Research Methodology

PART 1

Introduction to Research & Research Methodology M S Sridhar

Former Head, Library & Documentation ISRO Satellite Centre Bangalore 560017
E-mail: mirlesridhar@gmail.com

OVERALL SYNOPSIS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Introduction to Research & Research methodology Selection and formulation of research problem Research design and plan Experimental designs Sampling and sampling strategy or plan Measurement and scaling techniques Data collection methods and techniques Testing of hypotheses Statistical techniques for processing & analysis of data 10. Analysis, interpretation and drawing inferences 11. Report writing

M S Sridhar

Research Methodology 1

Synopsis
1. Introduction to research and research methodology
What is research ? Why research ? Terms used
Research Methodology Research Method Research Technique

Research methodology Scientific method Benefits of research methodology Qualities of good research & researcher Research process Ethics of research Types of research
Introduction to Research Methodology 3

M S Sridhar

Preamble
Man coming to grips with his environment and to understand the nature through experience, reasoning and research 1. EXPERIENCE (Subsume a number of sources of information) Personal experience, i.e., body of knowledge and skills derived from encounters and acquaintance with facts and events in his environment Experience of others Sources beyond immediate circle, i.e., authoritative sources EXPERIENCE & AUTHORITY are richly fertile sources of hypotheses, but they are common sense knowing, often based on haphazard events and use loose & uncritical manner and hence not scientific Contd...
M S Sridhar Introduction to Research Methodology 4

Preamble
2.

Contd.

REASONING Deductive (Aristotle) From whole to part Inductive (Francis Bacon) From number of observations Combined

3. RESEARCH Systematic, controlled, empirical & critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena, I.e., Systematic & controlled Empirical Self-correcting Research is a combination of both experience & reasoning and must be regarded as the most successful approach to the discovery of truth (particularly in natural sciences)
M S Sridhar Introduction to Research Methodology 5

What is Research ?
1. A voyage of discovery or a journey/ movement from the known to unknown; An attitude; An experience; A method of critical thinking; A careful critical enquiry in seeking facts for principles An art of scientific investigation
Scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic Process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through the planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data

2.

3.

A systematized effort to gain new knowledge

Search for (new) knowledge/ facts through objective, systematic and scientific method of finding solution to a problem Implicit question + Explicit answer + data to support the answer Not synonymous with commonsense, but systematic, objective (purposeful), reproducible, relevant activity having control over some factors
Introduction to Research Methodology 6

M S Sridhar

What is Research ? Contd.

4. An activity caused by instinct of inquisitiveness to gain fresh insight / find answers to question / acquire knowledge
In a broad sense, everyone does research, but dont write it up; Without trustworthy and tested published research available we are dangerously lost in the experience, opinions and hearsay

Why research ?
1. To get a degree 2. To get respectability 3. To face a challenge 4. To solve a problem 5. To get intellectual joy 6. To serve society by increasing standard of living in case of S&T, and by showing right path to

society in case of Social

and Behavioural Sciences

M S Sridhar

Introduction to Research Methodology

Terms
1. RESEARCH TECHNIQUE - Behaviour and instruments used in research operations Examples: Scales, recording techniques, content analysis, moving average, longitudinal / cross sectional collection of data, etc. 2. RESEARCH METHOD - Behavior and instruments used in selecting and constructing technique (a range of approaches used to gather data) Examples: Observation, questionnaire, interview, analysis of records, case study, etc. Methods are more general than techniques. Methods & Techniques are used in performing research operations, i.e.., Collection of data Statistical processing & analysis (tests) To evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained NOTE: Research techniques and research methods are almost interchangeably used
M S Sridhar Introduction to Research Methodology 8

Terms contd.
3. Research Methodology
A science of studying how research is done scientifically A way to systematically solve the research problem by logically adopting various steps Methodology helps to understand not only the products of scientific inquiry but the process itself Aims to describe and analyze methods, throw light on their limitations and resources, clarify their presuppositions and consequences, relating their potentialities to the twilight zone at the frontiers of knowledge

M S Sridhar

Introduction to Research Methodology

Benefits of Research Methodology

1. Advancement of wealth of human knowledge 2. Tools of the trade to carry out research; Provides tools to look at things in life objectively 3. Develops a critical and scientific attitude, disciplined thinking or a bent of mind to observe objectively (scientific deduction & inductive thinking); Skills of research will pay-off in long term particularly in the age of information (or too often of misinformation) 4. Enriches practitioner and his practices; Provides opportunity to study a subject in depth; Enable us to make intelligent decisions; Understand the material which no other kind of work can match 5. As consumers of research output helps to inculcate the ability to evaluate and use results of earlier research with reasonable confidence and take rational decisions 6. Doing research is the best way to learn to read and think critically
Contd...
M S Sridhar Introduction to Research Methodology 10

Preamble
Man coming to grips with his environment and to understand the nature through experience, reasoning and research 1. EXPERIENCE (Subsume a number of sources of information) Personal experience, i.e., body of knowledge and skills derived from encounters and acquaintance with facts and events in his environment Experience of others Sources beyond immediate circle, i.e., authoritative sources EXPERIENCE & AUTHORITY are richly fertile sources of hypotheses, but they are common sense knowing, often based on haphazard events and use loose & uncritical manner and hence not scientific Contd...
M S Sridhar Introduction to Research Methodology 11

Preamble
2.

Contd.

REASONING Deductive (Aristotle) From whole to part Inductive (Francis Bacon) From number of observations Combined

3. RESEARCH Systematic, controlled, empirical & critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena, I.e., Systematic & controlled Empirical Self-correcting Research is a combination of both experience & reasoning and must be regarded as the most successful approach to the discovery of truth (particularly in natural sciences)
M S Sridhar Introduction to Research Methodology 12

What is Research ?
1. A voyage of discovery or a journey/ movement from the known to unknown; An attitude; An experience; A method of critical thinking; A careful critical inquiry in seeking facts for principles An art of scientific investigation
Scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic Process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through the planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data

2.

3.

A systematized effort to gain new knowledge

Search for (new) knowledge/ facts through objective, systematic and scientific method of finding solution to a problem Implicit question + Explicit answer + data to support the answer Not synonymous with commonsense, but systematic, objective (purposeful), reproducible, relevant activity having control over some factors
Introduction to Research Methodology 13

M S Sridhar

What is Research ? Contd.

4. An activity caused by instinct of inquisitiveness to gain fresh insight / find answers to question / acquire knowledge
In a broad sense, everyone does research, but dont write it up; Without trustworthy and tested published research available we are dangerously lost in the experience, opinions and hearsay

Why research ?
1. To get a degree 2. To get respectability 3. To face a challenge 4. To solve a problem 5. To get intellectual joy 6. To serve society by increasing standard of living in case of S&T, and by showing right path to

society in case of Social

and Behavioural Sciences

M S Sridhar

Introduction to Research Methodology

14

Terms
1. RESEARCH TECHNIQUE - Behaviour and instruments used in research operations Examples: Scales, recording techniques, content analysis, moving average, longitudinal / cross sectional collection of data, etc. 2. RESEARCH METHOD - Behavior and instruments used in selecting and constructing technique (a range of approaches used to gather data) Examples: Observation, questionnaire, interview, analysis of records, case study, etc. Methods are more general than techniques. Methods & Techniques are used in performing research operations, i.e.., Collection of data Statistical processing & analysis (tests) To evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained NOTE: Research techniques and research methods are almost interchangeably used
M S Sridhar Introduction to Research Methodology 15

Terms contd.
3. Research Methodology
A science of studying how research is done scientifically A way to systematically solve the research problem by logically adopting various steps Methodology helps to understand not only the products of scientific inquiry but the process itself Aims to describe and analyze methods, throw light on their limitations and resources, clarify their presuppositions and consequences, relating their potentialities to the twilight zone at the frontiers of knowledge

M S Sridhar

Introduction to Research Methodology

16

Benefits of Research Methodology

1. Advancement of wealth of human knowledge 2. Tools of the trade to carry out research; Provides tools to look at things in life objectively 3. Develops a critical and scientific attitude, disciplined thinking or a bent of mind to observe objectively (scientific deduction & inductive thinking); Skills of research will pay-off in long term particularly in the age of information (or too often of misinformation) 4. Enriches practitioner and his practices; Provides opportunity to study a subject in depth; Enable us to make intelligent decisions; Understand the material which no other kind of work can match 5. As consumers of research output helps to inculcate the ability to evaluate and use results of earlier research with reasonable confidence and take rational decisions 6. Doing research is the best way to learn to read and think critically
Contd...
M S Sridhar Introduction to Research Methodology 17

Benefits of Research Methodology

Contd...

Additional benefits in case of librarianship: i. Helps to understand the researcher as a user of library ii. Helps to learn how to use libraries & other information resources iii. Enables critical evaluation of literature iv. Develops special interests & skills v. Helps to understand attitude of others vi. Creates awareness of special needs of research process vii. Facilitates reference and information service

M S Sridhar, ISRO

Research Methodology 1

18

Benefits of Research Assignments to Students

1. Good assignments establish outcomes beyond a product to be evaluated 2. Good assignments help students to learn about their audience 3. Good assignments create scenarios that are rich in contextual information 4. Good assignments provide interim readers 5. As with any real project, good assignments give students time and a schedule of interim deadlines

M S Sridhar, ISRO

Research Methodology 1

19

Scientific Method
The method of all logically trained minds The pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations Classifies facts, sees their mutual relation through experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted postulates Tenets of scientific faith
1. DETERMINISM: Events have causes, I.e., events are determined by other circumstances (causal links can eventually be uncovered and understood) 2. EMPIRICISM: Verifiable by observation and evidence (data) 3. PRINCIPLES OF PARSIMONY: Phenomenon should be explained in the most economical way possible 4. GENERALIZABILITY: More problematic in social & behavioral science than natural science

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Introduction to Research Methodology

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Basic Postulates of Scientific Method

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Relies on empirical evidence (empiricism) Utilizes relevant concepts Committed to only objective considerations Presupposes ethical neutrality Results into probabilistic predictions Methodology is made known to all for critical scrutiny and testing through replication 7. Aims at formulating most general axioms or scientific theories 8. Encourages rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dictated by the demands of logic and objective procedure
M S Sridhar Introduction to Research Methodology 21

Qualities of Good Research

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD EMPLOYED ENSURES: 1. Purpose/ objectives clearly defined in common concepts 2. Procedure enumerated to keep continuity

3. Carefully planned design leading to objective results

4. Complete frankness; flaws reported and their effect estimated 5. Adequate analysis of data with appropriate methods of analysis 6. Carefully checked data for validity & reliability 7. Conclusions confined to those justified by the data 8. Confidence, competence/ reputation, experience, honesty & integrity of researcher
Note: 38% of papers in Nature and 25% of papers in BMJ contain one or more statistical errors; 4% of errors caused non-significant findings to be misrepresented as significant (The Economist, 5 June 04, p 7071)

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Introduction to Research Methodology

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Qualities of Good Research

contd..

1. SYSTEMATIC - Reject the use of guessing & intuition, but does not rule out creative thinking 2. CONTROLLED Variables are identified & controlled, wherever possible 3. LOGICAL - Guided by rules of logical reasoning & logical process of induction & deduction 4. EMPIRICAL- Provides a basis for external validity to results (validation) 5. REPLICABLE - Verified by replicating the study 6. SELF CORRECTING - Built in mechanism & open to public scrutiny by fellow professionals

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Introduction to Research Methodology

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Research Process
1. Selection & formulation of Research Problem 2. Literature survey 3. Development of working hypotheses 4. Research design 5. Sampling strategy or sample design 6. Pilot (quick & dirty) study 7. Data collection 8. Processing & analysis of data 9. Testing hypotheses 10. Interpretation & generalisation 11. Preparation of the report
NOTE: 1. Above steps are not exhaustive, nor mutually exclusive, but a series of closely related, continuously overlapping and interdependent nonlinear steps/ actions 2. What lies ahead is hard work as well as pleasure of the hunt; some frustration, but more of satisfaction; periods of confusion, but confidence that, at the end, it will all come together

M S Sridhar

Introduction to Research Methodology

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Ethics of Research
As a profound social activity research connects us to those who will use it, to those whose research we used, through them, to the research that our sources used; Hence beyond technique, we need to think about ethics of civil communication In addition to construction of bonds within any community, ethics deal with a range of moral and immoral choices; Research challenges us to define individual moral principles; Academic researchers are less tempted to sacrifice principle for a gain than commercial researchers Plagiarism, claiming credit for results of others, misreport sources or invent results, data with questionable accuracy, concealing objections that cannot be rebutted, caricaturing or distorting opposing views, destroy or conceal sources and data important for those who follow Beyond simple moral Do not, to what we should affirmatively do, i.e., concern for the integrity of the work of the community combined with moral standards with the larger ethical dimension Research done in the best interests of others is also in your own
M S Sridhar Introduction to Research Methodology 25

Types of Research
1. DESCRIPTIVE/ SURVEY (EXPOST FACTO) Surveys & fact-finding enquiries State of affairs as it exists No control over variables Try to discover causes (I.e., ex- post facto) 2. APPLIED Finding a solution for an immediate problem & not rigorous / flexible in application of the conditions ANALYTICAL Uses facts or information already available and analyze to make a critical evaluation

FUNDAMENTAL (BASIC OR PURE) Concerned with generalizations & formulation of theory Knowledge for knowledges sake (I.e., pure or basic research) contd.
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M S Sridhar

Introduction to Research Methodology

Types of Research
3. QUANTITATIVE Measured & expressed in terms of quantity Expression of a property or quantity in numerical terms Quantitative research helps: i. Precise measurements ii. Knowing trends or changes overtime iii. Comparing trends or individual units 4 CONCEPTUAL Related to some abstract idea or theory (for thinkers & philosophers) Relies on literature

contd

QUALITATIVE Involves quality or kind Helps in having insight into problems or cases

EMPIRICAL Relies on experience or observation alone, i.e.,data based research Capable of being verified by observation or experiment Experimenter has control over variables contd
27

M S Sridhar

Introduction to Research Methodology

Types of Research
5. i.

contd

OTHER TYPES One time/ Cross sectional vs Longitudinal/ Developmental & Trend or Prediction studies (the time domain) ii. Field setting vs Lab / Simulation research iii. Clinical vs diagnostic studies iv. Exploratory vs Formulated (the degree of formulation of the problem) studies v. Historical studies (Greater part of it is quantitative) vi. Content Analysis is one such quantitative method a multipurpose method developed specifically for investigating a broad spectrum of problems in which the contents of communication serve as a basis of inference. Example: word usage rates, word counts, etc. vii. Co relational research viii. Conclusion oriented or decision oriented research

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Introduction to Research Methodology

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APPENDIX I Benefits of Research Methodology

Contd...

Additional benefits in case of librarianship: i. Helps to understand the researcher as a user of library ii. Helps to learn how to use libraries & other information resources iii. Enables critical evaluation of literature iv. Develops special interests & skills v. Helps to understand attitude of others vi. Creates awareness of special needs of research process vii. Facilitates reference and information services

M S Sridhar

Introduction to Research Methodology

29

APPENDIX II Benefits of Research Assignments to Students

1. Good assignments establish outcomes beyond a product to be evaluated 2. Good assignments help students to learn about their audience 3. Good assignments create scenarios that are rich in contextual information 4. Good assignments provide interim readings 5. As with any real project, good assignments give students time and a schedule of interim deadlines

M S Sridhar

Introduction to Research Methodology

30