125 Miouri ori Sovvocnr Curvv Te Pacic Ocean and the Califoinias

Tni Pciiic Oci i 1ni Ciiiovis.

Poiv vii1ios i 1vii o 1ni
vivivnivv oi 1ni Ni Svi (16-1;;)
Miouri ori Sovvocnr Curvv
Univeisity of Gianada
Rrsurr: La denicin de los extiemos del itineiaiio que estableci
el galen de Manila a paitii de 1565, con especial atencin al fiente
noiteameiicano en el que las Califoinias se conviitieion desde inicios
del siglo xvii en un punto bsico de la poltica inteinacional espanola
en el Pacco, coiioboia el pioceso de contiol teiiitoiial que se haba
iniciado ciento cincuenta anos antes, evidenciando la impoitancia que
adquiii el Mai del Sui como espacio de ielacin. Si bien no podin
sei tiatados todos los aspectos que consideiamos implicados paia
compiendei el pioceso analizado, en el caso de las Califoinias, su papel
fue paulatinamente ms impoitante desde que se establecieion de un
modo denitivo los piimeios asentamientos misionales.
Palabras clave: Pacco, Califoinias, podei, comeicial, Nueva Espana.
Ans:vc:: Te denition of the itineiaiy poles that Manilas galleon
established fiom 1565, with special attention to the Noith-Ameiican
fiont in which the Califoinias weie a basic point foi Spanish inteinational
politics, conim the teiiitoiial contiolling piocess that was staited 150
yeais eailiei, showing the impoitance that the southein sea acquiied as
a connecting space. Although not all of the aspects that we considei to
be involved in the analysed piocess can be taigeted to undeistand it, in
the case of the Califoinias, its iole became giadually moie impoitant
fiom the establishment of the ist missionaiy settlements.
Keywords: Pacic, Califoinias, powei, commeicial, New Spain.
Recibido: 04-05-2013 | Evaluado: 20-05-2013
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I:voouc:io
T
he discoveiy of the Pacic in 1513 maiked a fundamental date in the
histoiical development of the events that weie occuiiing at that time
in Ameiica. A vast scenaiio ensued within which the integial peiception of
the planet would be completed, thiough which the possibilities of ielations
between dieient iegions in the woild weie bioadened and diveisied. Tis
event somehow invites us to considei the facts that weie yet to occui fiom that
date on, constiucting the pillais foi the knowledge of Spanish histoiy in these
teiiitoiial boundaiies, as well as each of the teiiitoiies that anked its coast.
Amongst these teiiitoiies, the Califoinias stood out as a fiontiei aiea, with
two dieient aspects in this condition, although integiated within its iole as
a histoiical iegion. Its piominence as an exchange and ielations aiea with the
Pacic backgiound evidences its impoitance in consolidating this aiea of the
viceioyalty of New Spain, dening Spanish inteinational politics as a iesult of
a long piocess which began in the 16th centuiy.
Te chionological spectium chosen and dened in this aiticle coveis
the time between the establishment of the tiip aiound Uidaneta, that will
peiiodically take the Manila galleon to these coasts, and the foundation of
San Fiancisco, the last settlement with a stiong stiategic value that showed
the Spanish inteiests in this iegion and wheie the ieligious, militaiy and civil
components weie the face of a system that was constiucted and used since the
end of the 17th centuiy. Its inteinational dimension is peihaps anothei ieason
to look back at this immense ocean, and iethink its iole in the noithwest fiont
of New Spains fiontiei between the 16th and the 18th centuiies, and as a
main context of the powei and commeicial exchange ielations between the
dieient nations piesent theie. Te histoiical unfolding will show the need
to join the pieces of the disjointed jigsaw in oidei to undeistand not only the
ielations within an aiea connected by two poles, but also to iaise multiple
questions conceining the inteimediate aiea.
Tnr Pciric o i:s cos:s
Tis is an aiea foi exchange and ielationships that has been questioned
because of its dimensions and the undeiestimation of human capabilities to
get along in it. Focus has swung between theoietical speculation conceining
the ioutes of human population gioups in the Ameiican continent,
1
and the
1. Its dimensions have always been behind the aim to explain theoiies about the movements of human
gioups oi along itself, oi of the ielationships between these putting in contact noith and south Ameiican
contexts fiom its oiiental coast and being essential to undeistand the development of some civilization
focus such as the case of the Andean iegion. Cf. Pnio Mv:Irz ori RIo: Orgenes del hombre americano.
[1987], cocui:, Mexico,1997, Diroo Aovrs Rocn: El origen de los indios. (Jose Alcina Fianch ed.),
Histoiia 16, Madiid, 1998, y Pui Rivr:: Los orgenes del hombre americano. [1943], rcr, Mexico, 1987.
127 Miouri ori Sovvocnr Curvv Te Pacic Ocean and the Califoinias
evidence that ielationships with Euiopean nations that fought foi the contiol
of this aiea thioughout the Modein Age iesolved its potentiality.
Te teiiitoiies that constituted the Califoinias and that cuiiently
confoim the Mexican peninsula of Low Califoinia and the Noith Ameiican
Califoinia, weie, between the 16th and the 18th centuiies, the scenaiio of
conquest, occupation and evangelization politics deteimined by two fionts,
one teiiestiial and one maiitime. In the ist case, the teiiestiial fiont, the
connection with the continental aiea will piovide a long distance with the
decision-making aieas that will be decisive, and also geogiaphy and climate
and the chaiacteiistics of the human gioups and foimed its population. In the
second case, the maiitime fiont, this was open to an unceitain hoiizon that
will tuin into a tiemendously intense and dynamic one and, as in the ist case,
become conditioned by tiavelling distances.
Te lettei that fathei Piccolo sent to Juan Maiia Salvatieiia in 1699
desciibing an expedition to the Pacic Coast of the low Califoinia peninsula
is illuminating. It ieveals how 134 yeais aftei Juan de Uibieta completed the
tiip fiom the Philippines aichipelago, theie was not a safe aiea to which the
galleons could ieach and avoid the English and Dutch assaults, showing some
aspects of a ieality that would be dened ovei the passage of time.
2
Te 18th centuiy was noticeable foi the expulsion of the Jesuits fiom
the Hispanic teiiitoiies undei the ieign of Cailos III, the aiiival of the
Fianciscans, its posteiioi ielocation in Noith Ameiican Califoinia fiom 1769,
and the incoipoiation of the yeained foi Camino de las Califoinias of the
Dominicans fiom 1573. In both cases the inteiest of the teiiitoiial contiol was
moved to the noithein aiea that had been coveted since the 16th centuiy. Te
Russian piesence, moie evident towaids the south coast in tiying to secuie
its fui factoiies, ieects the incoipoiation of new piotagonists in the piocess.
Somehow the impoitance of the commeicial exchange of the Galleon was
aected by the piotability of the tianspoited goods, and thus the political
inteiests to contiol it weie emphasized.
In the ist quaitei of the 19th centuiy (and in the middle of it), the
independence piocesses and the stait of the fiontiei adjustments meant that
the last missionaiy foundations in this coastal aiea weie the pielude to futuie
changes. Te seculaiization of these missionaiy foundations ended a piocess
in which the ieligious oideis had been paiticipating since the end of the yeai
ve hundied and been iesponsible foi the ieligious and the political aspects
of an action to consolidate a space that was unequally appieciated by the
ciown. Tis was the end point of a long peiiod duiing which the lack of powei
emeiged that, disabled to contiol a giowing teiiitoiy, used the most diveise
foimulas to be piesent in the aieas that weie iemote fiom the decision centie
2. Te news is essential foi undeistanding the oiigin of the piesence of a vaiiety of objects that
compiised the ecclesiastical goods, constituted by Asian Philippine oi Japanese pieces and will coiioboiate
latei the Jesuit Miguel del Baico.
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and wheie the image of this piesence ianged fiom small objects to the militaiy
contiol of the teiiitoiy.
Although this could be, bioadly speaking, a desciiption of the Califoinian
situation, the bioad context of the Pacic shows its complex dimension.
We have stipulated how the Pacic Ocean has extended as a context wheie
theoietical ieections and hypotheses have tiied to explain histoiical piocesses
such as the iepopulation of the Ameiican continent. Howevei, the knowledge
of its ieality was evidenced fiom the beginning when the population gioups
at the coasts showed theii awaieness of the existence of the otheis distiibuted
along its geogiaphy. Only the events that occuiied fiom 1513 and between
1519 and 1522 maiked an ontological piocess that made the idea of its ieality
confoimed along with the expeditions that went thiough fiom the noith to the
south of its oiiental fiont and the maiitime movements that weie established
fiom east to west.
3
Fiom the beginning, the need foi defence was evident. Te distance and
the chaiacteiistics of the Pacic Coast deteimined the defensive piogiam that
will seize it. In the case of the noithein coast it will be completed with the
piesence of piesidios that made a foitiess such as Acapulco an outstanding
milestone. Teie aie only some topogiaphic oi toponymic testimonials and
minimal aichaeological iemains fiom those, showing the loss of aichitectuial
3. Te tiip aiound the woild of Magallanes and Juan Sebastin and the event deiived fiom it caused it
to be incoipoiated into the Euiopean hoiizon piogiessively.
Illustiation 1. Mission of San Jose del Cabo. Ignaz Tiisch. 1767
129 Miouri ori Sovvocnr Curvv Te Pacic Ocean and the Califoinias
foicefulness but not of eectiveness in designing a piogiam to contiol the
coast and the entiies to the inland. In any case it systematically iepiesents
the intention of the ciown in this pait of the empiie, fai iemoved fiom the
piogiams developed in the context of the South Pacic aiound Valdivia, noi
even neai to the piogiam designed in the Philippines, and indeed veiy distant
fiom the foicefulness of the Caiibbean-Atlantic piogiam.
4
On the othei hand, the westein coast of the Pacic piesented a dynamic
context in which the jouineys between the dieient teiiitoiial aieas of the
southeast had been occuiiing duiing the past centuiies and that was open to
the ciicuits of the Indian Ocean. Tis was an aiea with natuial ielationships
within contexts such as the Afiican oi Indian, it had been contiolled by
cultuies such as Muslim since the 7th centuiy in dieient peiiods if time, and
the commeicial domain in the aiea was a ieection of this. Tis aiea theiefoie
iepiesented an histoiical ieality suggestive of the links between the human
gioups fiom the ist centuiy A.C., in a piogiession that will be ienowned in
the 15th centuiy.
5
In this ieality we cannot foiget the Poituguese piesence
fiom the end of that centuiy that made it a context known in Euiope, and this
will become consolidated ovei the 16th centuiy with the foundation of some
essential settlements such as Macao.
6
Tat unbalanced situation (unlike the Ameiican coast wheie theie weie
no main centies foi exchange) made it possible foi cities such as Manila to
become a commeicial iefeience in the iegion. Heie Chinese, Indian and
Japanese pioducts conveiged that went fiom one place to anothei along the
dieient ioutes that used the Philippine capital as a compulsoiy exchange
and meeting point that will intensify fiom the 16th centuiy. Tis stiategic
impoitance, as well as the density of the movements and the geogiaphical
chaiacteiistics of the naiiow stiaits between the islands, made the new militaiy
constiuction policies completely dieient to those that had been in place up
until that moment. Te Biitish piesence in Manila between 1762 and 1764
and the subsequent Dutch piesence maiked both moments as tuining points
that was ieected in a ieconstiuction of the militaiy complex and an inciease
of it in some sectois wheie the weight of the aichitectuial woik was caiiied
by the ieligious oideis such as the Jesuits oi the Augustinians, iepioducing an
inteiesting multiplicity of ioles that had been obseived in othei contexts.
4. In each of the thiee spheies desciibed, the piogiams developed stand out as an example of the
continuity of the constiuction system on the othei side of the Pacic, see MvI iouvors DIz-Tvrcnurio
SvIoi: Arquitectura espaola en Filipinas (1565-1800), EHH, Sevilla, 1959.
5. With iespect to this subject cf. Lucr Bouiois: La ruta de la seda. Dioses, guerreros y mercaderes,
Pennsula, Baicelona, 2004.
6. Te piesence and competition of two of the Ibeiian poweis in the Oiient has been adiessed by
dieient authois, as well as the Euiopean expansion fiom the 15th centuiy aiound teiiitoiies fai fiom
Euiope. Evidently within this dynamic the Ameiican adventuie has been included, that with anothei two
incidents will allow us to conim a ieal image of the spaces aiound that aiea. Cf. Jon H. Pvvv: Europa y
la expansin del mundo. 1415-1715. [1949], rcr, Mexico, 2003, J.R.S. Pniiiivs. La expansin medieval de
Europa. [1988], rcr, Mexico, 1994, and Ciuor Cnr: Oriente y occidente en tiempos de las cruzadas.
[1983], rcr, Mexico, 2001.
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Ciirovi i :nr Arrvic o Euvovr iroivv
Retuining to the Califoinian teiiitoiies, the peiception about them was
ielated to theii extieme position in New Spain. Te limits of the known eaith
have always been an open space foi imagination due to a lack of awaieness
about them. Te Califoinias, iemote aieas located at the noith of Anahuac,
weie always associated with fantasist inteipietations iegaiding theii oiigin
and natuie because of theii iemote position in the image of both the pie-
Hispanic populations and the subsequent Euiopean ones, and this deteimined
its iepiesentation thiough the 17th and 18th centuiies.
7
In pie-Hispanic cosmology, the image of the Califoinias was included
within the conception about the place wheie the Sun would set, Tonatiuh.
Te belief that the Sun will go acioss the sky aftei tiavelling thiough Mictlan
and win the ght against the night foices became a iepiesentation of the
spheie into which two of the most iespected social piototypes within the
pie-Hispanic woild will go aftei death. On the one hand, the soldieis fallen
in combat will become the couit that will escoit the Sun fiom its iise until
the zenith, wheieas fiom this point until the sunset, women who have fallen
while giving biith will escoit it and will piepaie it foi its noctuinal ght. Tese
cihuateotl, magestically iepiesented in the sculptuial complex in Zapotal,
aie the feminine contiibution that caused this coastal iegion to soon become
linked with a gioup of women that will live on an island, and constituted one
of the ist veiications of the cioss between pie-Hispanic and Euiopeans that
occuiied in the Ameiican context.
8
On the othei hand, foi the Euiopeans, the same localization in the boidei
of the known eaith captuied many of the images that had been geneiated since
the antiquity, wheie the wild and inciedible settled without pioblems, in spite
of the desciiptions given to it fiom infeinal to heavenly, mainly in the 18th
centuiy.
9
In this context we should include the Califoinian aiea, within the bioadei
context of the new Spanish Noith, in which Fiay Maicos de Niza desciibed
cities such as Quiviia oi Cibola, and that weie iepiesented and located in
some maps that incoipoiated them into the Ameiican imaginaiy thanks to
expeditions such as the one by Alvai Nunez Cabeza de Vaca.
7. See one of the most complete iepeitoiies of the iepiesentations in Low Califoinia, cf. Miouri Lr-
Pov:iii: Cartograf a y crnicas de la antigua California, UNAM, Mexico, 2001.
8. Miouri ori Sovvocnr Curvv: Tiadicin indgena y leyenda medieval: la iepiesentacin gica
de lugaies fantsticos, in Ircuio RooIourz Mov y VIc:ov MIourz: Arte en los connes del Imperio,
Univeisitat Jaume I, Castelln de la Plana, 2011, 151-174.
9. In this iegaid, the Gieeks imagined mythic populations with wild qualities and baibaiian featuies:
giyphon, cynocephalus, wild clibes, savage amazons, lotfago, Goigonas, etc., but also wondeiful places
such as the island of Geiein, the islands of the Blessed and the Atlantis of Platn. Countiies of Gods,
countiies of the dead, in conclusion, wondeiful countiies. Sivoov nrvnru Ainrv:: Califoinia, o
el podei de las imgenes en el discuiso y las misiones jesuitas, Contrastes. Revista de Historia, 12 (2001-
2003), 159-185, specically 164.
131 Miouri ori Sovvocnr Curvv Te Pacic Ocean and the Califoinias
Tis imaginaiy iepiesentation will become moie exact as a iesult of the
desciiptions fiom the expeditions that will occui acioss its coast fiom the
beginning of the 17th centuiy. Tis iepiesentation of its coast impeded a bettei
knowledge of the inland - this will have to wait foi the incuision commanded
by ieligious gioups such the Jesuits and the Fianciscans duiing the last
quaitei of the 17th and mainly duiing the 18th centuiy. Tese incuisions weie
suppoited in many cases by the native gioups.
10
Tis fact can be appieciated
in the iepiesentation of the peninsula, in that it shows it neithei as a peninsula
noi an island. In any case, the Noith was a linked space with the unknown
that coveied the image of this new Spanish noithein sectoi, inheiiting the pie-
Hispanic image of this point of the geogiaphy.
Porv vri:iosnivs i :nr Ciirovis
Te discoveiy of the South Sea in 1513 by Nunez de Balboa did, without
a doubt, coiioboiate the suspicions suiiounding these lands, as well as those
10. With iespect to the conimation of these teiiitoiies theie is a vaiiety of woiks: We iefei to the
two that iepiesent the chaiacteiistics of them. ioo Anno v Lsirvv: Descripcin de las costas de
California, CSIC-Instituto Gonzalo Feinndez de Oviedo, Madiid, 1981, and MvI Luis RoovIourz
Si: Exploraciones en Baja y Alta California, 1769-1775: escenarios y personajes, ur, Mexico, 2002.
Illustiation 2. Island of Califoinia. Johannes Vingboons. 1650
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conceining the tiue dimension of the endeavoui that began at this time. Only
a few centuiies latei (in the 18th centuiy) the scientic expeditions will not
only allow the technical contiol of the teiiitoiy, when the membeis of the
expeditions weie not only ieligious and militaiy but also militaiy engineeis,
but also to have the peispective fiom the piecise knowledge of its piole
and conditions, as mentioned in the pievious section.
11
Tese ciicumstances
weie not suppoited by the ciown, whose hesitation was ieected in unequal
tieatment fiom a defensive point of view compaied to othei sectois of the
Pacic Coast, unlike the system developed in othei contexts.
Te apathy in defending this vast ank was caused by the length and the
chaiacteiistics of its coasts. Histoiical evolution suggests the opposite. Te
Spanish endeavoui in this iegion was slowly undeimined by the piesence of
Biitish and Dutch ships that would seiiously impact the stiategy developed
since the 16th centuiy. Te couise of the Manila galleon in Noith Ameiican
coasts and its deiivation towaids the southein poit of El Callao soon saw
how some of its galleons such as the Santa Ana weie captuied, pioving theii
vulneiability.
12
Tis situation ultimately woiiied the viceioys, as demonstiated
in some of theii memoiis in which the dimension of the factois playing a iole
in the coastal sectoi of New Spain was explained.
13
Te enoimous constiuction woik caiiied out in the Caiibbean was justied
because this was the cential point fiom which the commeice was oiganized
thiough the Caiieia de Indias that ieached the Ibeiian Peninsula. It seived
as an agent of change foi a seiies of tensions aiound its foiks, including the
Pacic, and the added piesence of othei nations that wanted to contiol this
commeice, along with the piesence of piiates. Facing this aiea the investments
in the Pacic, conditioned by the extension of its coast, weie ieduced to specic
spaces. Some of these spaces stood out because of theii complexity, such as the
foit complex in Valdivia, Chile, but lacked the integiity of its pievious one.
11. Cf. Guoiuvr viz RIos: Una desciipcin de las costas del Pacco novohispano del siglo
xviii, rn, 39 (julio-diciembie 2008), 157-182.
12. Te awaieness of the dimensions of the enteipiise made the Spanish ciown accept the piesence of
ships fiom othei poweis such as Fiance, that with the peimits could sail aiound these aieas complementing
the woiks that couldn't be contiolled and that ieects a constant in Spanish politics in Ameiica that can be
explained because of the impossibility of confionting such a vast enteipiise on its own.
13. In ielation to this, it is signicant that the signatuie of the viceioy Jose Miguel de Azanza (1798-
1800), even though outside of the peiiod analysed heie cleaily shows the integiated components in the
whole piocess that we study, paiticulaily the militaiy and the commeicial piocesses. Fiom the naval station
of San Blas, I should speak about subjects conceining the militaiy aiea. Nothing I will say to youi Excellence
about the movement of those shoit naval foices to the poit of Acapulco, a subject on which enough has
been wiitten in the last two goveinments. Te tiuth is that, whethei in one oi the othei place, enough
ships aie needed to caiiy the memoiies to the Califoinias, High and Low, and lets hope so that weie also
capable of piotecting oui commeice and navigation in the whole of the South Sea belonging to New Spain.
Nowadays that small maiine is ieduced to the coivettes Piincesa and Concepcin, biigantines Activo and
Valdes, sloop Hoicasitas and schooneis Sutil and Mexicana, with two gunboats. Te coivette Ainzazu that
went to Manila has been iendeied useless, and it is unceitain, as just as youi Excellence will see accoiding
to the coiiespondence fiom the geneial captain of those islands, if it will be ieplaced oi not. Evrs:o
or i Tovvr Viiiv: Instrucciones y memorias de los Virreyes Novohispanos, T. II, Poiia, Mexico, 1991,
1366-1367.
133 Miouri ori Sovvocnr Curvv Te Pacic Ocean and the Califoinias
In the Califoinian case, an enoimous impoitance was given to both the
geogiaphical deteiminants of the design of the stiuctuial piogiam and to the
histoiical conditions of the iegion in which the suppoit foi the ieligious woik
also played an impoitant iole. Not long aftei, the native populations staited
insuiiection actions and the piessuie incieased fiom the Euiopean poweis
that weie competing to contiol the iiches that weie geneiated fiom the stiip
mining of the deposit and the commeicial ioutes, both land and maiitime, in
the iegion.
14
On the opposite side of the Pacic, the distance and the need to confiont
a context with an intense tia c that histoiically diiected the pioducts
that aiiived to the Manila poit fiom China, India, oi Japan, iesulted in the
concuiient foundation of the settlements, some of the most impoitant foits
in the iegion weie built, such the foits in San Feinando in Cebu, Santiago in
Manila, San Feinando in Taiwan as well as minoi stiuctuies that contiolled
the stiategic ciossing between the islands. In the same context we should
include the ieligious buildings that in the case of the Philippines acquiied
chaiacteiistic physiognomies, wheie the stiuctuies of the toweis weie
integiated into components of the defensive system. Tey enclose a complex
stiuctuial system of the teiiitoiy, in which they stand out not only because of
its stiategic location but also because of its dimensions, as in the case of the
Paoay and Laoay.
14. Te complexity of the netwoik that was established and that was paitly dependent on the existing
pie-Hispanic has been tieated in vaiious occasions. Howevei, we iefei to Rr MvI Srvvrv: Trco
terrestre y red uvial en las Indias espaolas, Ministeiio del Inteiioi-Lunweig editoies, Madiid-Baicelona,
1992.
Illustiation 3. Foit of Santiago. Manila. 16th centuiy
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In the light of this, the situation of the Califoinian coast was veiy
chaiacteiistic as an inteimediate point within an itineiaiy in which it woiked
as an inexion aiea and the centie of a context alieady contiolled in its ends,
but that was necessaiy to stiengthen in the inteimediate aieas because of the
vulneiability of the galleons that aiiived aftei theii jouiney thiough the Pacic.
Tnr Ciirovis o :nr Nov:n Wrs: rvo:irv or Nr Svi
Te ieason foi its impoitance has been a subject of debate ovei iecent yeais.
As we pointed out, in the case of the Califoinias the ieal and the mythical aie
two sides of the coin, bieathing life into the idea of its exceptional natuie that
distinguishes it fiom othei contexts.
15
Te teiiitoiies of the noith of New Spain confoimed a bioad space in which
a wide iange of dieient situations occuiied due to its social, geogiaphical
and fiontiei chaiacteiistics. Distant fiom the decision centies, the dynamics
chaiacteiized by the lack of contiol that caused a development that was
independent fiom the managing piocesses and made the piesence of the powei
visible that managed the new situation. Fiom Floiida to the Pacic coast, the
need foi its contiol biought the piolifeiation of the duties of the institutions
involved that developed into specic iegimes depending on the spheies and
that weie paiticulaily unique to the Califoinias.
16
It was an adaptation piocess
to the new iealities that the new piotagonists of the colonization piocess faced
and that dened what would latei become the veiy populai mission-piesidio
stiuctuie in the New Vizcaya aiea at the end of the 16th centuiy.
17
In oui specic case, fiom the end of the 17th centuiy until the ist half
of the 19th centuiy, the missions that Jesuits, Fianciscan and Dominicans
founded fiom the fai south of the peninsula of Low Califoinia to the San
Fiancisco Bay Aiea not only evangelized the native populations but also
acquiied an integiated iole in the inteinational politics of the Spanish ciown.
Teii ambition was to secuie theii piesence with an eective contiol ovei
the teiiitoiy iepiesented in the militaiy component of the action. Tis was
initially ieected in the paiticipation of the militaiy, whose eective piesence
with the constiuction of piesidios such as the Loieto, was a cleai example of
15. Authois such as Salvadoi Beinabeu Albeit say that: As well as its geostiategic position in the
Noithwest of Noith Ameiica, a teiiitoiy wanted ist by the Russians and latei by Anglo-Ameiicans, the
Califoinia was an impoitant peninsula because of its fiontiei use, similai to the hespeiides in the Classic
Age. Tese mythical islands weie situated in the ends of occident in the habitat eaith, the oikoumene of the
Gieeks, and theie weie a gaiden of gold apples in it. Sivoov Brvnru Ainrv:: Califoinia, o el podei
de las imgenes, op. cit., 159-185, specically 164.
16. With iespect to the chaiacteiistics that the goveinment of Low Califoinia acquiied fiom 1697,
iefeiiing to Iocio ori RIo: El rgimen jesutico de la Antigua California, UNAM, Mexico, 2003.
17. P:vici Os:r: El septentiin novohispano: una seculai colonizacin hispana, in Sivoov
Brvnru Ainrv: (Cooid.): Poblar la inmensidad: sociedades, conictividad y representacin en los
mrgenes del Imperio Hispnico (siglos -), Ediciones Rubeo, Madiid, 2010, 43-106.
135 Miouri ori Sovvocnr Curvv Te Pacic Ocean and the Califoinias
the iole of the foices that implied the piesence of soldieis. Othei components
that can desciibe this piocess aie stiuctuial details in Jesuit buildings, the
defensive stiuctuies integiated in the Dominicans in the Pacic Coast of the
constiuction of foui piesidios in San Diego, Santa Baibaia, Monteiey and San
Fiancisco in High Califoinia fiom 1769.
18
Retuining to the missions as an impoitant unit, theii exposuie to the exteinal
piessuie foiced them to have a noted iole in the teiiitoiial oiganization in the
iegion, wheie they opeiated within a piocess maiked by dieient phases such
as exploiing, conqueiing, and colonization.
19
Tese missions, pait of piogiams that deiived fiom the ones used in
Ameiica by ieligious oideis since the 16th centuiy, stand out foi the eloquent
imageiy of the piocess in which they weie involved. Plastic and symbolism
weie united both in the decoiative piogiams of the inteiiois, in which the
objects coming fiom the oiient played an impoitant iole due to theii exoticism
and the attiaction they cieated, and the conguiation of the cultuial sceneiy.
In this sceneiy, the instiuments weie designed that weie needed foi the
development of the exploitation woiks of the teiiitoiy wheie the contiol of
watei imposed a discipline that was used as a way of indoctiination into the
piogiams developed by the missionaiy, and also the use of ciaft woikshops. Tis
complexity suipassed the main iole of the most known element, the chuich,
and it shows a complex contiol mechanism that has not been appieciated by the
18. Te ielationship between the missions and piesidios and theii links between them is anothei aspect
desciibed in the woik of Mv:n Ov:ro So:o. Alta California: una frontera olvidada del noroeste de
Mxico. UAM-Plaza & Valdes, Mexico, 2001.
19. Te consolidation of the piocesses fiom which the confoimation in dieient pievious phases obliges
us not to miss the pievious peiiods developed within New Spain to undeistand the mechanisms used in
the same way as we should value the expeiience in the peninsula to undeistand the enteipiise in Ameiica
fiom 1492 and the expoitation to the Philippines since 1565.Cf. Os:io Sirs CoiI: El movimiento
portuario de Acapulco. El protagonismo de Nueva Espaa en la relacin con Filipinas, 1587-1648, Plaza y
Valdes, Mexico, 2000, 43-52.
Illustiation 4. Piesidios Monteiey. Califoinia. Diawing by Jose Coideio. 1791
136 POTESTAS, N
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6 2013 ISSN: 1888-9867 | DOI: http:iidx.doi.oigi10.6035iPotestas.2013.6.5 - pp. 125-142
histoiiogiaphy that centied its attention on the most piominent components.
Te teiiitoiial dimension is theiefoie omitted as it is inseited in a biggei and
immateiial one.
Te nal iesult was the necessaiy acceptance of the special ciicumstances
that weie involved in that teiiitoiy, which foiced the design of an occupation
model in which the piotagonists, the State, the Chuich, and the civil population,
delegated ioles and geneiated a piocess of inequality.
Te union of politics and ieligion was not new, but the conditions in which
the most tenacious oidei landed in that teiiitoiy was dening a iegime with
which it had full autonomy to accomplish some ioles that lead to some conicts
with the militaiy elements piesent, and mainly with a civil component that
sometimes emeiged fiom the militaiy appaiatus and that iequiied equal
tieatment foi access to the exploitation of the iiches in the teiiitoiy.
Duiing the piocess of conguiation two phases can be distinguished. Te
ist phase was developed mainly in Low Califoinia between 1697 and 1767, in
which the occupation of the teiiitoiy baiely had militaiy piesence apait fiom
the constiuction of the Loieto piison as an evident element, and the second
phase between 1768 and 1776, duiing which the Jesuits and the San Fiancisco
mission weie expelled, and in which the militaiy component was developed
unequally both in the Low Califoinia and the High Califoinia teiiitoiies. Duiing
this second peiiod we can identify a ist phase with the Dominican missions
that weie founded between San Feinando de Velicata and San Diego fiom
1769, wheie the piesence of defensive elements weie noticed such as the foit
of the Santo Domingo mission and that complemented a stiategic disposition
of the ieligious foundations that will be ieconveited when the commeice with
ottei skin developed by the Russians staited. And the most evident phase fiom
1769, when the contiol of the coast is moie diiect, evidenced by the change in
Spanish politics facing the piesence of the Biitish and Russians. Tis aected
an aiticulation of the teiiitoiy and the mission piocesses with the piesence of
foui main piesidios, San Diego, Santa Baibaia, Monteiey and San Fiancisco.
20
Tnr co:voi or :nr :rvvi:ovv. A orriro rr:noo
On Octobei 7
th
1699, Fathei Fiancisco Maiia Piccolo was on a jouiney fiom
the Loieto mission to the Pacic Coast of the Low Califoinia peninsula in oidei
to, among othei things, locate a favoiable poit in which the Manila Galleon could
layovei. Te extiact of the lettei that was addiessed to Juan Maiia Salvatieiia
dated at the end of the month Octobei and that can be found complete in the
20. Te complexity of the gioup of elements that aie involved in this fiontiei conguiation ieects
the dieient ciossed inteiests that existed in the piocess. Cf. Luis Avi: El piesidio. Instiumento de
poblacin en el septentiin novohispano, in Sivoov Brvnru Ainrv: (Cooid.), Poblar la inmensidad:
sociedades, conictividad y representacin en los mrgenes del Imperio Hispnico (siglos -), Ediciones
Rubeo: Madiid, 2010, 117-124.
137 Miouri ori Sovvocnr Curvv Te Pacic Ocean and the Califoinias
National Libiaiy of Mexico, is essential to oui undeistanding of the method
developed by the Jesuits in Low Califoinia, sometimes desciibing the situations
that allow undeistanding of the geneial dynamic, the end of it being its most
signicant aspect.
21
Tis epistolaiy infoimation no only oeis a vaiiety of desciiptions that
allows us to have an idea of the ieality of Low Califoinia but also conveys a
desciiption of the constant contact with the native populations that aie in many
cases new gioups that appioach the ieligious and that weie faiily unknown. In
addition, this is an example of the two pillais that undeilie the piocess, the
political and the ieligious, that in any case opens up questions conceining the
histoiical dynamic that was occuiiing and shows that it does not ciicumsciibe
to the time of naiiation but is piojected to past and futuie peiiods, allowing a
tiemendously suggestive contextualization.
22
Te missionaiy jouiney was an excuse to oei contiibutions to vaiious
aspects that we can apply to the whole of the Califoinian teiiitoiy, given its
singulaiity as the peiipheiy and fiontiei of New Spain, wheie the geogiaphical
and population chaiacteiistics should be fiamed within the geneial context
of the so-called Aiidoameiica, with the deteiminism that this implies in the
development piocesses of human gioups that swaim in this aieas.
Te impoitance of the iole that the Jesuit gave to the public ceiemony and
sound, even the basic sound of bells, became a geneialized habit and piactised
by the natives in the eaily yeais such as 1699, which talks about the assimilation
of the evangelizing and indoctiination piocesses: the ieception given to us
by the sons (that we have in this village) with vaiious bows and bell iinging
as a sample of it.
23
What is also in itself inteiesting is the iefeience to the
components to a mayy aichitectuie that was piesent in dieient levels of
complexity in New Spain fiom the 16th centuiy, peihaps becoming moie
impoitant in the following centuiies. It is inteiesting because it was a public
demonstiation of iepiesentative elements and symbols of the community life
and of the educating iole of the ieligious as a community activity that helped
to oei a highei signicance to the acts that it decoiated.
24
21. Iocio ori RIo (ed.): Crnicas jesuticas de la Antigua California. UNAM, Mexico, 2000, 19-29.
22. Desciiptions of ceiemonies, dates about climatology and details about the teiiitoiy, infoimation
about chuich constiuction piactices duiing its essential phases and desciiptions of the dieient populations
with which language, social behavioi, etc., weie ciossed, aie just an innumeiable seiies of pioposals foi
appioaches that aie open foi us, encouiaging us to develop each one of them.
23. Iocio ori RIo (ed.): Crnicas jesuticas, op. cit., 19.
24. An example of the mayy aichitectuie that was caiiied out in Mexico in the 16th centuiy is ieected
in the woik of Fvcisco Crvv:rs or Sizv: Mxico en 1554 y Tmulo Imperial, Editoiial Poiia,
Mexico, 1972.
138 POTESTAS, N
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6 2013 ISSN: 1888-9867 | DOI: http:iidx.doi.oigi10.6035iPotestas.2013.6.5 - pp. 125-142
Illustiation 5. Mission Chuich of San Fiancisco Javiei Biaund. 1756
Illustiation 6. Mission Chuich of San Ignacio Kadakaamang. Low Califoinia. Mexico. 1786
139 Miouri ori Sovvocnr Curvv Te Pacic Ocean and the Califoinias
Tis lettei is also an inestimable souice to undeistand the mechanism
the ieligious gioups used to entei into this inhospitable teiiitoiy. Te iole of
the native in the jouineys completed by the Jesuits as well as in the places
selected to found the mission was essential due to the speed with which the
foundations weie cieated, and the stiong symbolic iole that they had in being
histoiic points foi meetings oi watei supply integiated within a symbolic
geogiaphy that gives a special iole to the landscape as the sceneiy of daily
natuie.
25
Foi this, the piocess of gatheiing infoimation piioi to the stait of the
jouiney fiom San Fiancisco Javiei to the counteicoast is ciitical to undeistand
the occupation piocess.
26
As mentioned eailiei, the Evangelical woik implied fiom the beginning
the availability of the necessaiy elements foi it, wheie the constiuction of the
chuich was fundamental. Although the mateiials available aie stone and eaith
as well as vegetables foi the constiuction of the ioofs, the iefeiences to the
constiuction of the ist chuich in the San Fiancisco mission suggest the use
of adobe as a mateiial that allows us to undeistand the system used in othei
missions, given that this one was the second constiucted in Low Califoinia. Te
fact that the mateiial used was adobe, and also the time taken was two days,
gives the impiession that it was a well-known constiuction technique used
not only by the ieligious but also by the soldieis in chaige of the piotection
of these missions. In the militaiy detachment numbei 14, the soldieis made
2500 adobes in two days to constiuct a chapel, seven yaids long and foui-and-
a-half yaids wide, and two days was also the time they needed to constiuct a
iesidence foi fathei Fiancisco Maiia Piccolo and anothei two days to covei the
chuich with foddei.
27
In addition to the ieligious, anothei spheie that shows the powei
ielationships established is that of the militaiy. Addiessing the awaieness
of the piesence of the Spanish powei in a context such as the Pacic cannot
be sepaiated fiom the geneial politics used in New Spain, fiom the militaiy
component of it oi fiom the teiiitoiial consequences that ensued in othei
contexts and which became appaient as the fiontiei moved towaids the noith.
In this sense, the militaiy oiganization of the iegion could baiely adapt to the
piogiammed system. Tese ciicumstances made the guie of the goveinoi an
essential iole in these teiiitoiies along with the geneial captain. Howevei, we
25. Ros Ein RoovIourz Torv: Los lmites de la identidad. Los grupos indgenas de Baja California
ante el cambio cultural, Gobieino del Estado de Baja Califoinia Sui-Instituto Subcalifoiniano de Cultuia,
La Paz, 2006.
26. while he was taking tongue and notice of the path and distance that was fiom this aiea to the sea
of the counteicoast . Iocio ori RIo (ed.): Crnicas jesuticas, op. cit., 20
27. wanted the captain (Antonio Gaica de) Mendoza with the soldieis to make some adobes foi
the new chapel of San Fiancisco Javiei. Divided in two teams of seven soldieis (each one), they made in two
days two thousand and ve hundied adobes. And the captain, who staited the woik, made with his paitnei
ve hundied adobes the ist moining, and the othei team, in the evening, made six hundied adobes (). In
conclusion, the colleagues made, in two days, the chapel of seven yaids long and foui yaids wide. In anothei
two days they wanted to build foi me, undeiseiving, a settlement and a ioom, and in anothei two days they
coveied the chapel that, even made of foddei, was beautiful. Ibdem, 20.
140 POTESTAS, N
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asseit that these chaiacteiistics weie vaiiable in each iegion of this vast aiea
to the extent that the link in the Califoinian case between ieligion and politics
foiced a new solution to be found foi the imposition of the ieality that those
who wanted to contiol it had to face.
28
In the light of this, the two fionts in the new sea that weie open to the
Spanish domains iequiied an integial policy based on a constiuctive piogiam
in which the Spanish soveieign would instigate. Te change fiom the Medieval
to the Modein Age biought a change in the attack systems that iequiied an
impiovement in the militaiy stiuctuies used so fai.
29
Te Euiopean appioach
found that Ameiica was the setting to combine theii static pioposals with
the dynamics of a commeicial eet that had to piotect, in a combination of
components that made the Ameiican ieality become complex weie, as alieady
mentioned, not only piiacy but also the piessuie fiom poweis such as England
and Holland which made its piesence necessaiy.
In any case the complexity of the Ameiican ieality made the defensive
typologies adapt to the dieient cases, fiom the pioposals to defend the coast
towns foi layovei and eet concentiation to the one that will contiol the
inteinal fiontieis both in disputes with the native gioups and othei Euiopean
poweis. Te techniques applied came fiom the expeiience with the Italian
and Dutch academies, of paiticulai note being the foimation of the Baicelona
Royal Gioup of Engineeis and the Academy foi Piospeio Veiboom.
30
As we mentioned eailiei, the Pacic fiont was iecognized fiom the
peispective of its di cult access and its distance, although it was one of the
chaiacteiistics that aected the whole of the eets, including the Spanish one.
Tis situation cieated some doubts conceining the pioceeding stiategy, eithei
a dynamic defensive system using the oats oi the static system using the foits,
without consideiing of using both, and in the case of Califoinia, none of them
being used in the end.
Tis did not avoid the inequality in the elements that will be constiucted,
because although theie was a piogiam designed foi the Chilean, Peiuvian and
Ecuadoiian coasts, the Mexican coast baiely had elements fiom the Acapulco
foit and (fiom the 18th centuiy) fiom the San Diego, Santa Baibaia, Monteiey
and San Fiancisco piesidios, that, in 1775 would be the last inteivention in this
noithein iegion.
28. Vivoii Gurou: La oiganizacin militai, in Wooovo Bovn: El gobierno provincial en la
Nueva Espaa. 1570-1787, UNAM, Mexico, 2002.
29. Te dominant position of Spain in the Mediteiianean context and its inteinal piogiession ieected
in the development of the Gianada wai, biought about in the 16th centuiy the confoimation of a civil and
militaiy aichitectuial Academy that was suggested to be suppoited by Juan de Heiieia. His links with Italy
meant that veiy soon the tiansalpine engineeis seived the King of Spain as in the case of Tibuicio Spanoqui,
who had a confiimed expeiience in constiucting the foits in the Mediteiianean against the Tuikish.
Cf. Rr Gu:irvvrz: Arquitectura y urbanismo en Iberoamrica, Ctedia, Madiid, 1983, 299-320.
30. Josrv Soirv Vioi: California: la aventura catalana del noroeste, FCE, Mexico, 2012, J.O.
Moco Mv: Ingenieios militaies en Califoinia. Siglo xviii en J.O. Moco. (Cooid.): Fronteras
en movimiento. Expansin en territorios septentrionales de la Nueva Espaa, Instituto de Geogiaf a-
UNAM, Mexico, 1999.
141 Miouri ori Sovvocnr Curvv Te Pacic Ocean and the Califoinias
Tis contiasted with the eoit to militaiize the new open fiont in Asia.
Unlike Califoinia, the attention paid to the new spaces contiolled in the
Philippine aichipielago, (although we cannot foiget otheis such as Guam oi
the Maiianas islands), depicts an intense constiuction piocess that can only be
explained in teims of the piessuie of being a context peifectly dened by the
competition in the contiol foi the dieient commeicial ioutes. Te constiuc-
tion of foits such as the Cebu, Manila, Palawan oi Taiwan and othei minoi
ones like the isle of Escaipada, would explain the conceins about potential
invasions in this othei aiea.
Contiaiy to the Califoinian case, the existence of thieats fiom the beginning,
wheie the native gioups and the Asian and Euiopean poweis weie combined,
iesulted in the occupying mechanisms then being incoipoiated moie than in
the Ameiican context, the piesence of the militaiy stiuctuie being essential to
piotect the population, and also wheie the ieligious oideis paiticipated duiing
the 18th centuiy. Te constiuction of fences is pait of a methodology that was
piactised since the beginning in Ameiica, to the extent that we cannot foiget
that the Philippine context was the second occasion when the Spanish ciown
had to confiont the invasion of an insulai aiea.
Undoubtedly, the peiception of this iegion duiing the second half of the
16th centuiy was moie consistent. Te politics developed by Felipe II in these
teiiitoiies weie maiked by constant ieligious ghts, wheie the Jesuits ceitainly
had an impact on incieasing the piessuie on them, showing the contact but not
Illustiation 7. Mission of San Vicente Feiiei. Baja Califoinia. 1780
142 POTESTAS, N
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the exact knowledge of the Asian iealities since theii piesence in these aieas
since the decade of the 40s of the 16th centuiy with San Fiancisco Javiei.
31
In all of this, the need to secuie a pathway out foi the ships fiom Manila
that had, since 1565, established iegulai contact with the Pacic counteicoast,
iesulted in this unequal development expiessed in the complex buildings that
aie cuiiently a cleai testimonial of this histoiical epoque.
31. Mri Oiir: La empresa de China. De la Armada Invencible al Galen de Manila, Acantilado,
Baicelona, 2002.
Illustiation 8. Mission of Santa Bibaia. Califoinia. 1786-1925