high speeds, as well as (over long distances) better fuel efficiency than many other forms of transport. History Det engines can be dated bac$ to the invention of the aeolipile before the first century /.. !his device used steam power directed through two no--les to cause a sphere to spin rapidly on its a%is. o far as is $nown, it was not used for supplying mechanical power, and the potential practical applications of this invention were not recogni-ed. It was simply considered a curiosity. Det or roc$et propulsion only too$ off, literally and figuratively, with the invention of the gunpowder-powered roc$et by the ,hinese in the 85th century as a type of firewor$s, but gradually progressed to propel formidable weaponryF and there the technology stalled for hundreds of years. !he earliest attempts at +et engines were hybrid designs in which an e%ternal power source first compressed air, which was then mi%ed with fuel and burned for +et thrust. In one such system, called a thermo/et by econdo ,ampini but more commonly, motor+et, the air was compressed by a fan driven by a conventional piston engine. 9%amples of this type of design were the ,aproni ,ampini &.8, and the Dapanese !su-88 engine intended to power 2h$a $ami$a-e planes towards the end of :orld :ar II. &one were entirely successful and the &.8 ended up being slower than the same design with a traditional engine and propeller combination. 9ven before the start of :orld :ar II, engineers were beginning to reali-e that the piston engine was self-limiting in terms of the ma%imum performance which could be attainedF the limit was due to issues related to propeller efficiency,<B> which declined as blade tips approached the speed of sound. If engine, and thus aircraft, performance were ever to

increase beyond such a barrier, a way would have to be found to radically improve the design of the piston engine, or a wholly new type of powerplant would have to be developed. !his was the motivation behind the development of the gas turbine engine, commonly called a G+etG engine, which would become almost as revolutionary to aviation as the :right brothers' first flight. !he $ey to a practical +et engine was the gas turbine, used to e%tract energy from the engine itself to drive the compressor. !he gas turbine was not an idea developed in the 8K54s0 the patent for a stationary turbine was granted to Dohn #arber in 9ngland in 8AK8. !he first gas turbine to successfully run self-sustaining was built in 8K45 by &orwegian engineer Rgidius 9lling. (imitations in design and practical engineering and metallurgy prevented such engines reaching manufacture. !he main problems were safety, reliability, weight and, especially, sustained operation. !he first patent for using a gas turbine to power an aircraft was filed in 8KB8 by Frenchman )a%ime Muillaume.<5> "is engine was an a%ial-flow turbo+et. /lan /rnold Mriffith published An Aerodynamic Theory of Tur ine *esign in 8KBE leading to e%perimental wor$ at the */9.

UNIT 6 SPACE PROPULSION Ty!"s of Roc2"% En+in"s1

oc2"% or oc2"% $"hicl" is a missile, spacecraft, aircraft or other vehicle which obtains thrust from a roc$et engine. In all roc$ets, the e%haust is formed entirely from propellants carried within the roc$et before use. *oc$et engines wor$ by action and reaction. *oc$et engines push roc$ets forwards simply by throwing their e%haust bac$wards e%tremely fast. *oc$ets for military and recreational uses date bac$ to the 85th century. <B> ignificant scientific, interplanetary and industrial use did not occur until the B4th century, when roc$etry was the enabling technology of the pace /ge, including setting foot on the moon.

*oc$ets are used for firewor$s, weaponry, e+ection seats, launch vehicles for artificial satellites, human spaceflight and e%ploration of other planets. :hile comparatively inefficient for low speed use, they are very lightweight and powerful, capable of generating large accelerations and of attaining e%tremely high speeds with reasonable efficiency. ,hemical roc$ets are the most common type of roc$et and they typically create their e%haust by the combustion of roc$et propellant. ,hemical roc$ets store a large amount of energy in an easily released form, and can be very dangerous. "owever, careful design, testing, construction and use minimi-es ris$s. *oc$et vehicles are often constructed in the archetypal tall thin Groc$etG shape that ta$es off vertically, but there are actually many different types of roc$ets including0<?I><?K>

tiny models such as balloon roc$ets, water roc$ets, s$yroc$ets or small solid roc$ets that can be purchased at a hobby store missiles space roc$ets such as the enormous aturn 6 used for the /pollo program roc$et cars roc$et bi$e roc$et powered aircraft (including roc$et assisted ta$eoff of conventional aircraftD/!2) roc$et sleds roc$et trains roc$et torpedos roc$et powered +et pac$s rapid escape systems such as e+ection seats and launch escape systems space probes / ! o!"llan% is a material that is used to move (GpropelG) an ob+ect. !he

P o!"llan%s1

material is usually e%pelled by gas pressure through a no--le. !he pressure may be from a compressed gas, or a gas produced by a chemical reaction. !he e%haust material may be a

gas, liquid, plasma, or, before the chemical reaction, a solid, liquid or gelled.,ommon chemical propellants consist of a fuelF li$e gasoline, +et fuel, roc$et fuel, and an o%idi-er. Propellant used for propulsion !echnically, the word ! o!"llan% is the general name for chemicals used to create thrust. For vehicles, the term propellant refers only to chemicals that are stored within the vehicle prior to use, and e%cludes atmospheric gas or other material that may be collected in operation. /mongst the 9nglish-spea$ing laymen, used to having fuels propel vehicles on 9arth, the word fu"l is inappropriately<du ious 2 discuss> used. In Mermany, the word Trei stoffliterally Gdrive-stuffGis usedF in France, the word ergols is usedF it has the same Mree$ roots as hypergolic, a term used in 9nglish for propellants which combine spontaneously and do not have to be set abla-e by au%iliary ignition system. In roc$ets, the most common combinations are ipropellants, which use two chemicals, a fuel and an o%idiser. !here is the possibility of a tripropellant combination, which ta$es advantage of the ability of substances with smaller atoms to attain a greater e%haust velocity, and hence propulsive efficiency, at a given temperature. /lthough not used in practice, the most developed tripropellant systems involves adding a third propellant tan$ containing liquid hydrogen to do this. Solid ! o!"llan% In ballistics and pyrotechnics, a ! o!"llan% is a generic name for chemicals used for propelling pro+ectiles from guns and other firearms. Lropellants are usually made from low e%plosive materials, but may include high e%plosive chemical ingredients that are diluted and burned in a controlled way (deflagration) rather than detonation. !he controlled burning of the propellant composition usually produces thrust by gas pressure and can accelerate a pro+ectile,

roc$et, or other vehicle. In this sense, common or well $nown ! o!"llan%s include, for firearms, artillery and solid propellant roc$ets0

Mun propellants, such as0 Munpowder (blac$ powder) &itrocellulose-based powders ,ordite #allistite mo$eless powders

,omposite propellants made from a solid o%idi-er such as ammonium perchlorate or ammonium nitrate, a rubber such as "!L#, or L#/& (may be replaced by energetic polymers such as polyglycidyl nitrate or polyvinyl nitrate for e%tra energy) , optional high e%plosive fuels (again, for e%tra energy) such as *.O or nitroglycerin, and usually a powdered metal fuel such as aluminum.

ome amateur propellants use potassium nitrate, combined with sugar, epo%y, or other fuels 3 binder compounds. Lotassium perchlorate has been used as an o%idi-er, paired with asphalt, epo%y, and other binders.

Lropellants that e%plode in operation are of little practical use currently, although there have been e%periments with Lulse .etonation 9ngines. ; ain Lropellants are used in forms called grains. / grain is any individual particle of propellant regardless of the si-e or shape. !he shape and si-e of a propellant grain determines the burn time, amount of gas and rate produced from the burning propellant and consequently thrust vs time profile. !here are three types of burns that can be achieved with different grains.

Lrogressive #urn Psually a grain with multiple perforations or a star cut in the center providing a lot of surface area. .igressive #urn Psually a solid grain in the shape of a cylinder or sphere. &eutral #urn Psually a single perforationF as outside surface decreases the inside surface increases at the same rate. Com!osi%ion !here are four different types of solid propellant compositions0 ingle #ased Lropellant0 / single based propellant has nitrocellulose as its chief e%plosives ingredient. tabili-ers and other additives are used to control the chemical stability and enhance the propellantSs properties. .ouble #ased Lropellant0 .ouble based propellants consist of nitrocellulose with nitroglycerin or other liquid organic nitrate e%plosives added. tabili-ers and other additives are used also. &itroglycerin reduces smo$e and increases the energy output. .ouble based propellants are used in small arms, cannons, mortars and roc$ets. !riple #ased Lropellant !riple based propellants consist of nitrocellulose, nitroquanidine, nitroglycerin or other liquid organic nitrate e%plosives. !riple based propellants are used in cannons. ,omposite ,omposites contain no nitrocellulose, nitroglycerin, nitroquanidine or any other organic nitrate. ,omposites usually consist of a fuel such as metallic aluminum, a binder such as synthetic rubber, and an o%idi-er such as ammonium perchlorate. ,omposite propellants are used in large roc$et motors.

Li&uid ! o!"llan% ,ommon propellant combinations used for liquid propellant roc$ets include0

*ed fuming nitric acid (*F&/) and $erosene or *L-8 *F&/ and Pnsymmetrical dimethyl hydra-ine (P.)") .initrogen tetro%ide and P.)", ))" and3or hydra-ine (iquid o%ygen and $erosene or *L-8 (iquid o%ygen and liquid hydrogen (iquid o%ygen and ethanol "ydrogen pero%ide and alcohol or *L-8 ,hlorine pentafluoride and hydra-ine

,ommon monopropellant used for liquid roc$et engines include0

"ydrogen pero%ide "ydra-ine *ed fuming nitric acid (*F&/)

#ntroducing propellant into a combustion chamber

*oc$et propellant is mass that is stored, usually in some form of propellant tan$, prior to being e+ected from a roc$et engine in the form of a fluid +et to produce thrust. ,hemical roc$et propellants are most commonly used, which undergo e%othermic chemical reactions which produce hot gas which is used by a roc$et for propulsive purposes. /lternatively, a chemically inert reaction mass can be heated using a highenergy power source via a heat e%changer, and then no combustion chamber is used. A solid oc2"% mo%o 1 olid roc$et propellants are prepared as a mi%ture of fuel and o%idi-ing components called 'grain' and the propellant storage casing effectively becomes the combustion chamber. (iquid-fueled roc$ets typically pump separate fuel and o%idiser components

into the combustion chamber, where they mi% and burn. "ybrid roc$et engines use a combination of solid and liquid or gaseous propellants. #oth liquid and hybrid roc$ets use in/ectors to introduce the propellant into the chamber. !hese are often an array of simple +ets- holes through which the propellant escapes under pressureF but sometimes may be more comple% spray no--les. :hen two or more propellants are in+ected the +ets usually deliberately collide the propellants as this brea$s up the flow into smaller droplets that burn more easily. Roc2"% I+ni%ion 1 *oc$et fuels, hypergolic or otherwise, must be mi%ed in the right quantities to have a controlled rate of production of hot gas. / hard start indicates that the quantity of combustible propellant that entered the combustion chamber prior to ignition was too large. !he result is an e%cessive spi$e of pressure, possibly leading to structural failure or even an e%plosion (sometimes facetiously referred to as Gspontaneous disassemblyG). /voiding hard starts involves careful timing of the ignition relative to valve timing or varying the mi%ture ratio so as to limit the ma%imum pressure that can occur or simply ensuring an adequate ignition source is present well prior to propellant entering the chamber. 9%plosions from hard starts often cannot happen with purely gaseous propellants, since the amount of the gas present in the chamber is limited by the in+ector area relative to the throat area, and for practical designs propellant mass escapes too quic$ly to be an issue. / famous e%ample of a hard start was the e%plosion of :ernher von #raun's G8:G engine during a demonstration to Meneral .ornberger on .ecember B8, 8K5B. .elayed ignition allowed the chamber to fill with alcohol and liquid o%ygen, which e%ploded violently. hrapnel was embedded in the walls, but nobody was hit. Roc2"% Com#u%ion1

$ombustion chamber
For chemical roc$ets the combustion chamber is typically +ust a cylinder, and flame holders are rarely used. !he dimensions of the cylinder are such that the propellant is able to combust thoroughlyF different propellants require different combustion chamber si-es for this to occur. !his leads to a number called 3 T 0 ( where0

C 6c3/t

4c is the volume of the chamber At is the area of the throat

(T is typically in the range of B?;E4 inches (4.E5;8.? m). !he combination of temperatures and pressures typically reached in a combustion chamber is usually e%treme by any standards. Pnli$e in air-breathing +et engines, no atmospheric nitrogen is present to dilute and cool the combustion, and the temperature can reach true stoichiometric. !his, in combination with the high pressures, means that the rate of heat conduction through the walls is very high.

"ocket no%%les
!ypical temperatures (!) and pressures (p) and speeds (v) in a .e (aval &o--le !he large bell or cone shaped e%pansion no--le gives a roc$et engine its characteristic shape. In roc$ets the hot gas produced in the combustion chamber is permitted to escape from the combustion chamber through an opening (the GthroatG), within a high e%pansion-ratio 'de (aval' no--le.

Lrovided sufficient pressure is provided to the no--le (about B.?-5% above ambient pressure) the no--le chokes and a supersonic +et is formed, dramatically accelerating the gas, converting most of the thermal energy into $inetic energy. !he e%haust speeds vary, depending on the e%pansion ratio the no--le is designed to give, but e%haust speeds as high as ten times the speed of sound of sea level air are not uncommon. *oc$et thrust is caused by pressures acting in the combustion chamber and no--le. From &ewton's third law, equal and opposite pressures act on the e%haust, and this accelerates it to high speeds. /bout half of the roc$et engine's thrust comes from the unbalanced pressures inside the combustion chamber and the rest comes from the pressures acting against the inside of the no--le (see diagram). /s the gas e%pands (adiabatically) the pressure against the no--le's walls forces the roc$et engine in one direction while accelerating the gas in the other.

&ropellant efficiency
For a roc$et engine to be propellant efficient, it is important that the ma%imum pressures possible be created on the walls of the chamber and no--le by a specific amount of propellantF as this is the source of the thrust. !his can be achieved by all of0

heating the propellant to as high a temperature as possible (using a high energy fuel, containing hydrogen and carbon and sometimes metals such as aluminium, or even using nuclear energy)

using a low specific density gas (as hydrogen rich as possible) using propellants which are, or decompose to, simple molecules with few degrees of freedom to ma%imise translational velocity

ince all of these things minimise the mass of the propellant used, and since pressure is proportional to the mass of propellant present to be accelerated as it pushes on the engine,

and since from &ewton's third law the pressure that acts on the engine also reciprocally acts on the propellant, it turns out that for any given engine the speed that the propellant leaves the chamber is unaffected by the chamber pressure (although the thrust is proportional). "owever, speed is significantly affected by all three of the above factors and the e%haust speed is an e%cellent measure of the engine propellant efficiency. !his is termed exhaust 5elocity, and after allowance is made for factors that can reduce it, the "ff"c%i$" "'haus% $"loci%y is one of the most important parameters of a roc$et engine (although weight, cost, ease of manufacture etc. are usually also very important). For aerodynamic reasons the flow goes sonic (Gcho$esG) at the narrowest part of the no--le, the 'throat'. ince the speed of sound in gases increases with the square root of temperature, the use of hot e%haust gas greatly improves performance. #y comparison, at room temperature the speed of sound in air is about 5=4 m3s while the speed of sound in the hot gas of a roc$et engine can be over 8A44 m3sF much of this performance is due to the higher temperature, but additionally roc$et propellants are chosen to be of low molecular mass, and this also gives a higher velocity compared to air. 9%pansion in the roc$et no--le then further multiplies the speed, typically between 8.? and B times, giving a highly collimated hypersonic e%haust +et. !he speed increase of a roc$et no--le is mostly determined by its area e%pansion ratiothe ratio of the area of the throat to the area at the e%it, but detailed properties of the gas are also important. (arger ratio no--les are more massive but are able to e%tract more heat from the combustion gases, increasing the e%haust velocity. &o--le efficiency is affected by operation in the atmosphere because atmospheric pressure changes with altitudeF but due to the supersonic speeds of the gas e%iting from a roc$et engine, the pressure of the +et may be either below or above ambient, and equilibrium between the two is not reached at all altitudes ( ee .iagram).

'ack pressure and optimal expansion

For optimal performance the pressure of the gas at the end of the no--le should +ust equal the ambient pressure0 if the e%haust's pressure is lower than the ambient pressure, then the

vehicle will be slowed by the difference in pressure between the top of the engine and the e%itF on the other hand, if the e%haust's pressure is higher, then e%haust pressure that could have been converted into thrust is not converted, and energy is wasted. !o maintain this ideal of equality between the e%haust's e%it pressure and the ambient pressure, the diameter of the no--le would need to increase with altitude, giving the pressure a longer no--le to act on (and reducing the e%it pressure and temperature). !his increase is difficult to arrange in a lightweight fashion, although is routinely done with other forms of +et engines. In roc$etry a lightweight compromise no--le is generally used and some reduction in atmospheric performance occurs when used at other than the 'design altitude' or when throttled. !o improve on this, various e%otic no--le designs such as the plug no--le, stepped no--les, the e%panding no--le and the aerospi$e have been proposed, each providing some way to adapt to changing ambient air pressure and each allowing the gas to e%pand further against the no--le, giving e%tra thrust at higher altitudes. :hen e%hausting into a sufficiently low ambient pressure (vacuum) several issues arise. 2ne is the sheer weight of the no--le- beyond a certain point, for a particular vehicle, the e%tra weight of the no--le outweighs any performance gained. econdly, as the e%haust gases adiabatically e%pand within the no--le they cool, and eventually some of the chemicals can free-e, producing 'snow' within the +et. !his causes instabilities in the +et and must be avoided. 2n a .e (aval no--le, e%haust gas flow detachment will occur in a grossly overe%panded no--le. /s the detachment point will not be uniform around the a%is of the engine, a side force may be imparted to the engine. !his side force may change over time and result in control problems with the launch vehicle.

Thrust vectoring
)any engines require the overall thrust to change direction over the length of the burn. / number of different ways to achieve this have been flown0

!he entire engine is mounted on a hinge or gimbal and any propellant feeds reach the engine via low pressure fle%ible pipes or rotary couplings. Dust the combustion chamber and no--le is gimbled, the pumps are fi%ed, and high pressure feeds attach to the engine multiple engines (often canted at slight angles) are deployed but throttled to give the overall vector that is required, giving only a very small penalty fi%ed engines with vernier thrusters high temperature vanes held in the e%haust that can be tilted to deflect the +et

Overall rocket engine performance

*oc$et technology can combine very high thrust (meganewtons), very high e%haust speeds (around 84 times the speed of sound in air at sea level) and very high thrust3weight ratios (@844) simultaneously as well as being able to operate outside the atmosphere, and while permitting the use of low pressure and hence lightweight tan$s and structure. *oc$ets can be further optimised to even more e%treme performance along one or more of these a%es at the e%pense of the others.

Specific impulse
!he most important metric for the efficiency of a roc$et engine is impulse per unit of propellant, this is called specific impulse (usually written a speed (the effecti5e exhaust 5elocity

6sp). !his is either measured as

4e in metres3second or ft3s) or as a time (seconds).

/n engine that gives a large specific impulse is normally highly desirable. !he specific impulse that can be achieved is primarily a function of the propellant mi% (and ultimately would limit the specific impulse), but practical limits on chamber pressures and the no--le e%pansion ratios reduce the performance that can be achieved.

S!ac" fli+h%1 S!ac"fli+h% is the act of travelling into or through outer space. paceflight can occur with spacecraft which may, or may not, have humans on board. 9%amples of human spaceflight include the *ussian oyu- program, the P. . pace shuttle program, as well as the ongoing International pace tation. 9%amples of unmanned spaceflight include space probes which leave 9arth's orbit, as well as satellites in orbit around 9arth, such as communication satellites. paceflight is used in space e%ploration, and also in commercial activities li$e space tourism and satellite telecommunications. /dditional non-commercial uses of spaceflight include space observatories, reconnaissance satellites and other earth observation satellites. / spaceflight typically begins with a roc$et launch, which provides the initial thrust to overcome the force of gravity and propels the spacecraft from the surface of the 9arth. 2nce in space, the motion of a spacecraftboth when unpropelled and when under propulsionis covered by the area of study called astrodynamics. reach a planetary or lunar surface for landing or impact. Types of spaceflight (uman s!ac"fli+h% !he first human spaceflight was 6osto$ 8 on /pril 8B, 8KE8, on which cosmonaut Nuri Magarin of the P * made one orbit around the 9arth. In official oviet documents, there is no mention of the fact that Magarin parachuted the final seven miles. <5> !he international rules for aviation records stated that G!he pilot remains in his craft from launch to landingG. !his rule, if applied, would have GdisqualifiedG Magarins space-flight. ,urrently the only spacecraft regularly used for human spaceflight are *ussian oyuspacecraft and the P. . pace huttle fleet. 9ach of those space programs have used other ome spacecraft remain in space indefinitely, some disintegrate during atmospheric reentry, and others

spacecraft in the past. *ecently, the ,hinese hen-hou spacecraft has been used three times for human spaceflight, and paceship2ne twice. Su#)o #i%al s!ac"fli+h% 2n a sub-orbital spaceflight the spacecraft reaches space and then returns to the atmosphere after following a (primarily) ballistic tra+ectory. !his is usually because of insufficient specific orbital energy, in which case a suborbital flight will last only a few minutes, but it is also possible for an ob+ect with enough energy for an orbit to have a tra+ectory that intersects the 9arth's atmosphere, sometimes after many hours. Lioneer 8 was &/ /'s first space probe intended to reach the )oon. / partial failure caused it to instead follow a suborbital tra+ectory to an altitude of 885,I?= $ilometers (A4,A=E mi) before reentering the 9arth's atmosphere =5 hours after launch. !he most generally recogni-ed boundary of space is the UVrmVn line (actually a sphere) 844 $m above sea level. (&/ / alternatively defines an astronaut as someone who has flown more than ?4 miles or I4 $m above sea level.) It is not generally recogni-ed by the public that the increase in potential energy required to pass the UVrmVn line is only about 5J of the orbital energy (potential plus $inetic energy) required by the lowest possible earth orbit (a circular orbit +ust above the UVrmVn line.) In other words, it is far easier to reach space than to stay there. 2n )ay 8A, B44=, ,ivilian pace eOploration !eam launched the MoFast *oc$et on a suborbital flight, the first amateur spaceflight. 2n Dune B8, B44=, pace hip2ne was used for the first privately-funded human spaceflight. O #i%al s!ac"fli+h% / minimal orbital spaceflight requires much higher velocities than a minimal sub-orbital flight, and so it is technologically much more challenging to achieve. !o achieve orbital spaceflight, the tangential velocity around the 9arth is as important as altitude. In order to perform a stable and lasting flight in space, the spacecraft must reach the minimal orbital speed required for a closed orbit.

In%" !lan"%a y s!ac"fli+h% /n artist's imaginative impression of a vehicle entering a wormhole for interstellar travel In%" !lan"%a y % a$"l is travel between planets within a single planetary system. In practice, the use of the term is confined to travel between the planets of the olar ystem. In%" s%"lla s!ac"fli+h% Five spacecraft are currently leaving the olar ystem on escape tra+ectories. !he one farthest from the un is 6oyager 8, which is more than 844 /P distant and is moving at 5.E /P per year.<=> In comparison Lro%ima ,entauri, the closest star other than the un, is BEA,444 /P distant. It will ta$e 6oyager 8 over A=,444 years to reach this distance. 6ehicle designs using other techniques, such as nuclear pulse propulsion are li$ely to be able to reach the nearest star significantly faster. /nother possibility that could allow for human interstellar spaceflight is to ma$e use of time dilation, as this would ma$e it possible for passengers in a fast-moving vehicle to travel further into the future while aging very little, in that their great speed slows down the rate of passage of on-board time. "owever, attaining such high speeds would still require the use of some new, advanced method of propulsion. In%" +alac%ic s!ac"fli+h% Intergalactic travel involves spaceflight between gala%ies, and is considered much more technologically demanding than even interstellar travel and, by current engineering terms, is considered science fiction.