Introduction to Marine Engineering.

D. A. Taylor, MSc, BSc, CENG, FlMarE, FRINA Senior Lecturer in Marine Technology, Hong Kong olytechnic Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford 0X2 8DP
PART OF REED I TER ATIO AL !OO"# OXFORD LO DO !O#TO $% I&H E' DELHI #I (APORE #)D E) TO")O TORO TO 'ELLI (TO

Firs* +u,lis-ed ./80 Re+rin*ed ./81 #econd edi*ion .//0 Re+rin*ed .//2 2 !u**er3or*-4Heine5ann L*d .//0 All ri6-*s reser7ed8 o +ar* of *-is +u,lica*ion 5a9 ,e re+roduced in an9 5a*erial for5 :includin6 +-o*oco+9in6 or s*orin6 in an9 5ediu5 ,9 elec*ronic 5eans and 3-e*-er or no* *ransien*l9 or inciden*all9 *o so5e o*-er use of *-is +u,lica*ion; 3i*-ou* *-e 3ri**en +er5ission of *-e co+9ri6-* -older exce+* in accordance 3i*- *-e +ro7isions of *-e &o+9ri6-*, Desi6ns and Pa*en*s Ac* ./88 or under *-e *er5s of a licence issued ,9 *-e &o+9ri6-* Licensin6 A6enc9 Lid, /0 To**en-a5 &our* Road8 London, En6land '.P/HE8 A++lica*ions for *-e co+9ri6-* -older<s 3ri**en +er5ission *o re+roduce an9 +an of *-is +u,lica*ion s-ould ,e addressed *o *-e +u,lis-ers8 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Ta9lor, D8 A8 :Da7id Alien;, 1946In*roduc*ion *o 5arine en6ineerin68 4 2nd ed8 .8 $arine en6ineerin6 I8 Ti*le =2088> Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data Ta9lor8 D8 A8 In*roduc*ion *o 5arine en6ineerin6?D8,A8 Ta9lor8 4 2nd cd8 +8 c58 I#! 0 @08 01>0= 8 .8 $arine en6ineerin6 28 $arine 5ac-iner98 I8 Ti*le A$=008T081 .//0 =208#>4dc20 8/4>.02= Prin*ed and ,ound in (rea* !ri*ain ,9 *-e %ni7ersi*9 Press8 &a5,rid6e

Preface to second edition

Progress has been made in many areas of marine engineering since the first edition of this book was published. A greater emphasis is now being placed on the cost-effective operation of ships. This has meant more fuelefficient engines, less time in port and the need for greater equipment reliability, fewer engineers and more use of automatically operated machinery. The marine engineer is still, however, required to understand the working principles, construction and operation of all the machinery items in a ship. The need for correct and safe operating procedures is as great as ever. There is considerably more legislation which must be understood and complied with, for example in relation to the discharging of oil, sewage and even black smoke from the funnel.

The aim of this book is to simply explain the operation of all the ship s machinery to an !ngineer "adet or #unior !ngineer who is embarking on a career at sea. The emphasis is always upon correct, safe operating procedures and practices at all times. been maintained at a level to cover the syllabuses of The content has the "lass $ and "lass % !ngineer&s

"ertificates of "ompetency and the first two years of the !ngineer "adet Training 'cheme. Additional material is included to cover the !ngineering knowledge syllabus of the (aster&s "ertificate. ). A. Taylor Anyone with an interest in ships& machinery or a professional involvement in the shipping business should find this book informative and useful.

Chapter 1

Ships and machinery

As an in*roduc*ion *o 5arine en6ineerin6, 3e 5i6-* reasona,l9 ,e6in ,9 *aBin6 an o7erall looB 8a* *-e s-i+8 T-e 7arious du*ies of a 5arine en6ineer all rela*e *o *-e o+era*ion of *-e s-i+ in a safe, relia,le, efficien* and econo5ic 5anner8 T-e 5ain +ro+ulsion 5ac-iner9 ins*alled 3ill influence *-e 5ac-iner9 la9ou* and de*er5ine *-e eCui+5en* and auxiliaries ins*alled8 T-is 3ill fur*-er de*er5ine *-e o+era*ional and 5ain*enance reCuire5en*s for *-e s-i+ and *-us *-e Bno3led6e reCuired and *-e du*ies *o ,e +erfor5ed ,9 *-e 5arine en6ineer8

Ships
#-i+s are lar6e, co5+lex 7e-icles 3-ic- 5us* ,e self4sus*ainin6 in *-eir en7iron5en* for lon6 +eriods 3i*- a -iDEde6ree of relia,ili*98 A s-i+ is *-e +roduc* of *3o 5ain areas of sBill, *-ose of *-e na7al arc-i*ec* and *-e 5arine en6ineer8 T-e na7al arc-i*ec* is concerned 3i*- *-e -ull, i*s cons*ruc*ion, for5, -a,i*a,ili*9 and a,ili*9 *o endure i*s en7iron5en*8 T-e 5arine en6ineer is res+onsi,le for *-e 7arious s9s*e5s 3-ic- +ro+el and o+era*e *-e s-i+8 $ore s+ecificall9, *-is 5eans *-e 5ac-iner9 reCuired for +ro+ulsion, s*eerin6, anc-orin6 and s-i+ securin6, car6o -andlin6, air condi*ionin6, +o3er 6enera*ion and i*s dis*ri,u*ion8 #o5e o7erla+ in res+onsi,ili*ies occurs ,e*3een na7al arc-i*ec*s and 5arine en6ineers in areas suc- as +ro+eller desi6n, *-e reduc*ion of noise and 7i,ra*ion in *-e s-i+<s s*ruc*ure, and en6ineerin6 ser7ices +ro7ided *o considera,le areas of *-e s-i+8 A s-i+ 5i6-* reasona,l9 ,e di7ided in*o *-ree dis*inc* areasF *-e car6o4carr9in6 -olds or *anBs, *-e acco55oda*ion and *-e 5ac-iner9 s+ace8 De+endin6 u+on *-e *9+e eac- s-i+ 3ill assu5e 7ar9in6 +ro+or*ions and func*ions8 An oil *anBer, for ins*ance, 3ill -a7e *-e car6o4carr9in6 re6ion di7ided in*o *anBs ,9 *3o lon6i*udinal ,ulB-eads and se7eral *rans7erse ,ulB-eads8 T-ere 3ill ,e considera,le Cuan*i*ies of car6o +i+in6 ,o*- a,o7e and ,elo3 decBs8 T-e 6eneral car6o s-i+ 3ill -a7e 7arious car6o -olds 3-ic- are usuall9 *-e full 3id*- of *-e 7essel and for5ed ,9 *rans7erse ,ulB-eads alon6 *-e s-i+<s len6*-8 &ar6o4-andlin6 eCui+5en* 3ill ,e arran6ed on decB and *-ere 3ill ,e lar6e -a*c- o+enin6s closed 3i*s*eel -a*c- co7ers8 T-e acco55oda*ion areas in eac- of *-ese s-i+ *9+es 3ill ,e sufficien* *o 5ee* *-e reCuire5en*s for *-e s-i+<s cre3, +ro7ide a na7i6a*in6 ,rid6e area and a co55unica*ions cen*re8 T-e 5ac-iner9 s+ace siGe 3ill ,e decided ,9 *-e +ar*icular 5ac-iner9 ins*alled and *-e auxiliar9 eCui+5en* necessar98 A +assen6er s-i+, -o3e7er, 3ould -a7e a lar6e acco55oda*ion area, since *-is 5i6-* ,e considered *-e <car6o s+ace<8 $ac-iner9 s+ace reCuire5en*s 3ill +ro,a,l9 ,e lar6er ,ecause of air condi*ionin6 eCui+5en*, s*a,ilisers and o*-er +assen6er rela*ed eCui+5en*8

Machinery
Arrangement T-ree +rinci+al *9+es of 5ac-iner9 ins*alla*ion are *o ,e found a* sea *oda98 T-eir indi7idual 5eri*s c-an6e 3i**ec-nolo6ical ad7ances and i5+ro7e5en*s and econo5ic fac*ors suc- as *-e c-an6e in oil +rices8 I* is in*ended *-erefore onl9 *o descri,e *-e la9ou*s fro5 an en6ineerin6 +oin* of 7ie38 T-e *-ree la9ou*s in7ol7e *-e use of direc*4 cou+led slo34s+eed diesel en6ines, 5ediu54s+eed diesels 3i*- a 6ear,ox, and *-e s*ea5 *ur,ine 3i*- a 6ear,ox dri7e *o *-e +ro+eller8 A +ro+eller, in order *o o+era*e efficien*l9, 5us* ro*a*e a* a rela*i7el9 lo3 s+eed8 T-us, re6ardless of *-e ro*a*ional s+eed of *-e +ri5e 5o7er, *-e +ro+eller s-af* 5us* ro*a*e a* a,ou* 80 *o l00 re7?5in8 T-e slo34s+eed diesel en6ine ro*a*es a* *-is lo3 s+eed and *-e cranBs-af* is *-us direc*l9 cou+led *o *-e +ro+eller s-af*in68 T-e 5ediu54s+eed diesel en6ine o+era*es in *-e ran6e 2104>10 re7?5in and canno* *-erefore ,e direc*l9 cou+led *o *-e +ro+eller s-af*8 A 6ear,ox is used *o +ro7ide a lo34s+eed dri7e for *-e +ro+eller s-af*8 T-e s*ea5 *ur,ine ro*a*es a* a 7er9 -i6- s+eed, in *-e order of =000 re7?5in8 A6ain, a 6ear,ox 5us* ,e used *o +ro7ide a lo34s+eed dri7e for *-e +ro+eller s-af*8 Slow-speed diesel A cu*a3a9 dra3in6 of a co5+le*e s-i+ is s-o3n in Fi6ure .8.8 Here, in addi*ion *o *-e 5ac-iner9 s+ace, can ,e seen *-e s*ruc*ure of *-e -ull, *-e car6o *anB areas *o6e*-er 3i*- *-e car6o +i+in6 and *-e decB 5ac-iner98 T-e co5+ac*, co5+lica*e na*ure of *-e 5ac-iner9 ins*alla*ion can clearl9 ,e seen, 3i*- 5aHor i*e5s ,ein6 *-e 5ain en6ine and *-e car6o -ea*in6 ,oiler8

Figure *.* "utaway drawing of a ship T-e 5ore usual +lan and ele7a*ion dra3in6s of a *9+ical slo34s+eed diesel ins*alla*ion are s-o3n in Fi6ure .828 A six4c9linder direc*4dri7e diesel en6ine is s-o3n in *-is 5ac-iner9 arran6e5en*8 T-e onl9 auxiliaries 7isi,le are a diesel 6enera*or on *-e u++er fla* and an air co5+ressor ,elo38 O*-er auxiliaries 3i*-in *-e 5ac-iner9 s+ace 3ould include addi*ional 6enera*ors, an oil943a*er se+ara*or, an e7a+ora*or, nu5erous +u5+s and -ea* exc-an6ers8 An auxiliar9 ,oiler and an ex-aus* 6as -ea* exc-an6er 3ould ,e loca*ed in *-e u+*aBe re6ion leadin6 *o *-e funnel8 Aarious 3orBs-o+s and s*ores and *-e 5ac-iner9 con*rol roo5 3ill also ,e found on *-e u++er Ha*s8 Geared medium-speed diesel Four 5ediu54s+eed :100 re7?5in; diesels are used in *-e 5ac-iner9 la9ou* of *-e rail ferr9 s-o3n in Fi6ure .808 T-e 6ear uni*s +ro7ide a *3in4scre3 dri7e a* .>0 re7?5in *o con*rolla,le4+i*c- +ro+ellers8 5e 6ear uni*s also +o3er *aBe4 offs for s-af*4dri7en 6enera*ors 3-ic- +ro7ide all +o3er reCuire5en*s 3-ile a* sea8 T-e 7arious +u5+s and o*-er auxiliaries are arran6ed a* floor + a*e le7el in *-is 5ini5u54-ei6-* 5ac-iner9 s+ace8 T-e ex-aus* 6as ,oilers and u+*aBes are loca*ed +or* and s*ar,oard a6ains* *-e side s-ell +la*in68 A se+ara*e 6enera*or roo5 -ouses *-ree diesel 6enera*or uni*s, a 3as*e co5,us*ion +lan* and o*-er auxiliaries8 T-e 5ac-iner9 con*rol roo5 is a* *-e for3ard end of *-is roo58 Steam turbine T3in cross4co5+ounded s*ea5 *ur,ines are used in *-e 5ac-iner9 la9ou* of *-e con*ainer s-i+, s-o3n in Fi6ure .8@8 Onl9 +ar* +lans and sec*ions are 6i7en since *-ere is a considera,le de6ree of s955e*r9 in *-e la9ou*8 Eac- *ur,ine se* dri7es, *-rou6- a dou,le reduc*ion 6ear,ox 3i*- se+ara*e *-rus* ,locB, i*s o3n fixed4+i*c- +ro+eller8 T-e condensers are loca*ed ,enea*- eac- lo34+ressure *ur,ine and are arran6ed for scoo+ circula*ion a* full +o3er o+era*ion and axial +u5+ circula*ion 3-en 5anoeu7rin68

A* *-e floor+la*e le7el around *-e 5ain 5ac-iner9 are loca*ed 7arious 5ain en6ine and s-i+<s ser7ices +u5+s, an auxiliar9 oil4fired ,oiler and a se3a6e +lan*8 T-ree diesel al*erna*ors are loca*ed af* ,e-ind an acous*ic screen8

T-e 881 5 fla* -ouses a *ur,o4al*erna*or eac- side and also *-e forced4drau6-* fans for *-e 5ain ,oilers8 T-e 5ain ,oiler feed +u5+s and o*-er feed s9s*e5 eCui+5en* are also loca*ed around *-is fla*8 T-e *3o 5ain ,oilers occu+9 *-e af*er end of *-is fla* and are arran6ed for roof firin68 T3o dis*illa*ion +lan*s are loca*ed for3ard arid *-e do5es*ic 3a*er su++l9 uni*s are loca*ed af*8 T-e con*rol roo5 is loca*ed for3ard of *-e .2805 fla* and con*ains

6rou+ s*ar*er ,oards are loca*ed for3ard of *-e console, 3-ic- faces in*o *-e 5ac-iner9 s+ace8 On *-e .=82 5 fla* is *-e co5,us*ion con*rol eCui+5en* for eac- ,oiler 3i*- a local dis+la9 +anel, al*-ou6- con*rol is fro5 *-e 5ain con*rol roo58 T-e ,oiler fuel -ea*in6 and +u5+in6 5odule is also loca*ed -ere8 T-e de4aera*or is loca*ed -i6- u+ in *-e casin6 and silencers for *-e diesel al*erna*ors are in *-e funnel casin68 Operation and maintenance T-e res+onsi,ili*ies of *-e 5arine en6ineer are rarel9 confined *o *-e 5ac-iner9 s+ace8 Differen* co5+anies -a7e differen* +rac*ices, ,u* usuall9 all s-i+,oard machinery, with the exception of radio equipment.

. $ain ,oiler 2 FD fan 0 $ain feed +u5+ @ Tur,o4aBerna*or > #'4cooled e7a+ora*or .0 Ho* 3a*er calorifier .. F' +ressure *anB .2 $ain *ur,ines .0 $ain 6ear,ox .@ T-rus* block .1 $ain #' circ +u5+

.= $ain condenser .> $ain ex*rac*ion +u5+ .8 !il6e?,allas* pump ./ Drains tank e traction +u5+s 2. Tur,o alternator pum! 22 LO cooler 2@ LO ,9+ass filler an +u5+s 2= LO +u5+s 28 Fire +u5+

2/ Auxiliar9 ,oiler 00 Auxiliar9 ,oiler feed healer 0. HFO *ransfer +u5+ 5odule I<4< HFO ser7ice +u5+s < 8 Diesel oil *ransfer +u5+ J<I Diesel al*erna*or 8i1 Diesel al*erna*or con*rols @0 &ondensa*e de4oiler JK. Refri6eran* circula*ion +u5+ s# Oil9 ,il6e +u5+ @0 #*ea5?air -ea*er

carried on 7er9 lar6e s-i+s, ,u* if no*, *-e elec*rical eCui+5en* is also 5ain*ained ,9 *-e en6ineer8 A ,road4,ased *-eore*ical and +rac*ical *rainin6 is *-erefore necessar9 for a 5arine en6ineer8 He 5us* ,e a 5ec-anical, elec*rical, air condi*ionin6, 7en*ila*ion and refri6era*ion en6ineer, as *-e need arises8 %nliBe -is s-ore4 ,ased o++osi*e nu5,er in *-ese occu+a*ions, -e 5us* also deal 3i*- *-e s+ecialiGed reCuire5en*s of a floa*in6 +la*for5 in a 5os* corrosi7e en7iron5en*8 Fur*-er5ore -e 5us* ,e self sufficien* and ca+a,le of 6e**in6 *-e Ho, done 3i*- *-e facili*ies a* -is dis+osal8 T-e 5odern s-i+ is a co5+lex collec*ion of self4sus*ainin6 5ac-iner9 +ro7idin6 *-e facili*ies *o su++or* a s5all co55uni*9 for a considera,le +eriod of *i5e8 To si5+lif9 *-e unders*andin6 of all *-is eCui+5en* is *-e +ur+ose of *-is ,ooB8 T-is eCui+5en* is deal* 3i*- ei*-er as a co5+le*e s9s*e5 co5+risin6 s5all i*e5s or indi7idual lar6er i*e5s8 In *-e la**er case, es+eciall9, *-e c-oices are of*en considera,le8 A Bno3led6e of 5ac-iner9 and eCui+5en* o+era*ion +ro7ides *-e ,asis for effec*i7e 5ain*enance, and *-e *3o are considered in *urn in *-e follo3in6 c-a+*ers8

Chapter 2

Diesel engines
T-e diesel en6ine is a *9+e of in*ernal co5,us*ion en6ine 3-ic- i6ni*es *-e fuel ,9 inHec*in6 i* in*o -o*, -i6-4+ressure air in a co5,us*ion c-a5,er8 In co55on 3i*- all in*ernal co5,us*ion en6ines *-e diesel en6ine o+era*es 3i*- a fixed seCuence of e7en*s, 3-ic- 5a9 ,e ac-ie7ed ei*-er in four s*roBes or *3o, a s*roBe ,ein6 *-e *ra7el of *-e +is*on ,e*3een i*s ex*re5e +oin*s8 Eac- s*roBe is acco5+lis-ed in -alf a re7olu*ion of *-e cranBs-af*8 "our # stroke cycle T-e four4s*roBe c9cle is co5+le*ed in four s*roBes of *-e +is*on, or *3o re7olu*ions of *-e cranBs-af*8 In order *o o+era*e *-is c9cle *-e en6ine reCuires a 5ec-anis5 *o o+en and close *-e inle* and ex-aus* 7al7es8 &onsider *-e +is*on a* *-e *o+ of i*s s*roBe, a +osi*ion Bno3n as *o+ dead cen*re :TD&;8 T-e inle* 7al7e o+ens and fres- air is dra3n in as *-e +is*on 5o7es do3n :Fi6ure 28. :a;;8 A* *-e ,o**o5 of *-e s*roBe, i8e8 ,o**o5 dead cen*re :!D&;, *-e inle*, 7al7e closes and *-e air in *-e c9linder is co5+ressed :and conseCuen*l9 raised in *e5+era*ure; as *-e +is*on rises :Fi6ure 28.:,;;8 Fuel is inHec*ed as *-e +is*on reac-es *o+ dead cen*re and co5,us*ion *aBes +lace, +roducin6 7er9 -i6- +ressure in *-e 6ases :Fi6ure 28.:c;;8 T-e +is*on is no3 forced do3n ,9 *-ese 6ases and a* ,o**o5 dead cen*re *-e ex-aus* 7al7e o+ens8 T-e final s*roBe is *-e ex-aus*in6 of *-e ,urn* 6ases as *-e +is*on rises *o *o+ dead cen*re *o co5+le*e *-e c9cle :Fi6ure 28.:d;;8 T-e four dis*inc* s*roBes are Bno3n as <inle*< :or suc*ion;, <co5+ression<, <+o3er< :or 3orBin6 s*roBe; and <ex-aus*<8 T-ese e7en*s are s-o3n dia6ra55a*icall9 on a *i5in6 dia6ra5 :Fi6ure 282;8 T-e an6le of *-e cranB a* 3-ic- eaco+era*ion *aBes +lace is s-o3n as 3ell as *-e +eriod of *-e o+era*ion in de6rees8 T-is dia6ra5 is 5ore correc*l9 re+resen*a*i7e of *-e ac*ual c9cle *-an *-e si5+lified ex+lana*ion 6i7en in descri,in6 *-e four4s*roBe c9cle8 For differen*

$wo-stroke cycle
The two-stroke cycle is completed in two strokes of the piston or one revolution of the crankshaft. +n order to operate this cycle where each event is accomplished in a very short time, the engine requires a number of special arrangements. ,irst, the fresh air must be forced in under

6ases and *-en *o fill or c-ar6e *-e s+ace 3i*- fres- air8 Ins*ead of 7al7es -oles, Bno3n as <+or*s<, are used 3-ic- are o+ened and closed ,9 *-e sides of *-e +is*on as i* 5o7es8 &onsider *-e +is*on a* *-e *o+ of i*s s*roBe 3-ere fuel inHec*ion and co5,us*ion -a7e Hus* *aBen +lace :Fi6ure 280:a;;8 T-e +is*on is forced do3n on i*s 3orBin6 s*roBe un*il i* unco7ers *-e ex-aus* +or* :Fi6ure 280:,;;8 T-e ,urn* 6ases *-en ,e6in *o ex-aus* and *-e +is*on con*inues do3n un*il i* o+ens *-e inle* or sca7en6e +or* :Fi6ure 280:c;;8 Pressurised air *-en en*ers and dri7es ou* *-e re5ainin6 ex-aus* 6as8 T-e +is*on, on i*s re*urn s*roBe, closes *-e inle* and ex-aus* +or*s8 T-e air is *-en co5+ressed as *-e +is*on 5o7es *o *-e *o+ of i*s s*roBe *o co5+le*e *-e c9cle :Fi6ure 280:d;;8 A *i5in6 dia6ra5 for a *3o4 s*roBe en6ine is s-o3n in Fi6ure 28@8 T-e o++osed +is*on c9cle of o+era*ions is a s+ecial case of *-e *3o4s*roBe c9cle8 !e6innin6 a* *-e 5o5en* of *-e fuel inHec*ion ,o*- +is*ons

are forced apart-one up, one down-by the expanding gases -,igure . /-a00 The upper piston opens the exhaust ports as it reaches the end of its-travel -,igure 1./-b00. The lower piston, a moment or two later opens the scavenge ports to charge the cylinder with fresh air and remove the final traces of exhaust gas -,igure 1./-20. 3nce the piston reach their extreme points they both begin to move inward. This closes off the scavenge and exhaust ports for the compression stroke to take place prior to fuel in4ection and combustion -,igure 1./-d00. This cycle is used in the )oxford engine, which is no longer manufactured although many are still in operation.

The four-stroke engine

A cross-section of a four-stroke cycle engine is made up of a piston which moves up and down in a cylinder which is covered at the top by a cylinder head. The fuel in4ector, through which fuel enters the cylinder, is located in the cylinder head. The inlet and exhaust valves are also housed in the cylinder head and held shut by springs. The piston is 4oined to connecting rod by a gudgeon pin. The bottom end or big end of the connecting rod is 4oined to the crankpin which forms part of the crankshaft. 5ith this assembly

linear u+4and4do3n 5o7e5en* of *-e +is*on is con7er*ed in*o ro*ar9 5o7e5en* of *-e cranBs-af*8 T-e cranBs-af* is arran6ed *o dri7e *-rou6- 6ears *-e ca5s-af*, 3-ic- ei*-er direc*l9 or *-rou6- +us-rods o+era*es rocBer ar5s 3-ic- o+en *-e inle* and ex-aus* 7al7es8 T-e ca5s-af* is <*i5ed< *o o+en *-e 7al7es a* *-e correc* +oin* in *-e c9cle8 T-e cranBs-af* is surrounded ,9 *-e cranBcase and *-e en6ine fra5e3orB 3-ic- su++or*s *-e c9linders and -ouses *-e cranBs-af* ,earin6s8 T-e c9linder and c9linder -ead are arran6ed 3i*- 3a*er4coolin6 +assa6es around *-e58

$he two-stroke engine

A cross4sec*ion of a *3o4s*roBe c9cle en6ine is s-o3n in Fi6ure 28>8 T-e +is*on is solidl9 connec*ed *o a +is*on rod 3-ic- is a**ac-ed *o a cross-ead ,earin6 a* *-e o*-er end8 T-e *o+ end of *-e connec*in6 rod is also Hoined *o *-e cross-ead ,earin68 Por*s are arran6ed in *-e c9linder liner for air inle* and a 7al7e in *-e c9linder -ead ena,les *-e release of ex-aus* 6ases8 T-e inco5in6 air is +ressurised ,9 a *ur,o4,lo3er 3-icis dri7en ,9 *-e ou*6oin6 ex-aus* 6ases8 T-e cranBs-af* is su++or*ed 3i*-in *-e en6ine ,ed+la*e ,9 *-e 5ain ,earin6s8 A4fra5es are 5oun*ed on *-e ,ed+la*e and -ouse 6uides in 3-ic- *-e cross-ead *ra7els u+ and do3n8 T-e en*a,la*ure is 5oun*ed a,o7e *-e fra5es and is 5ade u+ of *-e c9linders, c9linder -eads and *-e

sca7en6e *runBin68

Comparison of two-stroke and four-stroke cycles T-e 5ain difference ,e*3een *-e *3o c9cles is *-e +o3er de7elo+ed8 T-e *3o4s*roBe c9cle en6ine, 3i*- one 3orBin6 or +o3er s*roBe e7er9 re7olu*ion, 3ill, *-eore*icall9, de7elo+ *3ice *-e +o3er of a four4s*roBe en6ine of *-e sa5e s3e+* 7olu5e8 Inefficien* sca7en6in6 -o3e7er and o*-er losses, reduce *-e +o3er ad7an*a6e *o a,ou* .888 For a +ar*icular en6ine +o3er *-e *3o4s*roBe en6ine 3ill ,e considera,l9 li6-*erLan i5+or*an* considera*ion for s-i+s8 or does *-e *3o4s*roBe en6ine reCuire *-e co5+lica*ed 7al7e o+era*in6 5ec-anis5 of *-e four4s*roBe8 T-e four4s*roBe en6ine -o3e7er can o+era*e efficien*l9 a* -i6- s+eeds 3-ic- offse*s i*s +o3er disad7an*a6eM i* also consu5es less lu,rica*in6 oil8 Eac- *9+e of en6ine -as i*s a++lica*ions 3-ic- on ,oard s-i+ -a7e resul*ed in *-e slo3 s+eed :i8e8 804 lOOre7?5in; 5ain +ro+ulsion diesel o+era*in6 on *-e *3o4s*roBe c9cle8 A* *-is lo3 s+eed *-e en6ine reCuires no reduc*ion 6ear,ox ,e*3een i* and *-e +ro+eller8 T-e four4s*roBe en6ine :usuall9 ro*a*in6 a* 5ediu5 s+eed, ,e*3een 210 and >10 re7? 55; is used for auxiliaries suc- as al*erna*ors and so5e*i5es for 5ain +ro+ulsion 3i*- a 6ear,ox *o +ro7ide a +ro+eller s+eed of ,e*3een 80 and l00 re7?5in8

Power measurement
T-ere are *3o +ossi,le 5easure5en*s of en6ine +o3erF *-e indicated. power and *-e shaft power. T-e indica*ed +o3er is *-e +o3er de7elo+ed 3i*-in 8*-e en6ine c9linder and can ,e 5easured ,9 an en6ine indica*or8 T-e s-af* +o3er is *-e +o3er a7aila,le a* *-e ou*+u* s-af* of *-e en6ine and can ,e 5easured usin6 a *orsion5e*er or 3i*- a ,raBe8
The engine indicator An engine indicator is shown in ,igure 1.6. +t is made up of a small piston of known si7e which operates in a cylinder against a specially

cali,ra*ed s+rin68 A 5a6nif9in6 linBa6e *ransfers *-e +is*on 5o7e5en* *o a dru5 on 3-ic- is 5oun*ed a +iece of +a+er or card8 T-e dru5 oscilla*es :5o7es ,acB3ards and for3ards; under *-e +ull of *-e cord8 T-e cord is 5o7ed ,9 a reci+roca*in6 :u+ and do3n; 5ec-anis5 3-ic- is +ro+or*ional *o *-e en6ine +is*on 5o7e5en* in *-e c9linder8 T-e s*9lus dra3s ou* an indica*or dia6ra5 3-ic- re+resen*s *-e 6as +ressure on *-e en6ine +is*on a* differen* +oin*s of *-e s*roBe, and *-e area of *-e indica*or dia6ra5 +roduced re+resen*s *-e +o3er de7elo+ed in *-e +ar*icular c9linder8 T-e c9linder +o3er can ,e 5easured if *-e scalin6 fac*ors, s+rin6 cali,ra*ion and so5e ,asic en6ine de*ails are Bno3n8 T-e +rocedure is descri,ed in *-e A++endix8 T-e c9linder +o3er 7alues are co5+ared, and for ,alanced loadin6 s-ould all ,e *-e sa5e8 AdHus*5en*s 5a9 *-en ,e 5ade *o *-e fuel su++l9 in order *o ,alance *-e c9linder loads8

$orsionmeter If *-e *orCue *rans5i**ed ,9 a s-af* is Bno3n, *o6e*-er 3i*- *-e an6ular 7eloci*9, *-en *-e +o3er can ,e 5easured, i8e8 s-af* +o3er N *orCue x an6ular 7eloci*9 T-e *orCue on a s-af* can ,e found ,9 5easurin6 *-e s-ear s*ress or an6le of *3is* 3i*- a *orsion5e*er8 A nu5,er of differen* *9+es of *orsion5e*er are descri,ed in &-a+*er .18

$he gas e change process

A ,asic +ar* of *-e c9cle of an in*ernal co5,us*ion en6ine is *-e su++l9 of fres- air and re5o7al of ex-aus* 6ases8 T-is is *-e 6as exc-an6e +rocess8 Scavenging is *-e re5o7al of ex-aus* 6ases ,9 ,lo3in6 in fres- air % Charging is *-e fillin6 of *-e en6ine c9linder 3i*- a su++l9 or c-ar6e of fres- air read9 for co5+ression8 'i*- supercharging a lar6e 5ass of air is su++lied *o *-e c9linder ,9 ,lo3in6 i* in under +ressure8 Older en6ines 3ere O na*urall9 as+ira*edP Q *aBin6 fres- air onl9 a* a*5os+-eric +ressure8 $odern en6ines 5aBe use of ex-aus* 6as dri7en *ur,o4c-ar6ers *o su++l9 +ressurised fres- air for sca7en6in6 and su+erc-ar6in68 !o*four4s*roBe and *3o4s*roBe c9cle en6ines 5a9 ,e +ressure c-ar6ed8 On *3o4s*roBe diesels an elec*ricall9 dri7en auxiliar9 ,lo3er is usuall9 +ro7ided ,ecause *-e ex-aus* 6as dri7en *ur,o,lo3er canno* +ro7ide enou6- air a* lo3 en6ine s+eeds, and *-e +ressurised air is usuall9 cooled *o increase *-e c-ar6e air densi*98 An ex-aus* 6as dri7en *ur,oc-ar6in6 arran6e5en* for a slo34s+eed *3o4s*roBe c9cle diesel is s-o3n in Fi6ure28/:a;8 A *ur,o,lo3er or *ur,oc-ar6er is an air co5+ressor dri7en ,9 ex-aus* 6as :Fi6ure 28/:,;;8 T-e sin6le s-af* -as an ex-aus* 6as *ur,ine on one end *-e air co5+ressor on *-e o*-er8 #ui*a,le casin6 desi6n and s-af* seals ensure *-a* *-e *3o 6ases do no* 5ix8 Air is dra3n fro5 *-e 5ac-iner9 s+ace *-rou6- a fil*er and *-en co5+ressed ,efore +assin6 *o *-e sca7en6e s+ace8 T-e ex-aus* 6as 5a9 en*er *-e *ur,ine direc*l9 fro5 *-e en6ine or fro5 a cons*an*4+ressure c-a5,er8 Eac- of *-e s-af* ,earin6s -as i*s o3n inde+enden* lu,rica*ion s9s*e5, and *-e 6as end of *-e casin6 is usuall9 3a*er4cooled8 Scavenging Efficien* sca7en6in6 is essen*ial *o ensure a sufficien* su++l9 of fres- air for co5,us*ion8 In *-e four4 s*roBe c9cle en6ine *-ere is an adeCua*e o7erla+ ,e*3een *-e air inle* 7al7e o+enin6 and *-e ex-aus* 7al7e closin68 'i*- *3o4s*roBe c9cle en6ines *-is o7erla+ is li5i*ed and so5e sli6-* 5ixin6 of ex-aus* 6ases and inco5in6 air does occur8 A nu5,er of differen* sca7en6in6 5e*-ods are in use in slo34s+eed *3o4s*roBe en6ines8 In eac- *-e fres- air en*ers as *-e inle* +or* is o+ened ,9 the downward movement of the piston and con*inues un*il *-e +or* is dosed ,9 *-e u+3ard 5o7in6 +is*on8 T-e flo3 +a*- of *-e sca7en6e air is

decided ,9 *-e en6ine +or* s-a+e and desi6n and *-e ex-aus* arran6e5en*s8 T-ree ,asic s9s*e5s are in useF *-e cross flo3, *-e loo+ and *-e uniflo38 All 5odern slo34s+eed diesel en6ines now use the uniflow scavenging system with a cylinder-head exhaust valve.

In cross sca7en6in6 *-e inco5in6 air is direc*ed u+3ards, +us-in6 *-e ex-aus* 6ases ,efore i*8 T-e ex-aus* 6ases *-en *ra7el do3n and ou* of *-e ex-aus* +or*s8 Fi6ure 28.0:a; illus*ra*es *-e +rocess8 In loo+ sca7en6in6 *-e inco5in6 air +asses o7er *-e +is*on cro3n *-en rises *o3ards *-e c9linder -ead8 T-e ex-aus* 6ases are forced ,efore *-e air +assin6 do3n and ou* of ex-aus* +or*s loca*ed Hus* a,o7e *-e inle* +or*s8 T-e +rocess is s-o3n in Fi6ure 28.0:,;8 'i*- uniflo3 sca7en6in6 *-e inco5in6 air en*ers a* *-e lo3er end of *-e c9linder and lea7es a* *-e *o+8 T-e ou*le* a* *-e *o+ of *-e c9linder 5a9 ,e +or*s or a lar6e 7al7e8 T-e +rocess is s-o3n in Fi6ure 28.0:c;8 Eac- of *-e s9s*e5s -as 7arious ad7an*a6es and disad7an*a6es8 &ross sca7en6in6 reCuires *-e fi**in6 of a +is*on sBir* *o +re7en* air or ex-aus* 6as esca+e 3-en *-e +is*on is a* *-e *o+ of *-e s*roBe. 8oop scavenge

arran6e5en*s -a7e lo3 *e5+era*ure air and -i6- *e5+era*ure ex-aus* 6as +assin6 *-rou6- adHacen* +or*s, causin6 *e5+era*ure differen*ial +ro,le5s for *-e liner 5a*erial8 %niflo3 is *-e 5os* efficien* sca7en6in6 s9s*e5 ,u* reCuires ei*-er an o++osed +is*on arran6e5en* or an ex-aus* 7al7e in *-e c9linder -ead8 All *-ree s9s*e5s -a7e *-e +or*s an6led *o s3irl *-e inco5in6 air and direc* i* in *-e a++ro+ria*e +a*-8 Scavenge fires &9linder oil can collec* in *-e sca7en6e s+ace of an en6ine8 %n,urned fuel and car,on 5a9 also ,e ,lo3n in*o *-e sca7en6e s+ace as a resul* of defec*i7e +is*on rin6s, faul*9 *i5in6, a defec*i7e inHec*or, e*c8 A ,uild4u+ of *-is fla55a,le 5ix*ure +resen*s a dan6er as a ,lo3 +as* of -o* 6ases fro5 *-e c9linder 5a9 i6ni*e *-e 5ix*ure, and cause a sca7en6e fire8 A loss of en6ine +o3er 3ill resul*, 3i*- -i6- ex-aus* *e5+era*ures a* *-e affec*ed c9linders8 T-e affec*ed *ur,o4c-ar6ers 5a9 sur6e and s+arBs 3ill ,e seen a* *-e sca7en6e drains8 Once a fire is de*ec*ed *-e en6ine

s-ould ,e slo3ed do3n, fuel s-u* off fro5 *-e affec*ed c9linders and c9linder lu,rica*ion increased8 All *-e sca7en6e drains s-ould ,e closed8 A s5all fire 3ill CuicBl9 ,urn ou*, ,u* 3-ere *-e fire +ersis*s *-e en6ine 5us* ,e s*o++ed8 A fire ex*in6uis-in6 5ediu5 s-ould *-en ,e inHec*ed *-rou6- *-e fi**in6s +ro7ided in *-e sca7en6e *runBin68 On no accoun* s-ould *-e *runBin6 be opened up. To a7oid sca7en6e fires occurrin6 *-e en6ine *i5in6 and eCui+5en* 5ain*enance s-ould ,e correc*l9 carried ou*8 T-e sca7en6e *runBin6 s-ould ,e re6ularl9 ins+ec*ed and cleaned if necessar98 '-ere car,on or oil ,uild u+ is found in *-e sca7en6e, i*s source s-ould ,e de*ec*ed and *-e faul* re5edied8 #ca7en6e drains s-ould ,e re6ularl9 ,lo3n and an9 oil disc-ar6es in7es*i6a*ed a* *-e, firs* o++or*uni*98

Fuel oil system

The fuel oil system for a diesel engine can be considered in two parts9the fuel !u""ly and the fuel in#ection systems. ,uel supply deals with the provision of fuel oil suitable for use by the in4ection system. Fuel oil supply for a two-stroke diesel A slow-speed two-stroke diesel is usually arranged to operate continuously on heavy fuel and have available a diesel oil supply for manoeuvring conditions. +n the system shown in ,igure 1.**, the oil is stored in tanks in the double bottom from which it is pumped to a settling tank and heated.

Af*er +assin6 *-rou6- cen*rifu6es *-e cleaned, -ea*ed oil is +u5+ed *o a dail9 ser7ice *anB8 Fro5 *-e dail9 ser7ice *anB *-e oil flo3s *-rou6- a *-ree43a9 7al7e *o a 5ixin6 *anB8 A flo3 5e*er is fi**ed in*o *-e s9s*e5 *o indica*e fuel consu5+*ion8 !oos*er +u5+s are used *o +u5+ *-e oil *-rou6- -ea*ers and a 7iscosi*9 re6ula*or *o *-e en6ine4dri7en fuel +u5+s8 T-e fuel +u5+s 3ill disc-ar6e -i6-4+ressure fuel *o *-eir

res+ec*i7e inHec*ors8 T-e 7iscosi*9 re6ula*or con*rols *-e fuel oil *e5+era*ure in order *o +ro7ide *-e correc* 7iscosi*9 for co5,us*ion8 A +ressure re6ula*in6 7al7e ensures a cons*an*4+ressure su++l9 *o *-e en6ine4dri7en +u5+s, and a +re43ar5in6 ,9+ass is used *o -ea* u+ *-e fuel ,efore s*ar*in6 *-e en6ine8 A diesel oil dail9 ser7ice *anB 5a9 ,e ins*alled and is connec*ed *o *-e s9s*e5 7ia a *-ree43a9 7al7e8 T-e en6ine can ,e s*ar*ed u+ and 5anoeu7red on diesel oil or e7en a ,lend 0. diesel and -ea79 fuel oil8 T-e 5ixin6 *anB is used *o collec* recircula*ed oil and also ac*s as a ,uffer or reser7e *anB as i* 3ill su++l9 fuel 3-en *-e dail9 ser7ice *anB is e5+*98 T-e s9s*e5 includes 7arious safe*9 de7ices suc- as lo34le7el alar5s and re5o*el9 o+era*ed *anB ou*le* 7al7es 3-ic- can ,e closed in *-e e7en* of a Fire8

"uel in&ection T-e func*ion of *-e fuel inHec*ion s9s*e5 is *o +ro7ide *-e ri6-* a5oun* of fuel a* *-e ri6-* 5o5en* and in a sui*a,le condi*ion for *-e co5,us*ion +rocess8 T-ere 5us* *-erefore ,e so5e for5 of 5easured fuel su++l9, a 5eans of *i5in6 *-e deli7er9 and *-e a*o5iGa*ion of *-e fuel8 T-e inHec*ion of *-e fuel is ac-ie7ed ,9 *-e loca*ion of ca5s on a ca5s-af*8 T-is ca5s-af* ro*a*es a* en6ine s+eed for a *3o4s*roBe en6ine and a* -alf en6ine s+eed for a four4s*roBe8 T-ere are *3o ,asic s9s*e5s in use, eac- of 3-ic- e5+lo9s a co5,ina*ion of 5ec-anical and -9draulic o+era*ions8 T-e 5os* co55on s9s*e5 is *-e HerB +u5+F *-e o*-er is *-e co55on rail8 'erk pump system In *-e HerB +u5+ s9s*e5 of fuel inHec*ion a se+ara*e inHec*or +u5+ exis*s for eac- c9linder8 T-e inHec*or +u5+ is usuall9 o+era*ed once e7er9 c9cle ,9 a ca5 on *-e ca5s-af*8 T-e ,arrel and +lun6er of *-e inHec*or 8 +u5+ are di5ensioned *o sui* *-e en6ine fuel reCuire5en*s8 Por*s in *-e ,arrel and slo*s in *-e +lun6er or adHus*a,le s+ill 7al7es ser7e *o re6ula*e *-e fuel deli7er9 :a 5ore de*ailed ex+lana*ion follo3s;8 Eac- inHec*or +u5+ su++lies *-e inHec*or or inHec*ors for one c9linder8 T-e needle 7al7e in *-e inHec*or 3ill lif* a* a +re4se* +ressure 3-ic- ensures *-a* *-e fuel 3ill a*o5iGe once i* en*ers *-e c9linder8 T-ere are *3o +ar*icular *9+es of fuel +u5+ in use, *-e 7al7e4con*rolled disc-ar6e *9+e and *-e -elix or -elical ed6e +u5+8 Aal7e4con*rolled +u5+s are used on slo34s+eed *3o4s*roBe en6ines and *-e -elix *9+e for all 5ediu54 and -i6-4s+eed four4s*roBe en6ines8 Heli -type in!ector pump The in4ector pump is operated by a cam which drives the plunger up and down. The timing of the in4ection can be altered by raising or lowering the pump plunger in relation to the cam. The pump has a constant stroke and the amount of fuel delivered is regulated by rotating the pump plunger which has a specially arranged helical groove cut into it. The fuel is supplied to the pump through ports or openings at % -,igure 1.*10. As the plunger moves down, fuel enters the cylinder. As the plunger moves up, the ports at : are closed and the fuel is pressurised and delivered to the in4ector no77le at very high pressure. 5hen the edge of the helix at " uncovers the spill port ) pressure is lost and fuel delivery to the in4ector stops. A nonreturn valve on the delivery side of the pump closes to stop fuel oil returning from the in4ector. ,uel will again be drawn in on the plunger downstroke and the process will be repeated. The plunger may be rotated in the cylinder by a rack and pinion arrangement on a sleeve which is keyed to the plunger. This will move the edge " up or down to reduce or increase the amount of fuel pumped into the cylinder. The rack is connected to the throttle control or governor of the engine. This type of pump, with minor variations, is used on many four-stroke diesel engines. (al)e-controlled pump +n the variable in4ection timing -;+T0 pump used in (A< :=5 engines the governor output shaft is the controlling parameter. Two linkages are actuated by the regulating shaft of the governor. The upper control linkage changes the in4ection timing by raising or lowering the plunger in relation to the cam. The lower linkage rotates the pump plunger and thus the helix in order to vary the pump output -,igure 1.*%0. +n the 'ul7er variable in4ection timing system the governor output is connected to a suction valve and a spill valve. The closing of the pump suction valve determines the beginning of in4ection. 3peration of the spill valve will control the end of in4ection by releasing fuel pressure. <o helix is therefore present on the pump plunger.

Common rail system The common rail system has one high-pressure multiple plunger fuel pump -,igure 1.*$0.The fuel is discharged into a manifold or rail which is maintained at high pressure. ,rom this common rail fuel is supplied to all the in4ectors in the various cylinders. :etween the rail and the in4ector or in4ectors for a particular cylinder is a timing valve which determines the timing and extent of fuel delivery. 'pill valves are connected to the manifold or rail to release excess pressure and accumulator bottles which dampen out pump pressure pulses. The in4ectors in a common rail system are often referred to as fuel valves.

Timing valve T-e *i5in6 7al7e in *-e co55on rail s9s*e5 is o+era*ed ,9 a ca5 and le7er :Fi6ure 28.1;8 '-en *-e *i5in6 7al7e is lif*ed ,9 *-e ca5 and le7er *-e -i6-4+ressure fuel flo3s *o *-e inHec*or8 T-e *i5in6 7al7e o+era*in6 le7er is fixed *o a slidin6 rod 3-ic- is +osi*ioned accordin6 *o *-e 5anoeu7rin6 le7er se**in6 *o +ro7ide *-e correc* fuel Cuan*i*9 *o *-e c9linder8

T-e fuel inHec*or A *9+ical fuel inHec*or is s-o3n in Fi6ure 28.=8 I* can ,e seen *o ,e *3o ,asic +ans, *-e noGGle and *-e noGGle -older or ,od98 T-e -i6-4+ressure fuel en*ers and *ra7els do3n a +assa6e in *-e ,od9 and *-en in*o a +assa6e in *-e noGGle, endin6 finall9 in a c-a5,er surroundin6 *-e needle 7al7e8 T-e needle 7al7e is -eld closed on a 5i*ered sea* ,9 an in*er5edia*e s+indle and a s+rin6 in *-e inHec*or ,od98 T-e s+rin6

+ressure, and -ence *-e inHec*or o+enin6 +ressure, can ,e se* ,9 a co5+ression nu* 3-ic- ac*s on *-e s+rin68 T-e noGGle and inHec*or ,od9 are 5anufac*ured as a 5a*c-in6 +air and are accura*el9 6round *o 6i7e a 6ood oil seal8 T-e *3o are Hoined ,9 a noGGle nu*8 T-e needle 7al7e 3ill o+en 3-en *-e fuel +ressure ac*in6 on *-e needle 7al7e *a+ered face exer*s a sufficien* force *o o7erco5e *-e s+rin6 co5+ression8 T-e fuel *-en flo3s in*o a lo3er c-a5,er and is forced ou* *-rou6- a series of *in9 -oles8 T-e s5all -oles are siGed and arran6ed *o a*o5iGe, or ,reaB in*o *in9 dro+s, all of *-e fuel oil, 3-ic- 3ill *-en readil9 ,urn8 Once *-e inHec*or +u5+ or *i5in6 7al7e cu*s off *-e -i6- +ressure fuel su++l9 *-e needle 7al7e 3ill s-u* CuicBl9 under *-e s+rin6 co5+ression force8 All slo34s+eed *3o4s*roBe en6ines and 5an9 5ediu54s+eed four4s*roBe en6ines are no3 o+era*ed al5os* con*inuousl9 on -ea79 fuel8 A fuel circula*in6 s9s*e5 is *-erefore necessar9 and *-is is usuall9 arran6ed 3i*-in *-e fuel inHec*or8 Durin6 inHec*ion *-e -i6-4+ressure fuel 3ill o+en *-e circula*ion 7al7e for inHec*ion *o *aBe +lace8 '-en *-e en6ine is s*o++ed *-e fuel ,oos*er +u5+ su++lies fuel 3-ic- *-e circula*ion 7al7e direc*s around *-e inHec*or ,od98 Older en6ine desi6ns 5a9 -a7e fuel inHec*ors 3-ic- are circula*ed 3i*- coolin6 3a*er8

Lubrication
T-e lu,rica*ion s9s*e5 of an en6ine +ro7ides a su++l9 of lu,rica*in6 oil *o *-e 7arious 5o7in6 +ar*s in *-e en6ine8 I*s 5ain func*ion is *o ena,le *-e for5a*ion of a fil5 of oil ,e*3een *-e 5o7in6 +ar*s, 3-ic- reduces fric*ion and 3ear8 T-e lu,rica*in6 oil is also used as a cleaner and in so5e en6ines as a coolan*8 Lubricating oil system Lu,rica*in6 oil for an en6ine is s*ored in *-e ,o**o5 of *-e cranBcase, Bno3n as *-e su5+, or in a drain *anB loca*ed ,enea*- *-e en6ine :Fi6ure 28.>;8 T-e oil is dra3n fro5 *-is *anB *-rou6- a s*rainer, one of a +air of +u5+s, in*o one of a +air of fine fil*ers8 I* is *-en +assed *-rou6- a cooler ,efore en*erin6 *-e en6ine and ,ein6 dis*ri,u*ed *o *-e 7arious ,ranc- +i+es8 T-e ,ranc- +i+e for a +ar*icular c9linder 5a9 feed *-e 5ain ,earin6, for ins*ance8 #o5e of *-is oil 3ill +ass alon6 a drilled +assa6e in *-e cranBs-af* *o *-e ,o**o5 end ,earin6 and *-en u+ a drilled +assa6e in *-e connec*in6 rod *o *-e 6ud6eon +in or cross-ead ,earin68 An alar5 a* *-e end of *-e dis*ri,u*ion +i+e ensures *-a* adeCua*e +ressure is 5ain*ained ,9 *-e +u5+8 Pu5+s and fine fil*ers are arranged in duplicate with one as standby.

T-e fine fil*ers 3ill ,e arran6ed so *-a* one can ,e cleaned 3-ile *-e o*-er is o+era*in68 Af*er use in *-e en6ine *-e lu,rica*in6 oil drains ,acB *o *-e su5+ or drain *anB for re4use8 A le7el 6au6e 6i7es a local read4 ou* of *-e drain *anB con*en*s8 A cen*rifu6e is arran6ed for cleanin6 *-e lu,rica*in6 oil in *-e s9s*e5 and clean

oil can ,e +ro7ided fro5 a s*ora6e *anB8 T-e oil cooler is circula*ed ,9 sea 3a*er, 3-ic- is a* a lo3er +ressure *-an *-e oil8 As a resul* an9 leaB in *-e cooler 3ill 5ean a loss of oil and no* con*a5ina*ion of *-e oil ,9 sea 3a*er8 '-ere *-e en6ine -as oil4cooled +is*ons *-e9 3ill ,e su++lied fro5 *-e lu,rica*in6 oil s9s*e5, +ossi,l9 a* a -i6-er +ressure +roduced ,9 ,oos*er +u5+s, e868 #ulGer RTA en6ine8 An a++ro+ria*e *9+e of lu,rica*in6 oil 5us* ,e used for oil4lu,rica*ed +is*ons in order *o a7oid car,on de+osi*s on *-e -o**er +ar*s of *-e s9s*e58 Cylinder lubrication Lar6e slo34s+eed diesel en6ines are +ro7ided 3i*- a se+ara*e lu,rica*ion s9s*e5 for *-e c9linder liners8 Oil is inHec*ed ,e*3een *-e liner and *-e +is*on ,9 5ec-anical lu,rica*ors 3-ic- su++l9 *-eir indi7idual c9linder8 A s+ecial *9+e of oil is used 3-ic- is no* reco7ered8 As 3ell as lu,rica*in6, i* assis*s in for5in6 a 6as seal and con*ains addi*i7es 3-ic- clean *-e c9linder liner8

"ooling
&oolin6 of en6ines is ac-ie7ed ,9 circula*in6 a coolin6 liCuid around in*ernal +assa6es 3i*-in *-e en6ine8 T-e coolin6 liCuid is *-us -ea*ed u+ and is in *urn cooled ,9 a sea 3a*er circula*ed cooler8 'i*-ou* adeCua*e coolin6 cer*ain +ar*s of *-e en6ine 3-ic- are ex+osed *o 7er9 -i6- *e5+era*ures, as a resul* of ,urnin6 fuel, 3ould soon fail8 &oolin6 ena,les *-e en6ine 5e*als *o re*ain *-eir 5ec-anical +ro+er*ies8 T-e usual coolan* used is fres- 3a*erF sea 3a*er is no* used direc*l9 as a coolan* ,ecause of i*s corrosi7e ac*ion8 Lu,rica*in6 oil is so5e*i5es used for +is*on coolin6 since leaBs in*o *-e cranBcase 3ould no* cause +ro,le5s8 As a resul* of i*s lo3er s+ecific -ea* -o3e7er a,ou* *3ice *-e Cuan*i*9 of oil co5+ared *o 3a*er 3ould ,e reCuired8 "resh water cooling system A 3a*er coolin6 s9s*e5 for a slo34s+eed diesel en6ine is s-o3n in Fi6ure 28.88 I* is di7ided in*o *3o se+ara*e s9s*e5sF one for coolin6 *-e c9linder HacBe*s, c9linder -eads and *ur,o4,lo3ersM *-e o*-er for +is*on coolin68

T-e c9linder HacBe* coolin6 3a*er af*er lea7in6 *-e en6ine +asses *o a sea43a*er4circula*ed cooler and *-en in*o *-e HacBe*43a*er circula*in6 +u5+s8 I* is *-en +u5+ed around *-e c9linder HacBe*s, c9linder -eads and *ur,o4,lo3ers8 A -eader *anB allo3s for ex+ansion and 3a*er 5aBe4u+ in *-e s9s*e58 Aen*s are led fro5 *-e en6ine *o *-e -eader *anB for *-e release of air fro5 *-e coolin6 3a*er8 A -ea*er in *-e circui* facili*a*es 3ar5in6 of *-e en6ine +rior *o s*ar*in6 ,9 circula*in6 -o* 3a*er8 T-e +is*on coolin6 s9s*e5 e5+lo9s si5ilar co5+onen*s, exce+* *-a* a drain *anB is used ins*ead of a -eader *anB and *-e 7en*s are *-en led *o -i6- +oin*s in *-e 5ac-iner9 s+ace8 A se+ara*e +is*on coolin6 s9s*e5 is used *o li5i* an9 con*a5ina*ion fro5 +is*on coolin6 6lands *o *-e +is*on coolin6 s9s*e5 onl98

Sea water cooling system T-e 7arious coolin6 liCuids 3-ic- circula*e *-e en6ine are *-e5sel7es cooled ,9 sea 3a*er8 T-e usual arran6e5en* uses indi7idual coolers for lu,rica*in6 oil, HacBe* 3a*er, and *-e +is*on coolin6 s9s*e5, eaccooler ,ein6 circula*ed ,9 sea 3a*er8 #o5e 5ode5 s-i+s use 3-a* is Bno3n as a <cen*ral coolin6 s9s*e5< 3i*- onl9 one lar6e sea43a*er4circula*ed cooler8 T-is cools a su++l9 of fres- 3a*er, 3-ic- *-en circula*es *o *-e o*-er indi7idual coolers8 'i*- less eCui+5en* in con*ac* 3i*- sea 3a*er *-e corrosion +ro,le5s are 5ucreduced in *-is s9s*e58 A sea 3a*er coolin6 s9s*e5 is s-o3n in Fi6ure 28./8 Fro5 *-e sea suc*ion one of a +air of sea43a*er circula*in6 +u5+s +ro7ides sea 3a*er 3-ic- circula*es *-e lu,rica*in6 oil cooler, *-e HacBe* 3a*er cooler and *-e +is*on 3a*er cooler ,efore disc-ar6in6 o7er,oard8 Ano*-er ,ranc- of *-e sea 3a*er 5ain +ro7ides sea 3a*er *o direc*l9 cool *-e c-ar6e air :for a direc*4dri7e *3o4s*roBe diesel;8 One arran6e5en* of a cen*ral coolin6 s9s*e5 is s-o3n in Fi6ure 28208 T-e sea 3a*er circui* is 5ade u+ of -i6- and lo3 suc*ions, usuall9 on ei*-er side of *-e 5ac-iner9 s+ace, suc*ion s*rainers and se7eral sea 3a*er +u5+s8 T-e sea 3a*er is circula*ed *-rou6- *-e cen*ral coolers and *-en disc-ar6ed o7er,oard8 A lo34 *e5+era*ure and -i6-4*e5+era*ure circui* exis* in *-e fres- 3a*er s9s*e58 T-e fres- 3a*er in *-e -i6-4 *e5+era*ure circui* circula*es *-e 5ain en6ine and 5a9, if reCuired, ,e used as a -ea*in6 5ediu5 for an e7a+ora*or8 T-e lo34*e5+era*ure circui* circula*es *-e 5ain en6ine air coolers, *-e lu,rica*in6 oil coolers< and all o*-er -ea* exc-an6ers8 A re6ula*in6 7al7e con*rols *-e 5ixin6 of 3a*er ,e*3een *-e -i6-4*e5+era*ure and lo34*e5+era*ure circui*s8 A *e5+era*ure sensor +ro7ides a si6nal *o *-e con*rol uni* 3-ic- o+era*es *-e

re6ula*in6 7al7e *o 5ain*ain *-e desired *e5+era*ure se**in68 A *e5+era*ure sensor is also used in a si5ilar con*rol circui* *o o+era*e *-e re6ula*in6 7al7e 3-ic- con*rols *-e ,9+assin6 of *-e cen*ral coolers8 I* is also +ossi,le, 3i*- a++ro+ria*e con*rol eCui+5en*, *o 7ar9 *-e Cuan*i*9 of sea 3a*er circula*ed ,9 *-e +u5+s *o al5os* +recisel9 5ee* *-e cooler reCuire5en*s8

Starting air system

Diesel en6ines are s*ar*ed ,9 su++l9in6 co5+ressed air in*o *-e c9linders in *-e a++ro+ria*e seCuence for *-e reCuired direc*ion8 A su++l9 co5+ressed air is s*ored in air reser7oirs or <,o**les< read9 for i55edia*e use8 %+ *o .2 s*ar*s are +ossi,le 3i*- *-e s*ored Cuan*i*9 of co5+ressed air8 T-e s*ar*in6 air s9s*e5 usuall9 -as in*erlocBs *o +re7en* s*ar*in6 i e7er9*-in6 is no* in order8 A s*ar*in6 air s9s*e5 is s-o3n in Fi6ure *%*+% &o5+ressed air is su++lied ,9 air co5+ressors *o *-e air recei7ers8 T-e co5+ressed air is *-en su++lied ,9 a lar6e ,ore +i+e *o a re5o*e o+era*in6 non4re*urn or au*o5a*ic 7al7e and *-en *o *-e c9linder air s*ar* 7al7e8 O+enin6 of *-e c9linder air s*ar* 7al7e 3ill ad5i* co5+ressed air in*o *-e c9linder8 T-e o+enin6 of *-e c9linder 7al7e and *-e re5o*e o+era*in6 7al7e is con*rolled ,9 a +ilo* air s9s*e58 T-e +ilo* air is dra3n fro5 *-e lar6e +i+e and +asses *o a +ilo* air con*rol 7al7e 3-ic- is o+era*ed ,9 *-e en6ine air s*ar* le7er8 '-en *-e air s*ar* le7er is o+era*ed, a su++l9 of +ilo* air ena,les *-e re5o*e 7al7e *o o+en8 Pilo* air for *-e a++ro+ria*e direc*ion of o+era*ion is also su++lied *o an air dis*ri,u*or8 T-is de7ice is usuall9 dri7en ,9 *-e en6ine ca5s-af* and su++lies +ilo* air *o *-e con*rol c9linders of *-e c9linder air s*ar* 7al7es8 T-e +ilo* air is *-en su++lied i *-e a++ro+ria*e seCuence for *-e direc*ion of o+era*ion reCuired8 T-e c9linder air s*ar* 7al7es are -eld dosed ,9 s+rin6s 3-en no* in use and o+ened ,9 *-e +ilo* air ena,lin6 *-e co5+ressed air direc* fro5 *-e recei7ers *o en*er *-e en6ine c9linder8 An in*erlocB is s-o3n in *-e re5o*e o+era*in6 7al7e line 3-ics*o+s *-e 7al7e o+enin6 3-en *-e en6ine *urnin6 6ear is en6a6ed8 T-e re5o*e o+era*in6 7al7e +re7en*s *-e re*urn of air 3-ic- -as ,een fur*-er co5+ressed ,9 *-e en6ine in*o *-e s9s*e58 Lu,rica*in6 oil fro5 *-e co5+ressor 3ill under nor5al o+era*ion +ass alon6 *-e air lines and de+osi* on *-e58 In *-e e7en* of a c9linder air s*ar*in6 7al7e leaBin6, -o* 6ases 3ould +ass in*o *-e air +i+es and i6ni*e *-e lu,rica*in6 oil8 If s*ar*in6 air is su++lied *o *-e en6ine *-is 3ould fur*-er feed *-e fire and could lead *o an ex+losion in *-e +i+elines8 In order *o +re7en* suc- an occurrence, c9linder s*ar*in6 7al7es s-ould ,e +ro+erl9 5ain*ained and *-e +i+elines re6ularl9 drained8 Also oil disc-ar6ed fro5 co5+ressors s-ould ,e Be+* *o a 5ini5u5, ,9 careful 5ain*enance8 8 In an a**e5+* *o reduce *-e effec*s of an ex+losion, fla5e *ra+s relief 7al7es and ,urs*in6 ca+s or discs are fi**ed *o *-e +i+elines8 In addi*ion an isola*in6 non4re*urn 7al7e :*-e au*o5a*ic 7al7e; is fi**ed *o *-e s9s*e5 T-e loss of coolin6 3a*er fro5 an air co5+ressor could lead *o an o7er-ea*ed air disc-ar6e and +ossi,l9 an ex+losion in *-e +i+elines leadin6 *o *-e air reser7oir8 A -i6-4*e5+era*ure alar5 or a fusi,le +lu6 3-ic- 3ill 5el* is used *o 6uard a6ains* *-is +ossi,ili*98

Control and safety de)ices

Governors T-e +rinci+al con*rol de7ice on an9 en6ine is *-e 6o7ernor8 I* 6o7erns or con*rols *-e en6ine s+eed a* so5e fixed 7alue 3-ile +o3er ou*+u* c-an6es *o 5ee* de5and8 T-is is ac-ie7ed ,9 *-e 6o7ernor au*o5a*icall9 adHus*in6 *-e en6ine fuel +u5+ se**in6s *o 5ee* *-e desired load a* *-e se* s+eed8 (o7ernors for diesel en6ines are usuall9 5ade u+ of *3o s9s*e5sF a s+eed sensin6 arran6e5en* and a -9draulic uni* 3-ico+era*es on *-e fuel +u5+s *o c-an6e *-e en6ine +o3er ou*+u*8

,echanical go)ernor A fl93ei6-* asse5,l9 is used *o de*ec* en6ine s+eed8 T3o fl93ei6-*s are fi**ed *o a +la*e or ,all-ead 3-icro*a*es a,ou* a 7er*ical axis dri7en ,9 a 6ear 3-eel :Fi6ure 2822;8 T-e ac*ion of cen*rifu6al force *-ro3s *-e 3ei6-*s ou*3ardsM *-is lif*s *-e 7er*ical s+indle and co5+resses *-e s+rin6 un*il an eCuili,riu5 si*ua*ion is reac-ed8 T-e eCuili,riu5 +osi*ion or se* s+eed 5a9 ,e c-an6ed ,9 *-e s+eed selec*or 3-ic- al*ers *-e s+rin6 co5+ression8 As *-e en6ine s+eed increases *-e 3ei6-*s 5o7e ou*3ards and raise *-e s+indleM a s+eed decrease 3ill lo3er *-e s+indle8 T-e -9draulic uni* is connec*ed *o *-is 7er*ical s+indle and ac*s as a +o3er source *o 5o7e *-e en6ine fuel con*rols8 A +is*on 7al7e connec*ed *o *-e 7er*ical s+indle su++lies or drains oil fro5 *-e +o3er +is*on 3-ic- 5o7es *-e fuel con*rols de+endin6 u+on *-e fl93ei6-* 5o7e5en*8 If *-e en6ine s+eed increases *-e 7er*ical s+indle rises, *-e +is*on 7al7e rises and oil is drained fro5 *-e +o3er +is*on 3-ic-

resul*s in a fuel con*rol 5o7e5en*8 T-is reduces fuel su++l9 *o *-e en6ine and slo3s i* do3n8 I* is, in effec*, a +ro+or*ional con*roller :see &-a+*er .1;8

The actual arrangement of mechanical engine governors will vary considerably but most will operate as described above. #lectric governor The electric governor uses a combination of electrical and mechanical components in its operation. The speed sensing device is a small magnetic pick-up coil. The rectified, or d . c., voltage signal is used in con4unction with a desired or set speed signal to operate a hydraulic unit. This unit will then move the fuel controls in the appropriate direction to control the engine speed. "ylinder relief valve The cylinder relief valve is designed to relieve pressures in excess of *2> to 12> above normal. A spring holds the valve closed and its lifting pressure is set by an appropriate thickness of packing piece -,igure 1.1%0. 3nly a small amount of lift is permitted and the escaping gases are directed to a safe outlet. The valve and spindle are separate to enable the valve to correctly seat itself after opening. The operation of this device indicates a fault in the engine which should be discovered and corrected. The valve itself should then be examined at the earliest opportunity. "rankcase oil mist detector T-e +resence of an oil 5is* in *-e cranBcase is *-e resul* of oil 7a+oriGa*ion caused ,9 a -o* s+o*8 Ex+losi7e condi*ions can resul* if a ,uild u+ of oil 5is* is allo3ed8 T-e oil 5is* de*ec*or uses +-o*oelec*ric cells *o 5easure s5all increases in oil 5is* densi*98 A 5o*or dri7en fan con*inuousl9 dra3s sa5+les of cranBcase oil 5is* *-rou6- a 5easurin6 *u,e8 An increased 5e*er readin6 and alar5 3ill resul* if an9 cranBcase sa5+le

con*ains excessi7e 5is* 3-en co5+ared *o ei*-er clean air or *-e o*-er cranBcase co5+ar*5en*s8 T-e ro*ar9 7al7e 3-ic- dra3s *-e sa5+le *-en s*o+s *o indica*e *-e sus+ec* cranBcase8 T-e comparator 5odel *es*s one cranBcase 5is* sa5+le a6ains* all *-e o*-ers and once a c9cle a6ains* clean air8 T-e level 5odel *es*s eaccranBcase in *urn a6ains* a reference *u,e sealed 3i*- clean air8 T-e co5+ara*or 5odel is used for cross-ead *9+e en6ines and *-e le7el 5odel for *runB +is*on en6ines88

# plosion relief valve As a practical safeguard against explosions which occur in a crankcase, explosion relief valves or

doors are fi**ed8 T-ese 7al7es ser7e *o relie7e excessi7e cranBcase +ressures and s*o+ fla5es ,ein6 e5i**ed fro5 *-e cranBcase8 T-e9 5us* also ,e self closin6 *o s*o+ *-e re*urn of a*5os+-eric air *o *-e cranBcase8 Aarious desi6ns and arran6e5en*s of *-ese 7al7es exis* 3-ere, on lar6e slo34s+eed diesels, *3o door *9+e 7al7es 5a9 ,e fi**ed *o eac- cranBcase or, on a 5ediu54s+eed diesel, one 7al7e 5a9 ,e used8 One desi6n of ex+losion relief 7al7e is s-o3n in Fi6ure 282@8 A li6-* s+rin6 -olds *-e 7al7e closed a6ains* i*s sea* and a seal rin6 co5+le*es *-e Hoin*8 A deflec*or is fi**ed on *-e ou*side of *-e en6ine *o safe6uard +ersonnel fro5 *-e ou* flo3in6 6ases, and inside *-e en6ine, o7er *-e 7al7e o+enin6, an oil 3e**ed 6auGe ac*s as a fla5e *ra+ *o s*o+ an9 fla5es lea7in6 *-e cranBcase8 Af*er o+era*ion *-e 7al7e 3ill close au*o5a*icall9 under *-e ac*ion of *-e s+rin6. Turning gear T-e *urnin6 6ear or *urnin6 en6ine is a re7ersi,le elec*ric 5o*or 3-ic- dri7es a 3or5 6ear 3-ic- can ,e connec*ed 3i*- *-e *oo*-ed fl93-eel *o *urn a lar6e diesel8 A slo34s+eed dri7e is *-us +ro7ided *o ena,le +osi*ionin6 of *-e en6ine +ar*s for o7er-aul +ur+oses8 T-e *urnin6 6ear is also used *o *urn *-e en6ine one or *3o re7olu*ions +rior *o s*ar*in68 T-is is a safe*9 c-ecB *o ensure *-a* *-e en6ine is free *o *urn and *-a* no 3a*er -as collec*ed in *-e c9linders8 T-e indica*or cocBs 5us* al3a9s ,e o+en 3-en *-e *urnin6 6ear is o+era*ed8

Medium- and slow-speed diesels

(edium-speed diesels, e.g. 1/2 to ?/2rev@min, and slow-speed diesels, e.g. *22 to *12rev@min, each have their various advantages and disadvantages for various duties on board ship. T-e slo34s+eed *3o4s*roBe c9cle diesel is used for 5ain +ro+ulsi=n uni*s since i* can ,e direc*l9 cou+led *o *-e +ro+eller and s-af*in68 I* +ro7ides -i6- +o3ers, can ,urn lo346rade fuels and -as a -i6- *-er5al efficienc98 T-e c9linders and cranBcase are isola*ed, 3-ic- reduces con*a5ina*ion and +er5i*s *-e use of s+ecialiGed lu,rica*in6 oils in eac- area8 T-e use of *-e *3o4s*roBe c9cle usuall9 5eans *-ere are no inle* and ex-aus* 7al7es8 T-is reduces 5ain*enance and si5+lifies en6ine cons*ruc*ion8 $ediu54s+eed four4s*roBe en6ines +ro7ide a ,e**er +o3er4*o43ei6-* ra*io and +o3er4*o4siGe ra*io and *-ere is also a lo3er ini*ial cos* for eCui7alen* +o3er8 T-e -i6-er s+eed, -o3e7er, reCuires *-e use of a 6ear,ox and flexi,le cou+lin6s for 5ain +ro+ulsion use8 &9linder siGes are s5aller, reCuirin6 5ore uni*s and *-erefore 5ore 5ain*enance, ,u* *-e increased s+eed +ar*l9 offse*s *-is8 &9linder liners are of si5+le cons*ruc*ion since *-ere are no +or*s, ,u* c9linder -eads are 5ore co5+lica*ed and 7al7e o+era*in6 6ear is reCuired8 #ca7en6in6 is a +osi*i7e o+era*ion 3i*-ou* use of sca7en6e *runBin6, *-us *-ere can ,e no sca7en6e fires8 !e**er Cuali*9 fuel is necessar9 ,ecause of *-e -i6-er en6ine s+eed, and lu,rica*in6 oil consu5+*ion is -i6-er *-an for a slo34s+eed diesel8 En6ine -ei6-* is reduced 3i*- *runB +is*on desi6n arid *-ere are fe3er 5o7in6 +ar*s +er c9linder8 T-ere are, -o3e7er, in *o*al 5ore +ar*s for 5ain*enance, al*-ou6- *-e9 are s5aller and 5ore 5ana6ea,le8 T-e Aee en6ine confi6ura*ion is used 3i*- so5e 5ediu54s+eed en6ine desi6ns *o fur*-er reduce *-e siGe and 3ei6-* for a +ar*icular +o3er8

"ouplings$ clutches and gear%o es

'-ere *-e s-af* s+eed of a 5ediu54s+eed diesel is no* sui*a,le for i*s a++lica*ion, e868 3-ere a lo3 s+eed dri7e for a +ro+eller is reCuired, a 6ear,ox 5us* ,e +ro7ided8 !e*3een *-e en6ine and 6ear,ox i* is usual *o fi* so5e for5 of flexi,le cou+lin6 *o da5+en ou* 7i,ra*ions8 T-ere is also of*en a need for a clu*c- *o disconnec* *-e en6ine fro5 *-e 6ear,ox8 Couplings Elas*ic or flexi,le cou+lin6s allo3 sli6-* 5isali6n5en* and da5+ ou* or re5o7e *orCue 7aria*ions fro5 *-e en6ine8 T-e cou+lin6 5a9 in addi*ion func*ion as a clu*c- or disconnec*in6 de7ice8 &ou+lin6s 5a9 ,e 5ec-anical, elec*rical, -9draulic or +neu5a*ic in o+era*ion8 I* is usual *o co5,ine *-e func*ion of clu*c- 3i*a cou+lin6 and *-is is no* readil9 +ossi,le 3i*- *-e 5ec-anical cou+lin68 "lutches A clu*c- is a de7ice *o connec* or se+ara*e a dri7in6 uni* fro5 *-e uni* i* dri7es8 'i*- *3o en6ines connec*ed *o a 6ear,ox a clu*c-<ena,les one or ,o*- en6ines *o ,e run, and facili*a*es re7ersin6 of *-e en6ine8 T-e -9draulic or fluid cou+lin6 uses oil *o connec* *-e dri7in6 sec*ion or i5+eller 3i*- *-e dri7en sec*ion or runner :Fi6ure 2821;8 o 3ear 3ill *-us *aBe +lace ,e*3een *-ese *3o, and *-e clu*c- o+era*es s5oo*-l98 T-e runner and i5+eller -a7e +ocBe*s *-a* face eac- o*-er 3-ic- are filled 3i*- oil as *-e9 ro*a*e8 T-e en6ine

dri7en i5+eller +ro7ides Bine*ic ener69 *o *-e oil 3-ic- *rans5i*s *-e dri7e *o *-e runner8 T-rus* ,earin6s 5us* ,e +ro7ided on ei*-er side of *-e cou+lin6 ,ecause of *-e axial *-rus* de7elo+ed ,9 *-is cou+lin68 A +la*e4*9+e clu*c- consis*s of +ressure +la*es and clu*c- +la*es arran6ed in a clu*c- s+ider :Fi6ure 282=;8 A for3ard and an af* clu*c- asse5,l9 are +ro7ided, and an ex*ernall9 5oun*ed selec*or 7al7e asse5,l9 is *-e con*rol de7ice 3-ic- -9draulicall9 en6a6es *-e desired clu*c-8 T-e for3ard clu*c- asse5,l9 is 5ade u+ of *-e in+u* s-af* and *-e for3ard clu*c- s+ider8 T-e in+u* s-af* includes *-e for3ard dri7en 6ear and, a* i*s ex*re5e end, a -u, 3i*- *-e s*eel +ressure +la*es of the

for3ard clu*c- asse5,l9 s+line4connec*ed, i8e8 free *o slide8 T-us 3-en *-e in+u* s-af* *urns, *-e for3ard dri7en 6ear and *-e for3ard clu*c- +ressure +la*es 3ill ro*a*e8 T-e for3ard clu*c- +la*es are +osi*ioned ,e*3een *-e +ressure +la*es and are s+line4connec*ed *o *-e for3ard clu*c- s+ider or -ousin68 T-is for3ard clu*c- s+ider for5s +ar* of *-e for3ard +inion asse5,l9 3-ic- surrounds ,u* does no* *ouc- *-e in+u* s-af*8 T-e cons*ruc*ion of *-e re7erse clu*c- s+ider is si5ilar8 !o*- *-e for3ard and re7erse +inions are in cons*an* 5es- 3i*- *-e ou*+u* 6ear 3-eel 3-ic- ro*a*es *-e ou*+u* s-af*8 In *-e neu*ral +osi*ion *-e en6ine is ro*a*in6 *-e in+u* s-af* and ,o*- dri7en 6ear 3-eels, ,u* no* *-e ou*+u* s-af*8 '-en *-e clu*c- selec*or 7al7e is 5o7ed *o *-e a-ead +osi*ion, a +is*on asse5,l9 5o7es *-e clu*c- +la*es and +ressure +la*es in*o con*ac*8 A fric*ion 6ri+ is crea*ed ,e*3een *-e s5oo*- +ressure +la*e and *-e clu*c- +la*e linin6s and *-e for3ard +inion ro*a*es8 T-e for3ard +inion dri7es *-e ou*+u* s-af* and for3ard +ro+ulsion 3ill occur8 T-e +rocedure 3-en *-e selec*or 7al7e is 5o7ed *o *-e as*ern +osi*ion is si5ilar ,u* no3 *-e re7erse +inion dri7es *-e 4ou*+u* s-af* in *-e o++osi*e direc*ion8 -earbo es T-e 6earin6 arran6e5en* used *o reduce *-e 5ediu54s+eed en6ine dri7e do3n *o sui*a,le +ro+eller re7olu*ions is al3a9s sin6le reduc*ion and usuall9 sin6le -elical8 Reduc*ion ra*ios ran6e fro5 a,ou* 2F. *o @F. on 5odern ins*alla*ions8 Pinion and 6ear3-eel arran6e5en*s 3ill ,e si5ilar *o *-ose for s*ea5 *ur,ines as descri,ed in &-a+*er 0, exce+* *-a* *-e9 3il* ,e sin6le -elical or e+ic9clic8

&eversing '-ere a 6ear,ox is used 3i*- a diesel en6ine, re7ersin6 6ears 5a9 ,e incor+ora*ed so *-a* *-e en6ine i*self is no* re7ersed8 '-ere a con*rolla,le +i*c- +ro+eller is in use *-ere is no reCuire5en* *o re7erse *-e 5ain en6ine8 Ho3e7er, 3-en i* is necessar9 *o run *-e en6ine in re7erse i* 5us* ,e s*ar*ed in re7erse and *-e fuel inHec*ion *i5in6 5us* ,e c-an6ed8 '-ere ex-aus* *i5in6 or +o++e* 7al7es are used *-e9 also 5us* ,e re*i5ed8 'i*- HerB4*9+e fuel +u5+s *-e fuel ca5s on *-e ca5s-af* 5us* ,e re+osi*ioned8 T-is can ,e done ,9 -a7in6 a se+ara*e re7ersin6 ca5 and 5o7in6 *-e ca5s-af* axiall9 *o ,rin6 i* in*o +osi*ion8< Al*erna*i7el9 a los*45o*ion clu*c- 5a9 ,e used in conHunc*ion 3i*- *-e a-ead +u5+4*i5in6 ca58 T-e fuel +u5+ ca5 and los*45o*ion clu*c- arran6e5en* is s-o3n in Fi6ure 282>8 T-e s-a+in6 of *-e ca5 resul*s in a +eriod of +u5+in6 firs* *-en a,ou* .0R of fuel inHec*ion ,efore *o+ dead cen*re and a,ou* 1R af*er *o+ dead cen*re8 A +eriod of d3ell *-en occurs 3-en *-e fuel +u5+ +lun6er does no* 5o7e8 A full9 re7ersi,le ca5 3ill ,e s955e*rical a,ou* *-is +oin*, as s-o3n8 T-e an6ular +eriod ,e*3een *-e *o+ dead cen*re +oin*s for a-ead and as*ern runnin6 3ill ,e *-e <los* 5o*ion< reCuired for as*ern runnin68 T-e los*45o*ion clu*c- or ser7o 5o*or uses a ro*a*in6 7ane 3-ic- is a**ac-ed *o *-e ca5s-af* ,u* can 5o7e in rela*ion *o *-e ca5s-af* dri7e fro5 *-e cranBs-af*8 T-e 7ane is s-o3n -eld in *-e a-ead o+era*in6 +osi*ion ,9 oil +ressure8 '-en oil is su++lied under +ressure *-rou6- *-e drain, *-e 7ane 3ill ro*a*e *-rou6- *-e los*45o*ion an6ular dis*ance *o c-an6e *-e fuel *i5in6 for as*ern o+era*ion8 T-e s*arlin6 air s9s*e5 is re*i5ed, ei*-er ,9 *-is ca5s-af* 5o7e5en* or ,9 a direc*ional air su++l9 ,ein6 ad5i**ed *o *-e s*ar*in6 air dis*ri,u*or, *o re+osi*ion *-e ca5s8 Ex-aus* *i5in6 or +o++e* 7al7es 3ill -a7e *-eir o3n los*45o*ion clu*c- or ser7o 5o*or for as*ern *i5in68

Some typical marine diesel engines

Sul.er The ATA?1 is a single-acting, low-speed, two-stroke reversible marine diesel engine manufactured by 'ul7er :rothers 8td. +t is one of the ATA series enginesB which were introduced in *.6* and in addition to a longer stroke than the earlier A8 series, it has a cylinder-head exhaust valve providing uniflow scavenging. The bedplate is single-walled and arranged with an integral thrust bearing housing at the aft end -,igure 1.160. "ross members are steel fabrications although the centre section, incorporating the main bearing saddle tie-bolt housings, may be a steel forging. To resist crankshaft loading and transverse bending, the main bearing keeps are held down by 4ackbolts. The crankcase chamber is arranged by using individual A-frames for columns which are also the mountings for the double-slippered crosshead guides. The A-frames are 4oined together by heavy steel plates and short angle girders to form a sturdy box frame. The A-frames in way of the thrustblock are manufactured as a one-piece double column to ensure accurate mesh of the camshaft drive gears which are enclosed in this section.
Indi7idual cas*4iron c9linder ,locBs are ,ol*ed *o6e*-er *o for5 a ri6id uni* 3-ic- is 5oun*ed on*o *-e A4 fra5es8 Tie ,ol*s ex*end fro5 *-e *o+ of *-e c9linder ,locB *o *-e underside of *-e 5ain ,earin6 saddles8 T-e cranBs-af* is se5i4,uil*, 3i*- *-e co5,ined cranB+in and cranB3e, ele5en*s for6ed fro5 a sin6le

ele5en* 8 T-e Hournal +ins are *-en s-runB in*o *-e cranB 3e,s8 For all ,u* *-e lar6er nu5,ers of en6ine c9linders, *-e cranBs-af* is a sin6le uni*8 T-e 5ain Hournal and ,o**o54end ,earin6s are *-in43alled s-ells lined 3i*- 3-i*e 5e*al8 T-e for6ed connec*in6 rod -as a <*a,le *o+< u++er end for *-e 5oun*in6 of *-e cross-ead ,earin68 A lar6e cross-ead, 3i*- floa*in6 sli++ers a* eac- end, is used8 T-e +is*on rod is ,ol*ed direc*l9 *o *-e *o+ of *-e cross-ead +in8 T-e +is*ons are oil4cooled and so5e3-a* s-or*er in len6*- *-an earlier desi6ns8 T-ere is no +is*on sBir*8 Fi7e +is*on rin6s are fi**ed 3-ic- are desi6ned *o ro*a*e 3i*-in *-eir 6roo7es8

&9linder liners -a7e a si5+le, ro*a*ionall9 s955e*rical desi6n 3i*- *-e sca7en6e +or*s a* *-e lo3er end8 T-e dee+ collar a* *-e u++er end is ,ore4cooled, as are all co5+onen*s surroundin6 *-e co5,us*ion c-a5,er8 &oolin6 3a*er is fed fro5 ,elo3 *-rou6- a 3a*er 6uide arran6ed around *-e liner8 &9linder lu,rica*ion is +ro7ided ,9 ei6-* Cuills arran6ed around *-e lo3er ed6e of *-e collar on *-e liner8 T-e 5ore recen*l9 in*roduced RTA series en6ines all -a7e oil4cooled +is*ons 3i*- oil su++lied fro5 *-e cross-ead ,earin6 u+ *-rou6- *-e +is*on rod8 A +is*on rod 6land se+ara*es *-e cranBcase c-a5,er fro5 *-e under +is*on s+ace8 Aarious scra+er and sealin6 rin6s are fi**ed 3i*-in *-e 6land8 T-e c9linder -ead is a sin6le s*eel for6in6 arran6ed for ,ore coolin6 3i*- a++ro+ria*el9 drilled -oles8 PocBe*s are cu* for *-e air s*ar*in6 7al7e and fuel inHec*ion 7al7es, *-e nu5,er de+endin6 u+on *-e c9linder ,ore8 T-e cen*rall9 5oun*ed ex-aus* 7al7e is fi**ed in a ca6e 3i*- a ,ore4cooled 7al7e sea*8 T-e 7al7e s*e5 is fi**ed 3i*- a 7ane4*9+e i5+eller *o ensure 7al7e ro*a*ion8 T-e 7al7e is o+ened ,9 -9draulic +ressure fro5 +u5+s dri7en ,9 *-e ca5s-af* and closed ,9 co5+ressed air8 T-e ca5s-af* is loca*ed a* en6ine 5id4-ei6-* and is 6ear dri7en fro5 *-e cranBs-af*8 T-e ini*ial 6ear dri7e is ,ol*ed *o *-e ri5 of *-e *-rus* ,locB and a sin6le in*er5edia*e 3-eel is used8 On lar6er4,ore, -i6-4+o3ered en6ines *-e 6ear dri7e is in *-e cen*re of *-e en6ine8 T-e ca5s-af* ex*ends *-e len6*- of *-e en6ine and eacindi7idual se65en* carries *-e ex-aus* 7al7e ac*ua*in6 and fuel4inHec*ion +u5+s +lus *-e re7ersin6 ser7o 5o*or for one +air of c9linders8 &ons*an*4+ressure *ur,oc-ar6in6 is used, and elec*ricall9 dri7en ,lo3ers cu* in au*o5a*icall9 3-en *-e en6ine load is a* a,ou* @0S of *-e 5axi5u5 con*inuous ra*in68 Lu,rica*in6 oil is su++lied *o a lo34 and a 5ediu54+ressure s9s*e58 T-e lo34+ressure s9s*e5 su++lies *-e 5ain and o*-er ,earin6s8 T-e cross-ead ,earin6, re7ersin6 ser7o 5o*ors and ex-aus* 7al7e ac*ua*ors are su++lied ,9 *-e 5ediu54+ressure s9s*e58 &9linder oil is su++lied *o lu,rica*ors fro5 a -i6-4le7el ser7ice *anB8

Fuel inHec*ion uses *-e HerB +u5+ s9s*e5 and a 'ood3ard4*9+e -9draulic 6o7ernor is used *o con*rol en6ine s+eed8 '-ere *-e en6ine -as oil4cooled +is*ons *-e9 3ill ,e su++lied fro5 *-e lu,rica*in6 oil s9s*e5, +ossi,l9 a* a -i6-er +ressure +roduced ,9 ,oos*er +u5+s, e868 *-e #ulGer RTA en6ine8 An a++ro+ria*e *9+e of lu,rica*in6 oil 5us* ,e used for oil4lu,rica*ed +is*ons in order *o a7oid car,on de+osi*s on *-e -o**er +ans of *-e s9s*e58

,A/ B01 T-e L>0$& is a sin6le4ac*in6, lo34s+eed *3o4s*roBe re7ersi,le 5arine diesel en6ine 5anufac*ured ,9 $A !T'8 I* is one of *-e $& series in*roduced in ./82, and -as a lon6er s*roBe and increased 5axi5u5 +ressure 3-en co5+ared 3i*- *-e earlier L4(F and L4(! desi6ns8 T-e ,ed+la*e is 5ade of 3elded lon6i*udinal 6irders and 3elded cross 6irders 3i*- cas*4s*eel ,earin6 su++or*s :Fi6ure 282/;8 T-e fra5e ,ox is 5oun*ed on *-e ,ed+la*e and 5a9 ,e of cas* or 3elded desi6n8 On *-e ex-aus* side of *-e en6ine a relief 7al7e and 5an-ole are +ro7ided for eac- c9linder8 On *-e ca5s-af* side a lar6er -in6ed door is +ro7ided8 T-e c9linder fra5e uni*s 3-ic- co5+rise one or 5ore c9linders are of cas* iron and ,ol*ed *o6e*-er *o for5 *-e reCuisi*e nu5,er of en6ine c9linders8 To6e*-er 3i*- *-e c9linder liners *-e9 for5 *-e sca7en6e air s+ace and *-e coolin6 3a*er s+ace8 T-e dou,le ,o**o5 in *-e sca7en6e s+ace is 3a*er cooled8 T-e s*uffin6 ,ox fi**ed around *-e +is*on rod -as sealin6 rin6s *o s*o+ *-e leaBa6e of sca7en6e air and scra+er rin6s *o +re7en* oil en*erin6 *-e sca7en6e s+ace8 On *-e ca5s-af* side, access co7ers are +ro7ided for ins+ec*ion and cleanin6 of *-e sca7en6e s+ace8 T-e c9linder co7er is a sin6le +iece 0. for6ed s*eel, and -as ,ored -oles for coolin6 3a*er circula*ion8 I* -as a cen*ral o+enin6 for *-e ex-aus* 7al7es and a++ro+ria*e +ocBe*s for *-e fuel 7al7es, a relief 7al7e, a s*ar*in6 air 7al7e and *-e indica*or cocB8 T-e ex-aus* 7al7e -ousin6 is fi**ed in*o *-e cen*re of *-e c9linder -ead8 I* is o+ened -9draulicall9 and closed ,9 air +ressure8 Durin6 o+era*ion *-e ex-aus* 7al7e ro*a*es8 T-e ,ed+la*e, fra5e ,ox and c9linder fra5es are connec*ed *o6e*-er 3i*- s*a9,ol*s *o for5 *-e indi7idual uni*s8 Eacs*a9,ol* is ,raced *o +re7en* *rans7erse oscilla*ions8 T-e cranBs-af* 5a9 ,e solid or se5i4,uil* on a c9linder ,9 c9linder ,asis8 A s-af* +iece 3i*- a *-rus* collar is incor+ora*ed in*o *-e cranBs-af* and a* *-e af*er end -as a flan6e for *-e *urnin6 3-eel8 A* *-e for3ard end a flan6e is fi**ed for *-e 5oun*in6 of a *unin6 de7ice or coun*er3ei6-*s8 T-e runnin6 6ear consis*s of a +is*on, a +is*on rod and cross-ead asse5,l9 and a for6ed s*eel connec*in6 rod8 T-e cross-ead 5o7es in 6uide s-oes 3-ic- are fi**ed on *-e fra5e ,ox ends8 T-e ca5s-af* -as se7eral

sec*ions, eac- of 3-ic- consis*s of a s-af* +iece 3i*- ex-aus* ca5s, fuel ca5s and cou+lin6s8 I* is dri7en ,9 a c-ain dri7e fro5 *-e cranBs-af*8

Ex-aus* 6as fro5 *-e en6ine is +assed in*o a cons*an*4+ressure recei7er and *-en in*o *-e *ur,oc-ar6ers8 #ca7en6in6 is uniflo3, and elec*ricall9 dri7en auxiliar9 ,lo3ers are au*o5a*icall9 s*ar*ed durin6 lo34load o+era*ion8 Lu,rica*in6 oil is su++lied *o *-e 7arious ,earin6s and also *o *-e +is*ons for coolin68 &9linder oil is su++lied 7ia lu,rica*ors fro5 a -i6-4le7el ser7ice *anB8 A se+ara*e lu,rica*ion s9s*e5 is +ro7ided for *-e ca5s-af* ,earin6s *o +re7en* con*a5ina*ion of *-e 5ain lu,rica*in6 oil s9s*e58 Fres- 3a*er coolin6 is +ro7ided for *-e c9linder HacBe*s, c9linder co7ers and ex-aus* 7al7es8 T-e en6ine is desi6ned *o run on diesel oil or -ea79 fuel oil8 An elec*ronic 6o7ernor is +ro7ided as s*andard8

Pielstick
T-e Piels*icB P& series en6ines are sin6le4ac*in6, 5ediu54s+eed, four4s*roBe re7ersi,le *9+es8 !o*- in4line and A4confi6ura*ions are a7aila,le8 T-e runnin6 6ear, ,ein6 a *runB4*9+e en6ine, is 5ade u+ of *-e +is*on and *-e connec*in6 rod 3-ic- Hoins *-e sin6le4*-ro3 cranBs-af*8 T-e arran6e5en* of a P&@ en6ine is s-o3n in Fi6ure 28008 T-e cranBcase and fra5e are cons*ruc*ed fro5 -ea79 +la*e and s*eel cas*in6s *o +roduce a lo343ei6-* ri6id s*ruc*ure8 T-e cranBs-af* is underslun6 and *-is arran6e5en* confines all s*resses *o *-e fra5e s*ruc*ure8 T-e cranBs-af* is a one4+iece for6in6 and *-e connec*in6 rods are H4sec*ion s*eel s*a5+in6s8 T-e one4+iece c9linder -ead con*ains *3o ex-aus* and *3o inle* 7al7es *o6e*-er 3i*- a s*ar*in6 air 7al7e, a relief 7al7e, indica*or cocB and a cen*rall9 +osi*ioned fuel inHec*or8 Ex-aus*46as4dri7en *ur,o4c-ar6ers o+era*in6 on *-e +ulse s9s*e5 su++l9 +ressurised air *o *-e en6ine c9linders8 !earin6 lu,rica*ion and +is*on coolin6 are su++lied fro5 a co55on s9s*e58 T-e en6ine -as a dr9 su5+ 3i*- oil suc*ion ,ein6 *aBen fro5 a se+ara*e *anB8 T-e c9linder HacBe*s are 3a*er4cooled *o6e*-er 3i*- *-e c9linder -eads and *-e ex-aus* 7al7e ca6es8 T-e c-ar6e air cooler 5a9 ,e fres-43a*er or sea43a*er cooled as reCuired8 Fuel inHec*ion uses *-e HerB +u5+ s9s*e5, and a 'ood3ard4*9+e -9draulic 6o7ernor is used *o con*rol en6ine s+eed8 La*er 7ersions of *-e P& series en6ine are descri,ed as P&20 and P&@0 and -a7e so5e3-a* increased scan*lin6s8

'perating procedures
$ediu54 and slo34s+eed diesel en6ines 3ill follo3 a fairl9 si5ilar +rocedure for s*ar*in6 and 5anoeu7rin68 '-ere re7ersin6 6ear,oxes or con*rolla,le4+i*c- +ro+ellers are used *-en en6ine re7ersin6 is no* necessar98 A 6eneral +rocedure is no3 6i7en for en6ine o+era*ion 3-ic- de*ails *-e 5ain +oin*s in *-eir correc* seCuence8 '-ere a 5anufac*urer<s ins*ruc*ion ,ooB is a7aila,le *-is s-ould ,e consul*edJ and used8

(reparations for stand%y .8 !efore a lar6e diesel is s*ar*ed i* 5us* ,e 3ar5ed *-rou6- ,9 circula*in6 -o* 3a*er *-rou6- *-e HacBe*s, e*c8 T-is 3ill ena,le *-e 7arious en6ine +ar*s *o ex+and in rela*ion *o one ano*-er8 28 T-e 7arious su++l9 *anBs, fil*ers, 7al7es and drains are all *o ,e c-ecBed8 08 T-e lu,rica*in6 oil +u5+s and circula*in6 3a*er +u5+s are s*ar*ed and all *-e 7isi,le re*urns s-ould ,e o,ser7ed8 @8 All con*rol eCui+5en* and alar5s s-ould ,e exa5ined for correc* o+era*ion8 18 T-e indica*or cocBs are o+ened, *-e *urnin6 6ear en6a6ed and *-e en6ine *urned *-rou6- se7eral co5+le*e re7olu*ions8 In *-is 3a9 an9 3a*er 3-ic- 5a9 -a7e collec*ed in *-e c9linders 3ill ,e forced ou*8 =8 T-e fuel oil s9s*e5 is c-ecBed arid circula*ed 3i*- -o* oil8 >8 Auxiliar9 sca7en6e ,lo3ers, if 5anuall9 o+era*ed, s-ould ,e s*ar*ed8 88 T-e *urnin6 6ear is re5o7ed and if +ossi,le *-e en6ine s-ould ,e *urned o7er on air ,efore closin6 *-e indica*or cocBs8 /8 T-e en6ine is no3 a7aila,le for s*and,98 T-e len6*- of *i5e in7ol7ed in *-ese +re+ara*ions 3ill de+end u+on *-e siGe of *-e en6ine8 2ngine starting .8 T-e direc*ion -andle is +osi*ioned a-ead or as*ern8 T-is -andle 5a9 ,e ,uil* in*o *-e *ele6ra+- re+l9 le7er8 T-e ca5s-af* is *-us +osi*ioned rela*i7e *o *-e cranBs-af* *o o+era*e *-e 7arious ca5s for fuel inHec*ion, 7al7e o+era*ion, e*c8 28 T-e 5anoeu7rin6 -andle is 5o7ed .0 <s*ar*<8 T-is 3ill ad5i* co5+ressed air in*o *-e c9linders in *-e correc* seCuence *o *urn *-e en6ine in *-e desired direc*ion8 A se+ara*e air s*ar* ,u**on 5a9 ,e used8 08 '-en *-e en6ine reac-es i*s firin6 s+eed *-e 5anoeu7rin6 -andle is 5o7ed *o *-e runnin6 +osi*ion8 Fuel is ad5i**ed and *-e co5,us*ion +rocess 3ill accelera*e *-e en6ine and s*ar*in6 air ad5ission 3ill cease8 2ngine re)ersing '-en runnin6 a* 5anoeu7rin6 s+eedsF .8 '-ere 5anuall9 o+era*ed auxiliar9 ,lo3ers are fi**ed *-e9 s-ould ,e 8 s*ar*ed8 28 T-e fuel su++l9 is s-u* off and *-e en6ine 3ill CuicBl9 sid3 do3n8 08 T-e direc*ion -andle is +osi*ioned as*ern8 @8 &o5+ressed air is ad5i**ed *o *-= en6ine *o *urn i* in *-e as*ern direc*ion8 18 '-en *urnin6 as*ern under *-e ac*ion of co5+ressed air, fuel 3ill ,e ad5i**ed8 T-e co5,us*ion +rocess 3ill *aBe o7er and air ad5ission cease8 '-en runnin6 a* full s+eedF .8 T-e auxiliar9 ,lo3ers, 3-ere 5anuall9 o+era*ed, s-ould ,e s*ar*ed8 28 Fuel is s-u* off fro5 *-e en6ine8 08 !las*s of co5+ressed air 5a9 ,e used *o slo3 *-e en6ine do3n8 @8 '-en *-e en6ine is s*o++ed *-e direc*ion -andle is +osi*ioned as*ern8 18 &o5+ressed air is ad5i**ed *o *urn *-e en6ine as*ern and fuel is ad5i**ed *o accelera*e *-e en6ine8 T-e co5+ressed air su++l9 3ill *-en cease8

Chapter 3

Steam turbines and gearing

T-e s*ea5 *ur,ine -as un*il recen*l9 ,een *-e firs* c-oice for 7er9 lar6e +o3er 5ain +ro+ulsion uni*s8 I*s ad7an*a6es of li**le or no 7i,ra*ion, lo3 3ei6-*, 5ini5al s+ace reCuire5en*s and lo3 5ain*enance cos*s are considera,le8 Fur*-er5ore a *ur,ine can ,e +ro7ided for an9 +o3er ra*in6 liBel9 *o ,e reCuired for 5arine +ro+ulsion8 Ho3e7er, *-e -i6-er s+ecific fuel consu5+*ion 3-en co5+ared 3i*- a diesel en6ine offse*s *-ese ad7an*a6es, al*-ou6- refine5en*s suc- as re-ea* -a7e narro3ed *-e 6a+8 T-e s*ea5 *ur,ine is a de7ice for o,*ainin6 5ec-anical 3orB fro5 *-e ener69 s*ored in s*ea58 #*ea5 en*ers *-e *ur,ine 3i*- a -i6- ener69 con*en* and lea7es af*er 6i7in6 u+ 5os* of i*8 T-e -i6-4+ressure s*ea5 fro5 *-e ,oiler is ex+anded in noGGles *o crea*e a -i6-47eloci*9 He* of s*ea58 T-e noGGle ac*s *o con7er* -ea* ener69 in *-e s*ea5 in*o Bine*ic ener698 T-is He* is direc*ed in*o ,lades 5oun*ed on *-e +eri+-er9 01 a 3-eel or disc :Fi6ure 08.;8 T-e s*ea5 does no* <,lo3 *-e 3-eel around<84T-e s-a+in6 of *-e ,lades causes a c-an6e in direc*ion and -ence 7eloci*9 of *-e s*ea5 He*8 o3 a c-an6e in 7eloci*9 for a 6i7en 5ass flo3 of s*ea5 3ill +roduce a force 3-ic- ac*s *o *urn *-e *ur,ine 3-eel, i8e8 5ass flo3 of s*ea5 :B6?s; X c-an6e in 7eloci*9 :5?s; N force :B6 5 ?s4;8

T-is is *-e o+era*in6 +rinci+le of all s*ea5 *ur,ines, al*-ou6- *-e arran6e5en*s 5a9 7ar9 considera,l98 T-e s*ea5 fro5 *-e firs* se* of ,lades *-en +asses *o ano*-er se* of noGGles and *-en ,lades and so on alon6 *-e ro*or s-af* un*il i* is finall9 ex-aus*ed8 Eac- se* co5+risin6 noGGle and ,lades is called a s*a6e8

$urbine types
T-ere are *3o 5ain *9+es of *ur,ine, *-e <i5+ulse< and *-e <reac*ion<8 T-e na5es refer *o *-e *9+e of force 3-ic- ac*s on *-e ,lades *o *urn *-e *ur,ine 3-eel8 3mpulse T-e i5+ulse arran6e5en* is 5ade u+ of a rin6 of noGGles follo3ed ,9 a rin6 of ,lades8 T-e -i6-4+ressure, -i6-4ener69 s*ea5 is ex+anded in *-e noGGle *o a lo3er4+ressure, -i6-47eloci*9 He* of s*ea58 T-is He* of s*ea5 is direc*ed in*o *-e i5+ulse ,lades and lea7es in a differen* direc*ion :Fi6ure 082;8 T-e c-an6in6 direc*ion and *-erefore 7eloci*9 +roduces an i5+ulsi7e force 3-ic- 5ainl9 ac*s in *-e direc*ion of ro*a*ion of *-e *ur,ine ,lades8 T-ere is onl9 a 7er9 s5all end *-rus* on *-e *ur,ine s-af*8

&eaction T-e reac*ion arran6e5en* is 5ade u+ of a rin6 of fixed ,lades a**ac-ed *o *-e casin6, and a ro3 of si5ilar ,lades 5oun*ed on *-e ro*or, i8e8 5o7in6 ,lades :Fi6ure 080;8 T-e ,lades are 5oun*ed and s-a+ed *o +roduce a narro3in6 +assa6e 3-ic-, liBe a noGGle, increases *-e s*ea5 7eloci*98 T-is increase in 7eloci*9 o7er *-e ,lade +roducesE reac*ion force 3-ic- -as co5+onen*s <in *-e direc*ion of ,lade ro*a*ion and also alon6 *-e *ur,ine axis8 T-ere is also a c-an6e in 7eloci*9 of *-e s*ea5 as a resul* of a c-an6e in direc*ion and an i5+ulsi7e force is also +roduced 3i*- *-is *9+e of ,ladin68 T-e 5ore correc* *er5 for *-is ,lade arran6e5en* is I5+ulse4reac*ion<8

Compounding &o5+oundin6 is *-e s+li**in6 u+, in*o *3o or 5ore s*a6es, of *-e s*ea5 +ressure or 7eloci*9 c-an6e *-rou6- a *ur,ine8 Pressure co5+oundin6 of an i5+ulse *ur,ine is *-e use of a nu5,er of s*a6es of noGGle and ,lade *DI reduce +ro6ressi7el9 *-e s*ea5 +ressure8 T-is resul*s in lo3er or 5ore acce+*a,le s*ea5 flo3 s+eeds and a ,e**er *ur,ine efficienc98 Aeloci*9 8co5+oundin6 of an i5+ulse *ur,ine is *-e use of a sin6le noGGle 3i*- an arran6e5en* of se7eral 5o7in6 ,lades on a sin6le disc8 !e*3een *-e 5o7in6 ,lades are fi**ed 6uide ,lades 3-ic- are connec*ed *o

*-e *ur,ine casin68 T-is arran6e5en* +roduces a s-or* li6-*3ei6-* *ur,ine 3i*- a +oorer efficienc9 3-ic3ould ,e acce+*a,le in, for exa5+le, an as*ern *ur,ine8 T-e *3o arran6e5en*s 5a9 ,e co5,ined *o 6i7e 3-a* is called <+ressure47eloci*9 co5+oundin6<8 T-e reac*ion *ur,ine as a resul* of i*s ,lade arran6e5en* c-an6es *-e #*ea5 7eloci*9 in ,o*- fixed and 5o7in6 ,lades 3i*- conseCuen* 6radual s*ea5 +ressure reduc*ion8< I*s ,asic arran6e5en* *-erefore +ro7ides co5+oundin68 T-e *er5 <cross4co5+ound< is used *o descri,e a s*ea5 *ur,ine uni* 5ade u+ of a -i6- +ressure and a lo3 +ressure *ur,ine :Fi6ure 08@;8 i -is is *-e usual 5ain +ro+ulsion *ur,ine arran6e5en*8 T-e al*erna*i7e is a

sin6le c9linder uni* 3-ic- 3ould ,e usual for *ur,o46enera*or se*s, al*-ou6- so5e -a7e ,een fi**ed for 5ain +ro+ulsion ser7ice8

4eheat Re-ea*in6 is a 5eans of i5+ro7in6 *-e *-er5al efficienc9 of *-e co5+le*e *ur,ine +lan*8 #*ea5, af*er ex+ansion in *-e -i6-4+ressure *ur,ine, is re*urned *o *-e ,oiler *o ,e re-ea*ed *o *-e ori6inal su+er-ea* *e5+era*ure8 I* is *-en re*urned *o *-e *ur,ine and fur*-er ex+anded *-rou6- an9 re5ainin6 s*a6es of *-e -i6-4+ressure *ur,ine and *-en *-e lo34+ressure *ur,ine8 /amed turbine types A nu5,er of fa5ous na5es are associa*ed 3i*- cer*ain *ur,ine *9+es8 arsons. A reac*ion *ur,ine 3-ere s*ea5 ex+ansion *aBes +lace in *-e Fixed and 5o7in6 ,lades8 A s*a6e is 5ade u+ of one of eac- ,lade *9+e8 Half of *-e s*a6e -ea* dro+ occurs in eac- ,lade *9+e, *-erefore +ro7idin6 10S reac*ion +er s*a6e8

Curti!. An i5+ulse *ur,ine 3i*- 5ore *-an one ro3 of ,lades *o eac- ro3 of noGGles, i8e8 7eloci*9 co5+ounded8 !e "aval. A -i6-4s+eed i5+ulse *ur,ine 3-ic- -as onl9 one ro3 of noGGles and one ro3 of ,lades #ateau. An i5+ulse *ur,ine 3i*- se7eral s*a6es, eac- s*a6e ,ein6 a ro3 of noGGles and a ro3 of ,lades, i8e8 +ressure co5+ounded8 Astern arrangements $arine s*ea5 *ur,ines are reCuired *o ,e re7ersi,le8 T-is is nor5all9 ac-ie7ed ,9 *-e use of se7eral ro3s of as*ern ,ladin6 fi**ed *o *-e -i6-4+ressure and lo34+ressure *ur,ine s-af*s *o +roduce as*ern *ur,ines8 A,ou* 10S of full +o3er is ac-ie7ed usin6 *-ese as*ern *ur,ines8 '-en *-e *ur,ine is o+era*in6 a-ead *-e as*ern ,ladin6 ac*s as an air co5+ressor, resul*in6 in 3inda6e and fric*ion losses8

Tur%ine construction
T-e cons*ruc*ion of an i5+ulse *ur,ine is s-o3n in Fi6ure 0818 T-e *ur,ine ro*or carries *-e 7arious 3-eels around 3-ic- are 5oun*ed *-e ,lades8 T-e s*ea5 decreases in +ressure as i* +asses alon6 *-e s-af* and increases in 7olu5e reCuirin6 +ro6ressi7el9 lar6er ,lades on *-e 3-eels8 T-e as*ern *ur,ine is 5oun*ed on one end of *-e ro*or and is 5ac- s-or*er *-an *-e a-ead *ur,ine8

T-e *ur,ine ro*or is su++or*ed ,9 ,earin6s a* ei*-er endM one ,earin6 incor+ora*es a *-rus* collar *o resis* an9 axial loadin68 T-e *ur,ine casin6 co5+le*el9 surrounds *-e ro*or and +ro7ides *-e inle* and ex-aus* +assa6es for *-e s*ea58 A* *-e inle* +oin* a noGGle ,ox is +ro7ided 3-ic- ,9 use of a nu5,er of noGGle 7al7es ad5i*s 7ar9in6 a5oun*s of s*ea5 *o *-e noGGles in order *o con*rol *-e +o3er de7elo+ed ,9 *-e *ur,ine8 T-e firs* se* of noGGles is 5oun*ed in a noGGle rin6 fi**ed in*o *-e casin68 Dia+-ra65s are circular +la*es fas*ened *o *-e casin6 3-ic- are fi**ed ,e*3een *-e *ur,ine 3-eels8 T-e9 -a7e a cen*ral circular -ole *-rou6- 3-ic- *-e ro*or s-af* +asses8 T-e dia+-ra65s con*ain *-e noGGles for s*ea5 ex+ansion and a 6land is fi**ed ,e*3een *-e ro*or and *-e dia+-ra658 T-e cons*ruc*ion of a reac*ion *ur,ine differs so5e3-a* in *-a* *-ere are no dia+-ra65s fi**ed and ins*ead fixed ,lades are loca*ed ,e*3een *-e 5o7in6 ,lades8 4otor T-e *ur,ine ro*or ac*s as *-e s-af* 3-ic- *rans5i*s *-e 5ec-anical +o3er +roduced *o *-e +ro+eller s-af* 7ia *-e 6earin68 I* 5a9 ,e a sin6le +iece 3i*- *-e 3-eels in*e6ral 3i*- *-e s-af* or ,uil* u+ fro5 a s-af* and se+ara*e 3-eels 3-ere *-e di5ensions are lar6e8 T-e ro*or ends adHacen* *o *-e *ur,ine 3-eels -a7e an arran6e5en* of raised rin6s 3-ic- for5 +ar* of *-e la,9rin*- 6land sealin6 s9s*e5, descri,ed la*er in *-is c-a+*er8 Journal ,earin6s are fi**ed a* eac- end of *-e ro*or8 T-ese -a7e rin6s arran6ed *o s*o+ oil *ra7ellin6 alon6 *-e s-af* 3-ic- 3ould 5ix 3i*- *-e s*ea58 One end of *-e ro*or -as a s5all *-rus* collar for correc* lon6i*udinal ali6n5en*8 T-e o*-er end Has an a++ro+ria*e flan6e or fi**in6 arran6ed for *-e flexi,le cou+lin6 3-ic- Hoins *-e ro*or *o *-e 6ear,ox +inion8 T-e ,lades are fi**ed in*o 6roo7es of 7arious desi6ns cu* in*o *-e 3-eels8

Blades
T-e s-a+in6 and *9+es of *ur,ine ,lades -a7e alread9 ,een discussed8 '-en *-e *ur,ine ro*or is ro*a*in6 a* -i6- s+eed *-e ,lades 3ill ,e su,Hec*ed *o considera,le cen*rifu6al force and 7aria*ions in s*ea5 7eloci*9 across *-e ,lades 3ill resul* in ,lade 7i,ra*ion8 Ex+ansion and con*rac*ion 3ill also occur durin6 *ur,ine o+era*ion, *-ere a 5eans of fir5l9 securin6 *-e ,lades *o *-e 3-eel is essen*ial8 A of differen* desi6ns -a7e ,een e5+lo9ed :Fi6ure 08=;8 T-e ,lades in7ol7es +lacin6 *-e ,lade roo* in*o *-e 3-eel

through a gate or entrance slot and sliding it into position. 'uccessive blades are fitted in turn and the gate finally closed with a packing piece which is pinned into place. 'hrouding is then fitted over tenons on the upper edge of the blades. Alternatively, lacing wires may be passed through and bra7ed to all the blades. 2nd thrust +n a reaction turbine a considerable axial thrust is developed. The closeness of moving parts in a high-speed turbine does not permit any axial movement to take placeC the axial force or end thrust must therefore be balanced out.

One 5e*-od of ac-ie7in6 *-is ,alance is *-e use of a du559 +is*on and c9linder8 A +i+e fro5 so5e s*a6e in *-e *ur,ine +ro7ides s*ea5 *o ac* on *-e du559 +is*on 3-ic- is 5oun*ed on *-e *ur,ine ro*or :Fi6ure 08>;8 T-e ro*or casin6 +ro7ides *-e c9linder *o ena,le *-e s*ea5 +ressure *o crea*e an axial force on *-e *ur,ine s-af*8 T-e du559 +is*on annular area and *-e s*ea5 +ressure are c-osen *o +roduce a force 3-ic- exac*l9 ,alances *-e end *-rus* fro5 *-e reac*ion ,ladin68 A *ur,ine 3i*- a-ead and as*ern ,ladin6 3ill -a7e a du559 +is*on a* ei*-er end *o ensure ,alance in ei*-er direc*ion of ro*a*ion8 Ano*-er 5e*-od of*en used in lo34+ressure *ur,ines is *o 5aBe *-e *ur,ine dou,le flo38 'i*- *-is arran6e5en* s*ea5 en*ers a* *-e cen*re of *-e s-af* and flo3s alon6 in o++osi*e direc*ions8 'i*- an eCual di7ision of s*ea5 *-e *3o reac*ion effec*s ,alance and cancel one ano*-er8

-lands and gland sealing #*ea5 is +re7en*ed fro5 leaBin6 ou* of *-e ro*or -i6-4+ressure end and air is +re7en*ed fro5 en*erin6 *-e lo34+ressure end ,9 *-e use of 6lands8 A co5,ina*ion of 5ec-anical 6lands and a 6land sealin6 s9s*e5 is usual8 $ec-anical 6lands are usuall9 of *-e la,9rin*- *9+e8 A series of rin6s +roHec*in6 fro5 *-e ro*or and *-e casin6 co5,ine *o +roduce a 5aGe of 3indin6 +assa6es or a la,9rin*- :Fi6ure 088;8 An9 esca+in6 s*ea5 5us* +ass *-rou6- *-is la,9rin*-, 3-ic- reduces i*s +ressure +ro6ressi7el9 *o Gero8 T-e 6land sealin6 s9s*e5 o+era*es in conHunc*ion 3i*- *-e la,9rin*- 6land 3-ere a nu5,er of +ocBe*s are +ro7ided8 T-e s9s*e5 o+era*es in one of *3o 3a9s8 '-en *-e *ur,ine is runnin6 a* full s+eed s*ea5 3ill leaB in*o *-e firs* +ocBe* and a +osi*i7e +ressure 3ill ,e 5ain*ained *-ere8 An9 s*ea5 3-ic- fur*-er leaBs alon6 *-e s-af* *o *-e second +ocBe* 3ill ,e ex*rac*ed

,9 an air +u5+ or air eHec*or *o *-e 6land< s*ea5 condenser8 An9 air 3-ic- leaBs in fro5 *-e 5ac-iner9 s+ace 3ill also +ass *o *-e 6land s*ea5 condenser :Fi6ure 08/;8 A* 7er9 lo3 s+eeds or 3-en s*ar*in6 u+, s*ea5 is +ro7ided fro5 a lo34+ressure su++l9 *o *-e in*er +ocBe*% T-e ou*er +ocBe* o+era*es as ,efore8 T-e 6land s*ea5 sealin6 s9s*e5 +ro7ides *-e 7arious lo34+ressure s*ea5 su++lies and ex*rac*ion arran6e5en*s for all *-e 6lands in *-e *ur,ine uni*8

)iaphragms Onl9 i5+ulse *ur,ines -a7e dia+-ra65s8 Dia+-ra65s are circular +la*es 5ade u+ of *3o se5i4circular -al7es8 A cen*ral se5i4circular -ole 5 eac- is +ro7ided for *-e s-af* *o +ass *-rou6-8 T-e dia+-ra65 fi*s ,e*3een *-e ro*or 3-eels and is fas*ened in*o *-e casin68 T-e noGGles are -oused 8in *-e dia+-ra65 around i*s +eri+-er98 T-e cen*ral -ole 5 *-e dia+-ra65 is arran6ed 3i*- +roHec*ions *o +roduce a la,9rin*- 6land around *-e s-af*8 /o..les

oGGles ser7e *o con7er* *-e -i6- +ressure and -i6- ener69 of *-e s*ea5 in*o a -i6-47eloci*9 He* of s*ea5 3i*- a reduced +ressure and ener69 con*en*8 T-e s*ea5 inle* noGGles are arran6ed in se7eral 6rou+s 3i*- all ,u* *-e 5ain 6rou+ -a7in6 con*rol 7al7es :Fi6ure 08.0;8 In *-is 3a9 *-e +o3er +roduced ,9 *-e *ur,ine can ,e 7aried, de+endin6 u+on -o3 5an9 noGGle con*rol 7al7es are o+ened8 !o*- i5+ulse and reac*ion *ur,ines -a7e s*ea5 inle* noGGles8

Drains Durin6 3ar5in6 *-rou6- o+era*ions or 3-en 5anoeu7rin6, s*ea5 3ill condense and collec* in 7arious +laces 3i*-in *-e *ur,ine and i*s +i+elines8 A s9s*e5 of drains 5us* ,e +ro7ided *o clear *-is 3a*er a3a9 *o a7oid i*s ,ein6 carried o7er in*o *-e ,lades, 3-ic- 5a9 do da5a6e8 LocaliGed coolin6 or dis*or*ion due *o une7en -ea*in6 could also ,e caused8 $odern ins*alla*ions no3 -a7e au*o5a*ic drain 7al7es 3-ic- o+en 3-en 3ar5in6 *-rou6- or 5anoeu7rin6 and close 3-en runnin6 a* nor5al s+eed8 *earings Tur,ine ,earin6s are s*eel ,acBed, 3-i*e45e*al lined and su++or*ed in adHus*a,le -ousin6s *o allo3 ali6n5en* c-an6es if reCuired8 T-rus* ,earin6s are of *-e *il*in6 +ad *9+e and are s+-ericall9 sea*ed8 T-e +ads are *-us 5ain*ained +arallel *o *-e collar and eCuall9 loaded8 De*ail of ,o*- *9+es can ,e seen in Fi6ure 0818 Lu,rica*in6 oil en*ers a *ur,ine ,earin6 *-rou6- a +or* on ei*-er side8 T-e en*r9 +oin* for *-e oil is c-a5fered *o -el+ dis*ri,u*e *-e oil alon6 *-e ,earin68 o oil 3a9s are +ro7ided in *ur,ine ,earin6s and a 6rea*er clearance ,e*3een ,earin6 and s-af* is +ro7ided co5+ared 3i*- a diesel en6ine8 T-e s-af* is a,le *o Ofloa*P on a 3ed6e of lu,rica*in6 oil durin6 *ur,ine o+era*ion8 T-e oil lea7es *-e ,earin6 a* *-e *o+ and re*urns *o *-e drain *anB8 +u%ricating oil system Lu,rica*in6 oil ser7es *3o func*ions in a s*ea5 *ur,ineF . I* +ro7ides an oil fil5 *o reduce fric*ion ,e*3een 5o7in6 +ar*s8 E 28 I* re5o7es -ea* 6enera*ed in *-e ,earin6s or conduc*ed alon6 *-e s-af*8 A co55on lu,rica*ion s9s*e5 is8 used *o su++l9 oil *o *-e *ur,ine, 6ear,ox and *-rus* ,earin6s and *-e 6ear s+ra9ers8 T-e *ur,ine, ro*a*in6 a* -i6- s+eed, reCuires a considera,le *i5e *o s*o+8 i* 5e 5ain 5o*or dri7en lu,rica*in6 oil +u5+s 3ere *o fail an e5er6enc9 su++l9 of lubricating oil would be necessary.

T-is is usuall9 +ro7ided fro5 a 6ra7i*9 *anB, al*-ou6- 5ain en6ine dri7en lu,rica*in6 oil +u5+s 5a9 also ,e reCuired8 A lu,rica*in6 oil s9s*e5 e5+lo9in6 ,o*- a 6ra7i*9 *anB and an en6ine dri7en +u5+ is s-o3n in Fi6ure 08..8 Oil is dra3n fro5 *-e drain *anB *-rou6- s*rainers and +u5+ed *o *-e coolers8 Lea7in6 *-e coolers, *-e oil +asses *-rou6- ano*-er se* of fil*ers ,efore ,ein6 dis*ri,u*ed *o *-e 6ear,ox, *-e *ur,ine ,earin6s and *-e 6ear,ox s+ra9ers8 #o5e of *-e oil also +asses *-rou6- an orifice +la*e and in*o *-e 6ra7i*9 *anB fro5 3-ic- i* con*inuousl9 o7erflo3s :*-is can ,e o,ser7ed *-rou6- *-e si6-*6lass;8 T-e en6ine dri7en +u5+ su++lies a +ro+or*ion of *-e s9s*e5 reCuire5en*s in nor5al o+era*ion8 In *-e e7en* of a +o3er failure *-e 6ear,ox s+ra9ers are su++lied fro5 *-e en6ine dri7en +u5+8 T-e 6ra7i*9 *anB +ro7ides a lo34+ressure su++l9 *o *-e ,earin6s o7er a considera,le +eriod *o ena,le *-e *ur,ine *o ,e ,rou6-* safel9 *o res*8 2 pansion arrangements T-e 7aria*ion in *e5+era*ure for a *ur,ine ,e*3een s*a*ionar9 and nor5al o+era*ion is considera,le8 Arran6e5en*s 5us* *-erefore ,e 5ade *o +er5i* *-e ro*or and casin6 *o ex+and8 T-e *ur,ine casin6 is usuall9 fixed a* *-e af*er end to a +edes*al su++or* or ,racBe*s fro5 *-e 6ear,ox8 T-e su++or* foot or +al5 on *-e casin6 is -eld securei9 a6ains* fore and af* 5o7e5en*, ,u* ,ecause of elon6a*ed ,ol* -oles 5a9 5o7e side3a9s8 T-e for3ard su++or* +al5 -as si5ilar elon6a*ed -oles and 5a9 res* on a slidin6 foo* or +an*in6 +la*es8 Pan*in6 +la*es are 7er*ical +la*es 3-ic- can fiex or 5o7e axiali9 as ex+ansion *aBes +lace8 T-e for3ard +edes*al and *-e 6earcase ,racBe*s or af*er +edes*al su++or*s for *-e casin6 are fixed in rela*ion *o one ano*-er8 T-e use of lar6e 7er*ical Be9s and slo*s on *-e su++or*s and casin6 res+ec*i7el9, ensures *-a* *-e casin6 is Be+* cen*ral and in axial ali6n5en*8 T-e ro*or is usuall9 fixed a* i*s for3ard end ,9 *-e *-rus* collar, and an9 axial 5o7e5en* 5us* *-erefore ,e *aBen u+ a* *-e 6ear,ox end8 !e*3een *-e *ur,ine ro*or and *-e 6ear,ox is fi**ed a flexi,le cou+lin68 T-is flexi,le cou+lin6 is a,le *o *aBe u+ all axial 5o7e5en* of *-e ro*or as 3ell as correc* for an9 sli6-* 5isali6n5en*8 An9 +i+es connec*ed *o *-e *ur,ine casin6 5us* -a7e lar6e radiused ,ends or ,e fi**ed 3i*- ,ello3s +ieces *o ena,le *-e casin6 *o 5o7e freel98 Also, an9 5o7e5en* of *-e +i+es due *o ex+ansion 5us* no* affec* *-e casin68 T-is is usuall9 ensured ,9 *-e use of flexi,le or s+rin6 su++or*s on *-e +i+es8 '-en 3ar5in6 *-rou6- a *ur,ine i* is i5+or*an* *o ensure *-a* ex+ansion is *aBin6 +lace freel98 Aarious indica*ors are +ro7ided *o ena,le *-is *o ,e readil9 c-ecBed8 An9 slidin6 arran6e5en*s s-ould ,e Be+* clean and 3ell lu,rica*ed8 $urbine control T-e 7al7es 3-ic- ad5i* s*ea5 *o *-e a-ead or as*ern *ur,ines are Bno3n as <5anoeu7rin6 7al7es<8 T-ere are ,asicall9 *-ree 7al7es, the ahead$ the astern and the guarding or guardian 7al7e8 T-e 6uardian 7al7e is an as*ern s*ea5 isola*in6 7al7e8 T-ese 7al7es are -9draulicall9 o+era*ed ,9 an inde+enden* s9s*e5 e5+lo9in6 a 5ain and s*and,9 se* of +u5+s8 Pro7ision is also 5ade for -and o+era*ion in *-e e7en* of re5o*e con*rol

s9s*e5 failure8 O+era*ion of *-e a-ead 5anoeu7rin6 7al7e 3ill ad5i* s*ea5 *o *-e 5ain noGGle ,ox8 Re5o*el9 o+era*ed 7al7es are used *o o+en u+ *-e re5ainin6 noGGle ,oxes for s*ea5 ad5ission as increased +o3er is reCuired8 A s+eed4sensi*i7e con*rol de7ice ac*s on *-e a-ead 5anoeu7rin6 7al7e *o -old *-e *ur,ine s+eed cons*an* a* *-e desired 7alue8 O+era*ion of *-e as*ern 5anoeu7rin6 7al7e 3ill ad5i* s*ea5 *o *-e 6uardian 7al7e 3-ic- is o+ened in conHunc*ion 3i*- *-e as*ern 7al7e8 #*ea5 is *-en ad5i**ed *o *-e as*ern *ur,ines8

Tur%ine protection A *ur,ine +ro*ec*ion s9s*e5 is +ro7ided 3i*- all ins*alla*ions *o +re7en* da5a6e resul*in6 fro5 an in*ernal *ur,ine faul* or *-e 5alfunc*ion of so5e associa*ed eCui+5en*8 Arran6e5en*s are 5ade in *-e s9s*e5 *o s-u* *-e *ur,ine do3n usin6 an e5er6enc9 s*o+ and solenoid 7al7e8 O+era*ion of *-is de7ice cu*s off *-e -9draulic oil su++l9 *o *-e 5anoeu7rin6 7al7e and *-us s-u*s off s*ea5 *o *-e *ur,ine8 T-is 5ain *ri+ rela9 is o+era*ed ,9 a nu5,er of 5ain faul* condi*ions 3-ic- areF .8 Lo3 lu,rica*in6 oil +ressure8 28 O7ers+eed8 8 08 Lo3 condenser 7acuu58 @8 E5er6enc9 s*o+8 818 Hi6- condensa*e le7el in condenser8 =8 Hi6- or lo3 ,oiler 3a*er le7el8 O*-er faul* condi*ions 3-ic- 5us* ,e 5oni*ored and for5 +ar* of a *o*al +ro*ec*ion s9s*e5 areF .8 28 08 @8 18 HP and LP ro*or eccen*rici*9 or 7i,ra*ion8 HP and LP *ur,ine differen*ial ex+ansion, i8e8 ro*or 3i*- res+ec* *o casin68 HP and LP *-rus* ,earin6 3eardo3n8 $ain *-rus* ,earin6 3eardo3n8 Turnin6 6ear en6a6ed :*-is 3ould +re7en* s*ar*in6 of *-e *ur,ine;8

#uc- <*ur,o7isor9< s9s*e5s, as *-e9 5a9 ,e called, o+era*e in *3o 3a9s8 If a *endenc9 *o3ards a dan6erous condi*ion is de*ec*ed a firs* s*a6e alar5 is 6i7en8 T-is 3ill ena,le correc*i7e ac*ion *o ,e *aBen and *-e *ur,ine is no* s-u* do3n8 If correc*i7e ac*ion is no* ra+id, is unsuccessful, or a 5ain faul* condi*ion CuicBl9 arises, *-e second s*a6e alar5 is 6i7en and *-e 5ain *ri+ rela9 is o+era*ed *o s*o+ *-e *ur,ine8

-earing
#*ea5 *ur,ines o+era*e a* s+eeds u+ *o =000 re7?5in8 $ediu54s+eed diesel en6ines o+era*e u+ *o a,ou* >10 re7?5in8 T-e ,es* +ro+eller s+eed for efficien* o+era*ion is in *-e re6ion of 80 *o .00 re7?5in8 T-e *ur,ine or en6ine s-af* s+eed is reduced *o *-a* of *-e +ro+eller ,9 *-e use of a s9s*e5 of 6earin68 Helical 6ears -a7e ,een used for 5an9 9ears and re5aU8 V Esan of 5os* s9s*e5s of 6earin68 E+ic9clic 6ears 3i*- *-eir co5+ac*, li6-*3ei6-*, cons*ruc*ion are ,ein6 increasin6l9 used in 5arine *rans5issions8 2picyclic gearing T-is is a s9s*e5 of 6ears 3-ere one or 5ore 3-eels *ra7el around *-e ou*side or inside of ano*-er 3-eel 3-ose axis is fixed8 T-e differen* arran6e5en*s are Bno3n as +lane*ar9 6ear, solar sear and s*ar o4ear :Fi6ure 08.2;8 T-e 3-eel on the +rinci+al a is is called *-e sun 3-eel8 T-e 3-eel 3-ose cen*re re7ol7es around *-e +rinci+al axis is *-e +lane* 3-eel8 An in*ernal4*ee*- 6ear 3-ic- 5es-es 3i*- *-e +lane* 3-eel is called *-e annulus8 T-e differen* arran6e5en*s of fixed ar5s and siGin6 of *-e sun and +lane* 3-eels +ro7ide a 7arie*9 of differen* reduc*ion ra*ios8

#*ea5 *ur,ine rearin6 5a9 ,e dou,le or *ri+le reduc*ion and 3ill ,e a co5,ina*ion fro5 in+u* *o ou*+u* of s*ar and +lane*ar7 5odes in conHunc*ion 3i*- -elical 6earin6 :Fi6ure 08.0;8 5elical gearing #in6le or dou,le reduc*ion s9s*e5s 5a9 ,e used, al*-ou6- dou,le reduc*ion is 5ore usual8 'i*- sin6le reduc*ion *-e *ur,ine dri7es a +inion 3i*- a s5all nu5,er of *ee*- and *-is +inion dri7es *-e 5ain 3-eel 3-ic- is direc*l9 cou+led *o *-e +ro+eller s-af*8 'i*- dou,le reduc*ion *-e *ur,ine dri7es a +ri5ar9 +inion 3-ic- dri7es< a +ri5ar9 3-eel8 T-e +ri5ar9 3-eel dri7es, on *-e sa5e s-af*, a secondar9 +inion 3-ic- dri7es *-e 5ain 3-eel8 T-e 5ain 3-eel is direc*l9 cou+led *o *-e +ro+eller s-af*8 A dou,le reduc*ion 6earin6 s9s*e5 is s-o3n in Fi6ure 08.@8 All 5odern 5arine 6earin6 is of *-e dou,le -elical *9+e8 Helical 5eans *-a* *-e *ee*- for5 +an of a -elix on *-e +eri+-er9 of *-e +inion or 6ear 3-eel8 T-is 5eans *-a* a* an9 *i5e se7eral *ee*- are in con*ac* and *-us *-e s+read and *ransfer of load is 5uc- s5oo*-er8 Dou,le -elical refers *o *-e use of *3o 3-eels or +inions on eac- s-af* 3i*- *-e *ee*- cu* in o++osi*e direc*ions8 T-is is ,ecause a sin6le se* of 5es-in6 -elical *ee*- 3ould +roduce a side3a9s force, 5o7in6 *-e 6ears ou* of ali6n5en*8 T-e dou,le se* in effec*

,alances ou* *-is side3a9s force8 T-e 6earin6 s9s*e5 s-o3n in Fi6ure 08.@ is dou,le -elical8 Lu,rica*ion of *-e 5es-in6 *ee*- is fro5 *-e *ur,ine lu,rica*in6 oil su++l98 #+ra9ers are used *o +roHec* oil a* *-e 5es-in6 +oin*s ,o*- a,o7e and ,elo3 and are arran6ed alon6 *-e len6*- of *-e 6ear 3-eel8

"le ible coupling A flexi,le coun*in6 is al3a9s fi**ed ,e*3een *-e *ur,ine ro*or and *-e 6ear,ox +inion8 I* +er5i*s sli6-* ro*or and pinion 5isali6n5en* as 3ell as allo3in6 for axial 5o7e5en* of *-e ro*or due *o ex+ansion8 Aarious desi6ns of flexi,le cou+lin6 are in use usin6 *ee*-, flexi,le cou+lin6 are in use usin6 *ee*-, flexi,le discs, 5e5,ranes, e*c8 T-e 5e5,rane4*9+e flexi,le cou+lin6 s-o3n in Fi6ure 08 .1 is 5ade u+ of a *orCue *u,e, 5e5,ranes and ada+*or +la*es8 T-e *orCue *u,e fi*s ,e*3een *-e *ur,ine ro*or and *-e 6ear,ox +inion8 T-e ada+*or +la*es are s+i6o*ed and do3elled on*o *-e *ur,ine and +inion flan6es and *-e 5e5,rane +la*es are ,ol*ed ,e*3een *-e *orCue *u,e and *-e ada+*or +la*es8 T-e flexin6 of *-e 5e5,rane +la*es ena,les axial and *rans7erse 5o7e5en* *o *aBe +lace8 T-e *orCue *u,e en*ers *-e ada+*or +la*e 3i*- a clearance 3-ic- 3ill +ro7ide an e5er6enc9 cen*rin6 s-ould *-e 5e5,ranes fail8 T-e ,ol*s in *-eir clearance -oles 3ould +ro7ide *-e con*inuin6 dri7e un*il *-e s-af* could ,e s*o++ed8 Turning gear T-e *urnin6 6ear on a *ur,ine ins*alla*ion is a re7ersi,le elec*ric 5o*or dri7in6 a 6ear3-eel 3-ic- 5es-es in*o *-e -i6-4+ressure *ur,ine +ri5ar9 +inion8 I* is used for 6ear3-eel and *ur,ine ro*a*ion durin6 5ain*enance or 3-en 3ar5in6 *-rou6- +rior *o 5anoeu7rin68

Operating procedures
T-e s*ea5 *ur,ine reCuires a considera,le +eriod for 3ar5in64*-rou6- +rior *o an9 5anoeu7rin6 *aBin6 +lace8 T-e -i6-4s+eed o+era*ion of *-e *ur,ine and i*s si5+l9 su++or*ed ro*or also reCuire 6rea* care durin6 5anoeu7rin6 o+era*ions8 ,arming-through a steam tur%ine Firs* o+en all *-e *ur,ine4casin6 and 5ain s*ea54line drain 7al7es and ensure *-a* all *-e s*ea5 con*rol 7al7es a* *-e 5anoeu7rin6 s*a*ion and around *-e *ur,ine are closed8 All ,led s*ea54line drain 7al7es s-ould ,e o+ened8 #*ar* *-e lu,rica*in6 oil +u5+ and see *-a* *-e oil is flo3in6 freel9 *o eac- ,earin6 and 6ear s+ra9er, 7en*in6 off air if necessar9 and c-ecB *-a* *-e 6ra7i*9 *anB is o7erflo3in68 O,*ain clearance fro5 *-e ,rid6e *o *urn *-e s-af*8 En6a6e *-e *urnin6 6ear and ro*a*e *-e *ur,ines in eacdirec*ion8 #*ar* *-e sea 3a*er circula*in6 +u5+ for *-e 5ain condenser8 T-en s*ar* *-e condensa*e ex*rac*ion +u5+ 3i*- *-e air eHec*or recircula*ion 7al7e 3ide o+en8 O+en *-e 5anoeu7rin6 7al7e ,9+ass or <3ar5in6 *-rou6-< 7al7e, if fi**ed8 T-is allo3s a s5all Cuan*i*9 of s*ea5 *o +ass *-rou6- *-e *ur,ine and -ea* i*8 Raisin6 a s5all 7acuu5 in *-e condenser 3ill assis* *-is 3ar5in6 *-rou6-8 T-e *ur,ines s-ould ,e con*inuousl9 *urned 3i**-e *urnin6 6ear un*il a *e5+era*ure of a,ou* >1R& is reac- Fd a* *-e LP *ur,ine inle* af*er a,ou* one -our8 T-e ex+ansion arran6e5en*s on *-e *ur,ine *o allo3 freedo5 of 5o7e5en* s-ould ,e c-ecBed8 (land sealin6 s*ea5 s-ould no3 ,e +ar*iall9 o+ened u+ and *-e 7acuu5 increased8 T-e *urnin6 6ear s-ould no3 ,e disen6a6ed8 #-or* ,las*s of s*ea5 are no3 ad5i**ed *o *-e *ur,ine *-rou6- *-e 5ain 7al7e *o s+in *-e +ro+eller a,ou* one re7olu*ion8 T-is s-ould ,e re+ea*ed a,ou* e7er9 *-ree *o fi7e 5inu*es for a +eriod of .1 *o 00 5inu*es8 T-e 7acuu5 can no3 ,e raised *o i*s o+era*ional 7alue and also *-e 6land s*ea5 +ressure8 T-e *ur,ines are no3 read9 for use8 '-ile 3ai*in6 for *-e firs* 5o7e5en*s fro5 *-e ,rid6e, and ,e*3een 5o7e5en*s, *-e *ur,ine 5us* ,e *urned a-ead once e7er9 fi7e 5inu*es ,9 s*ea5 ,las*s8 If *-ere is an9 dela9 6land s*ea5 and *-e 7acuu5 s-ould ,e reduced8 Manoeuvring Once 3ar5ed *-rou6-, *-e *ur,ine ro*or 5us* no* re5ain s*a*ionar9 5ore *-an a fe3 5inu*es a* a *i5e ,ecause *-e ro*or could sa6 or dis*or*, 3-ic- 3ould lead *o failure, if no* re6ularl9 ro*a*ed8 As*ern o+era*ion in7ol7es ad5i**in6 s*ea5 *o *-e as*ern *ur,ines8 '-ere an9 considera,le +eriod of as*ern runnin6 occurs *ur,ine *e5+era*ures, noise le7els, ,earin6s, e*c8, 5us* ,e closel9 o,ser7ed T-e *ur,ine 5anufac*urer 5a9 se* a *i5e li5i* of a,ou* 00 5inu*es on con*inuous runnin6 as*ern8 2mergency astern operation If, 3-en *ra7ellin6 a* full s+eed a-ead, an order for an e5er6enc9 s*o+ or as*ern 5o7e5en* is reCuired *-en safe o+era*in6 +rocedures 5us* ,e i6nored8 A-ead s*ea5 is s-u* off, +ro,a,l9 ,9 *-e use of an e5er6enc9 *ri+, and *-e as*ern s*ea5 7al7e is +ar*l9 o+ened *o ad5i* a 6raduall9 increasin6 a5oun* of s*ea58 T-e *ur,ine can *-us ,e ,rou6-* CuicBl9 *o a s*o++ed condi*ion and if reCuired can *-en ,e o+era*ed as*ern8 T-e s*o++in6 of *-e *ur,ine or i*s as*ern o+era*ion 3ill occur a,ou* .0 *o .1 5inu*es ,efore a si5ilar s*a*e 3ill occur for *-e s-i+8 T-e use o e5er6enc9 +rocedures can lead *o serious da5a6e in *-e *ur,ine, 6ear,ox or boilers.

Full away $anoeu7rin6 re7olu*ions are usuall9 a,ou* 80S of *-e full a3a9 or full s+eed condi*ion8 Once *-e full a3a9 co55and is recei7ed *-e *ur,ine can 6raduall9 ,e ,rou6-* u+ *o full +o3er o+era*ion, a +rocess *aBin6 one *o *3o -ours8 T-is 3ill also in7ol7e ,rin6in6 in*o use *ur,o4al*erna*ors 3-ic- use s*ea5 re5o7ed or <,led< a* so5e s*a6e fro5 *-e 5ain *ur,ines8 &-ecBs s-ould ,e 5ade on ex+ansion arran6e5en*s, drains s-ould ,ec-ecBed *o ,e closed, *-e condense recircula*ion 7al7e af*er *-e air eHec*or s-ould ,e closed, and *-e as*ern s*ea5 7al7es *i6-*l9 closed8 (ort arrival

Prior *o arri7in6 a* a +or* *-e ,rid6e s-ould +ro7ide one *o *3o -ours< no*ice *o ena,le *-e *ur,ines *o ,e ,rou6-* do3n *o 5anoeu7rin6 re7olu*ions8 A diesel al*erna*or 3ill -a7e *o ,e s*ar*ed, *-e *ur,o4al*erna*or s-u* do3n, and all *-e full a3a9 +rocedure done in re7erse order8

Chapter 4
A ,oiler in one for5 or ano*-er 3ill ,e found on e7er9 *9+e of s-i+8 '-ere *-e 5ain 5ac-iner9 is s*ea5 +o3ered, on or 5ore lar6e 3a*er4 *u,e ,oilers 3ill ,e fi**ed *o +roduce s*ea5 a* 7er9 -i6- *e5+era*ures and +ressures8 On a diesel 5ain 5ac-iner9 7essel a s5aller :usuall9 fire*u,e *9+e; ,oiler 3ill ,e fi**ed *o +ro7ide s*ea5 for *-e 7arious s-i+ ser7ices% E7en 3i*-in *-e *3o ,asic desi6n *9+es, 3a*er*u,e and fire*u,e, a 7arie*9 of desi6ns and 7aria*ions exis*8 A ,oiler is used *o -ea* feed3a*er in order *o +roduce s*ea58 T-e ener69 released ,9 *-e ,urnin6 fuel in *-e ,oiler furnace is s*ored :as *e5+era*ure and +ressure; in *-e s*ea5 +roduced8 All ,oilers -a7e a furnace or co5,us*ion c-a5,er 3-ere fuel is ,urn* *o release i*s ener698 Air is su++lied *o *-e ,oiler furnace *o ena,le co5,us*ion of *-e fuel *o *aBe +lace8 A lar6e surface area ,e*3een *-e co5,us*ion c-a5,er and *-e 3a*er ena,les *-e ener69 of co5,us*ion, in *-e for5 of -ea*, *o ,e *ransferred *o *-e 3a*er8 A dru5 5us* ,e +ro7ided 3-ere s*ea5 and 3a*er can se+ara*e8 T-ere 5us* also ,e a 7arie*9 of fi**in6s and con*rols *o ensure *-a* fuel oil, air and feed3a*er su++lies are 5a*c-ed *o *-e de5and for s*ea58 Finall9 *-ere 5us* ,e a nu5,er of fi**in6s or 5oun*in6s 3-ic- ensure *-e safe o+era*ion of *-e ,oiler8 In *-e s*ea5 6enera*ion +rocess *-e feed3a*er en*ers *-e ,oiler 3-ere i* is -ea*ed and ,eco5es s*ea58 T-e feed3a*er circula*es fro5 *-e s*ea5 *o *-e 3a*er dru5 and is -ea*ed in *-e +rocess8 #o5e of *-e feed3a*er +asses *-rou6- *u,es surroundin6 *-e furnace, i8e8 3a*er3all and floor *u,es, 3-ere i* is -ea*ed and re*urned *o *-e s*ea5 dru58 Lar6e4,ore do3nco5er *u,es are used *o circula*e feed3a*er ,e*3een *-e dru5s8 T-e do3nco5er *u,es +ass ou*side of *-e furnace and Hoin *-e s*ea5 and 3a*er dru5s8 T-e s*ea5 is +roduced in a s*ea5 dru5 and 5a9 ,e dra3n off for use fro5 -ere8 I* is Bno3n as O3e*P or sa*ura*ed s*ea5 in *-is condi*ion ,ecause i* 3ill con*ain s5all Cuan*i*ies of 3a*er8 Al*erna*i7el9 *-e s*ea5 5a9 +ass *o a su+er-ea*er 3-ic- is loca*ed 3i*-in *-e ,oiler8 Here s*ea5 is fur*-er -ea*ed and OdriedP, i8e8 all *races of3a*er are con7er*ed in*o s*ea58 T-is su+er-ea*ed s*ea5 *-en lea7es *-e ,oiler for use in *-e s9s*e58 T-e *e5+era*ure of su+er-ea*ed s*ea5 3ill ,e a,o7e *-a* of *-e s*ea5 in *-e dru58 An <a**e5+era*or<, i8e8 a s*ea5 cooler, 5a9 ,e fi**ed in *-e s9s*e5 *o con*rol *-e su+er-ea*ed s*ea5 *e5+era*ure8 T-e -o* 6ases +roduced in *-e furnace are used *o -ea* *-e feed3a*er *o +roduce s*ea5 and also *o su+er-ea* *-e s*ea5 fro5 *-e ,oiler dru58 T-e 6ases *-en +ass o7er an econo5iGer *-rou6- 3-ic- *-e feed3a*er +asses ,efore i* en*ers *-e ,oiler8 T-e ex-aus* 6ases 5a9 also +ass o7er an air -ea*er 3-ic- 3ar5s *-e co5,us*ion air ,efore i* en*ers *-e furnace8 In *-is 3a9 a lar6e +ro+or*ion of *-e -ea* ener69 fro5 *-e -o* 6ases is used ,efore *-e9 are ex-aus*ed fro5 *-e funnel8 T-e arran6e5en* is s-o3n in Fi6ure @8.8 T3o ,asicall9 differen* *9+es of ,oiler exis*, na5el9 *-e 3a*er*u,e and *-e fire*u,e8 In *-e 3a*er*u,e *-e feed3a*er is +assed *-rou6- *-e *u,es and *-e -o* 6ases +ass o7er *-e58 In *-e fire*u,e ,oiler *-e -o* 6ases +ass *-rou6*-e *u,es and *-e feed3a*er surrounds *-e58

Boiler types
T-e 3a*er*u,e ,oiler is e5+lo9ed for -i6-4+ressure, -i6-4*e5+era*ure, -i6-4ca+aci*9 s*ea5 a++lica*ions, e868 +ro7idin6 s*ea5 for 5ain +ro+ulsion *ur,ines or car6o +u5+ *ur,ines8 Fire*u,e ,oilers are used for <auxiliar9 +ur+oses *o +ro7ide s5aller Cuan*i*ies of lo34+ressure s*ea5 on diesel en6ine +o3ered s-i+s8 1ater boilers T-e cons*ruc*ion of 3a*er*u,e ,oilers, 3-ic- use s5all4dia5e*er *u,es and -a7e a s5all s*ea5 dru5, ena,les *-e 6enera*ion or +roduc*ion of s*ea5 a* -i6- *e5+era*ures and +ressures8 T-e 3ei6-* of *-e ,oiler is 5ucless *-an an eCui7alen* fire*u,e ,oiler and *-e s*ea5 raisin6

+rocess is 5uc- CuicBer8 Desi6n arran6e5en*s are flexi,le, efficienc9 is -i6- and *-e feed3a*er -as a 6ood na*ural circula*ion8 T-ese are so5e of *-e 5an9 reasons 3-9 *-e 3a*er4*u,e ,oiler -as re+laced *-e fire*u,e ,oiler as *-e 5aHor s*ea5 +roducer8 Earl9 3a*er*u,e ,oilers used a sin6le dru58 Headers 3ere connec*ed *o *-e dru5 ,9 s-or*, ,en* +i+es 3i*- s*rai6-* *u,es ,e*3een *-e -eaders8 T-e -o* 6ases fro5 *-e furnace +assed o7er *-e *u,es, of*en in a sin6le +ass8 A la*er de7elo+5en* 3as *-e ,en* *u,e desi6n8 T-is ,oiler -as *3o dru5s, an in*e6ral furnace and is of*en referred *o as *-e <D< *9+e ,ecause of i*s s-a+e :Fi6ure @82;8 T-e furnace is a* *-e side of *-e *3o dru5s and is surrounded on all sides ,9 3alls of *u,es8 T-ese 3a*er3all *u,es are connec*ed ei*-er *o u++er and lo3er -eaders or a lo3er -eader and *-e s*ea5 dru58 %++er -eaders are connec*ed ,9 re*urn *u,es *o *-e s*ea5 dru58 !e*3een *-e s*ea5 dru5 and *-e s5aller 3a*er dru5 ,elo3, lar6e nu5,ers of s5aller4dia5e*er 6enera*in6 *u,es are fi**ed8

T-ese +ro7ide *-e 5ain -ea* *ransfer surfaces for s*ea5 6enera*ion8 Lar6e4,ore +i+es or do3nco5ers are fi**ed ,e*3een *-e s*ea5 and 3a*er dru5 *o ensure 6ood na*ural circula*ion 8of *-e 3a*er8 In *-e arran6e5en* s-o3n, *-e su+er-ea*er is loca*ed ,e*3een *-e % urns, +ro*ec*ed fro5 *-e 7er9 -o* furnace 6ases ,9 se7eral ro3s 0. screen *u,es8 Refrac*or9 5a*erial or ,ricB3orB is used on *-e furnace floor *-e ,urner 3all and also ,e-ind *-e 3a*er3alls8 T-e dou,le casin6 o8 *-e ,oiler +ro7ides a +assa6e for *-e co5,us*ion air *o *-e air con*rol or re6is*er surroundin6 *-e ,urner8

The need for a wider range of superheated steam temperature control led to other boiler arrangements being used. The original !xternal 'uperheater &)& -!')0 type of boiler used a primary and secondary superheater located after the main generating tube bank -,igure $.%0. An attemperator located in the combustion air path was used .D control the steam temperature. The later !') ++ type boiler was similar in construction to the !') + but used a control unit -an additional economi7er0 between the primary and secondary superheaters. 8inked dampers directed the hot gases over the control unit or the superheater depending upon the superheat temperature required. The control unit provided a bypass path for the gases when low temperature superheating was required. +n the !') +++ boiler the burners are located in the furnace roof , which provides a long flame path and even heat transfer throughout the furnace. +n the boiler shown in ,igure $.$, the furnace is fully water-cooled and of monowall construction, which is produced from finned tubes welded together to form a gastight casing. 5ith monowall construction no refractory material is necessary in the furnace. The furnace side, floor and roof tubes are welded into the steam and water drums. The front and rear walls are connected at either end to upper and lower water-wall headers. The lower water-wall headers are connected by external downcomers from the steam drum and the upper water-wall headers are connected to the steam drum by riser tubes. The gases leaving the furnace pass through screen tubes which are arranged to permit flow between them. The large number of tubes results in considerable heat transfer before the gases reach the secondary superheater. The gases then flow over the primary superheater and the economi7er before passing to exhaust. The dry pipe is located in the steam drum to obtain reasonably dry saturated steam from the boiler. This is then passed to the primary superheater and

*-en *o *-e secondar9 su+er-ea*er8 #*ea5 *e5+era*ure con*rol is ac-ie7ed ,9 *-e use of an a**e5+era*or, loca*ed in *-e s*ea5 dru5, o+era*in6 ,e*3een *-e +ri5ar9 and secondar9 su+er-ea*ers8 Radian*4*9+e ,oilers are a 5ore recen* de7elo+5en*6 in 3-ic- *-e radian -ea* of co5,us*ion is a,sor,ed *o raise s*ea5, ,ein6 *rans5i**er ,9 infra4red radia*ion8 T-is usuall9 reCuires roof firin6 and a considera,le -ei6-* in order *o func*ion efficien*l98 T-e E#D IA ,oiler s-o3n in Fi6ure @81 is of *-e radian* *9+e8 !o*- *-e furnace and *-e ou*er c-a5,er are full9 3a*er4cooled8

T-ere is no con7en*ional ,anB of 6enera*in6 *u,es8 T-e -o* 6ases lea7e *-e furnace *-rou6an o+enin6 a* *-e lo3er end of *-e screen 3all and +ass *o *-e ou*er c-a5,er8 T-e ou*er c-a5,er con*ains *-e con7ec*ion -ea*in6 surfaces 3-ic- include *-e +ri5ar9 and secondar9 su+er-ea*ers8 #u+er-ea* *e5+era*ure con*rol is ,9 5eans of an a**e5+era*or in *-e s*ea5 dru58 T-e -o* 6ases, af*er lea7in6 *-e +ri5ar9 su+er-ea*er, +ass o7er a s*ea5in6 econo5iser8 T-is is a -ea* exc-an6er in 3-ic- *-e s*ea5L3a*er 5ix*ure is flo3in6 +arallel *o *-e 6as8 T-e furnace 6ases finall9 +ass o7er a con7en*ional econo5iser on *-eir 3a9 *o *-e funnel8 Re-ea* ,oilers are used 3i*- re-ea* arran6ed *ur,ine s9s*e5s8 #*ea5 af*er ex+ansion in *-e -i6-4+ressure *ur,ine is re*urned *o a re-ea*er in *-e ,oiler8 Here *-e s*ea5 ener69 con*en* is raised ,efore i* is su++lied *o *-e lo34+ressure *ur,ine8 Re-ea* ,oilers are ,ased on ,oiler desi6ns suc- as *-e <D< *9+e or *-e radian* *9+e8 "urnace wall construction T-e +ro,le5s associa*ed 3i*- furnace refrac*or9 5a*erials, +ar*icularl9 on 7er*ical 3alls, -a7e resul*ed in *3o 3a*er43all arran6e5en*s 3i*-ou* ex+osed refrac*or98 T-ese are Bno3n as <*an6en* *u,e< and <5ono3all< or <5e5,rane 3all<8 In *-e *an6en* *u,e arran6e5en* closel9 +i*c-ed *u,es are ,acBed ,9 refrac*or9, insula*ion and *-e ,oiler casin6 :Fi6ure @8=:a;;8 In *-e 5ono3all or 5e5,rane 3all arran6e5en* *-e *u,es -a7e a s*eel s*ri+ 3elded ,e*3een *-e5 *o for5 a co5+le*el9 6as4*i6-* enclosure :Fi6ure @8=:,;;8 Onl9 a la9er of insula*ion and cleadin6 is reCuired on *-e ou*side of *-is cons*ruc*ion8

T-e 5ono3all cons*ruc*ion eli5ina*es *-e +ro,le5s of refrac*or9 and ex+anded Hoin*s8 Ho3e7er, in *-e e7en* of *u,e failure, a 3elded re+air 5us* ,e carried ou*8 Al*erna*i7el9 *-e *u,e can ,e +lu66ed a* ei*-er end, ,u* refrac*or9 5a*erial 5us* ,e +laced o7er *-e failed *u,e *o +ro*ec* *-e insula*ion ,e-ind i*8 'i**an6en* *u,e cons*ruc*ion a failed *u,e can ,e +lu66ed and *-e ,oiler o+era*ed nor5all9 3i*-ou* fur*-er a**en*ion Firetu%e %oiler T-e fire*u,e ,oiler is usuall9 c-osen for lo34+ressure s*ea5 +roduc*ion on 7essels reCuirin6 s*ea5 for auxiliar9 +ur+oses8 O+era*ion is si5+le and feed3a*er of 5ediu5 Cuali*9 5a9 ,e e5+lo9ed8 T-e na5e O*anB ,oilerP is so5e*i5es used for fire*u,e ,oilers ,ecause of *-eir lar6e 3a*er ca+aci*98 T-e *er5s Os5oBe *u,e< and OdonBe9 ,oiler are also 5 use8

Package boilers $os* fire*u,e ,oilers are no3 su++lied as a co5+le*el9 +acBa6ed uni*8 T-is 3ill include *-e oil ,urner, fuel +u5+, forced Q drau6-* fan, feed +u5+s and au*o5a*ic con*rols for *-e s9s*e58 T-e ,oiler 3ill ,e fi**ed 3i*- all *-e a++ro+ria*e ,oiler 5oun*in6s8 A sin6le4furnace *-ree4+ass desi6n is s-o3n in Fi6ure @8>8 T-e firs* +ass is *-rou6- *-e +ar*l9 corru6a*ed furnace and in*o *-e c9lindrical 3e*,acB co5,us*ion c-a5,er8 T-e second +ass is ,acB o7er *-e furnace *-rou6- s5all4,ore s5oBe *u,es and *-en *-e flo3 di7ides a* *-e fron* cen*ral s5oBe ,ox8 T-e *-ird +ass is *-rou6- ou*er s5oBe *u,es *o *-e 6as exi* a* *-e ,acB of *-e ,oiler8 T-ere is no co5,us*ion c-a5,er refrac*or9 linin6 o*-er *-an a linin6 *o *-e co5,us*ion c-a5,er access door and *-e +ri5ar9 and secondar9

Cuarl8 Full9 au*o5a*ic con*rols are +ro7ided and loca*ed in a con*rol +anel a* *-e side of *-e ,oiler8 Cochran boilers T-e 5odern 7er*ical &oc-ran ,oiler -as a full9 s+-erical furnace and is Bno3n as *-e <s+-eroid< :Fi6ure @88;8 T-e furnace is surrounded ,9 3a*er and *-erefore reCuires no refrac*or9 linin68 T-e -o* 6ases 5aBe a sin6le +ass *-rou6- *-e -oriGon*al *u,e ,anB ,efore +assin6 a3a9 *o ex-aus*8 T-e use of s5all4,ore *u,es fi**ed 3i*re*ards ensures ,e**er -ea* *ransfer and cleaner *u,es as a resul* of *-e *ur,ulen* 6as flo38 Composite boilers A co5+osi*e ,oiler arran6e5en* +er5i*s s*ea5 6enera*ion ei*-er ,9 oil firin6 3-en necessar9 or ,9 usin6 *-e en6ine ex-aus* 6ases 3-en *-e s-i+ is a* sea8 &o5+osi*e ,oilers are ,ased on fire*u,e ,oiler desi6ns8 T-e &oc-ran ,oiler, for exa5+le, 3ould -a7e a sec*ion of *-e *u,e ,anB se+ara*el9 arran6ed for *-e en6ine ex-aus* 6ases *o +ass *-rou6- and exi* 7ia *-eir o3n ex-aus* duc*8

Other boiler arrangements A+ar* fro5 s*rai6-*for3ard 3a*er*u,e and fire*u,e ,oilers, o*-er s*ea5 raisin6 eCui+5en* is in use, e868 *-e s*ea54*o4s*ea5 6enera*or, *-e dou,le e7a+ora*ion ,oiler and ex-aus* 6as ,oiler arran6e5en*s8 $he steam-to-steam generator #*ea54*o4s*ea5 6enera*ors +roduce lo34+ressure sa*ura*ed s*ea5 for de5esne and o*-er ser7ices8 T-e9 are used in conHunc*ion 3i*- 3a*er*u,e ,oilers *o +ro7ide a secondar9 s*ea5 circui* 3-ic- a7oids an9 +ossi,le con*a5ina*ion of *-e +ri5ar94circui* feed3a*er8 T-e arran6e5en* 5a9 ,e -oriGon*al or 7er*ical 3i*- coils 3i*-in *-e s-ell 3-ic- -ea* *-e feed3a*er8 T-e coils are su++lied 3i*-i6-4+ressure -i6-4*e5+era*ure s*ea5 fro5 *-e 5ain ,oiler8 A -oriGon*al s*ea54*o4s*ea5 6enera*or is s-o3n

in Fi6ure @8/8 Double e)aporation boilers A dou,le e7a+ora*ion ,oiler uses *3o inde+enden* s9s*e5s for s*ea5 6enera*ion and *-erefore a7oids an9 con*a5ina*ion ,e*3een *-e +ri5ar9 and secondar9 feed3a*er8 T-e +ri5ar9 circui* is in effec* a con7en*ional 3a*er*u,e ,oiler 3-ic- +ro7ides s*ea5 *o *-e -ea*in6 coils of a s*ea54*o4s*ea5 6enera*or, 3-ic- is *-e secondar9 s9s*e58 T-e co5+le*e ,oiler is enclosed in a +ressurised casin68 # haust gas heat e changers T-e use of ex-aus* 6ases fro5 diesel 5ain +ro+ulsion en6ines *o 6enera*e s*ea5 is a 5eans of -ea* ener69 reco7er9 and i5+ro7ed +lan* efficienc98 An ex-aus* 6as -ea* exc-an6er is s-o3n in Fi6ure @8.08 I* is si5+l9 a ro3 of *u,e ,anBs circula*ed ,9 feed3a*er o7er 3-ic- *-e ex-aus* 6ases flo38 Indi7idual ,anBs 5a9 ,e arran6ed *o +ro7ide feed -ea*in6, s*ea5 6enera*ion and su+er-ea*in68 A ,oiler dru5 is reCuired for s*ea5 6enera*ion and se+ara*ion *o *aBe +lace and use is usuall9 5ade of *-e dru5 of an auxiliar9 ,oiler .

Au iliary steam plant system T-e auxiliar9 s*ea5 ins*alla*ion +ro7ided in 5odern diesel +o3ered *anBers usuall9 uses an ex-aus* 6as -ea* exc-an6er a* *-e ,ase of *-e funnel and one or +er-a+s *3o 3a*er*u,e ,oilers :Fi6ure @8.0;8 #a*ura*ed or su+er-ea*ed s*ea5 5a9 ,e o,*ained fro5 *-e auxiliar9 ,oiler8 A* sea i* ac*s as a s*ea5 recei7er for *-e ex-aus*46as -ea* exc-an6er, 3-ic- is circula*ed *-rou6- i*8 In +or* i* is oil4fired in *-e usual 3a98 2 haust gas boilers Auxiliar9 ,oilers on diesel 5ain +ro+ulsion s-i+s, o*-er *-an *anBers, are usuall9 of co5+osi*e for5, ena,lin6 s*ea5 6enera*ion usin6 o8l firin6 or *-e ex-aus* 6ases fro5 *-e diesel en6ine8 'i*- *-is arran6e5en* *-e ,oiler ac*s as *-e -ea* exc-an6er and raises s*ea5 in i*s o3n dru58 Boiler mountings

&er*ain fi**in6s are necessar9 on a ,oiler *o ensure i*s safe o+era*ion8 T-e9 are usuall9 referred *o as ,oiler 5oun*in6s8 T-e 5ounur404s usuall9 found on a ,oiler areF Safet& valves. T-ese are 5oun*ed in +airs *o +ro*ec* *-e ,oiler a6ains* o7er+ressure8 Once *-e 7al7e lif*in6 +ressure is se* in *-e +resence oF a #ur7e9or i* is locBed and canno* ,e c-an6ed8 T-e 7al7e is arran6ed *o o+en au*o5a*icall9 a* *-e +re4se* ,lo34off +ressure8 'ain steam stop valve. T-is 7al7e is fi**ed in *-e 5ain s*ea5 su++l9 line and is usuall9 of *-e non4re*urn *9+e8 Au(iliar& steam stop valve. T-is is a s5aller 7al7e fi**ed in *-e auxiliar9 s*ea5 su++l9 line, and is usuall9 of *-e non4re*urn *9+e8 )eed chec* or control valve. A +air of 7al7es are fi**edF one is *-e 5ain 7al7e, *-e o*-er *-e auxiliar9 or s*and,98 T-e9 are non4re*urn 7al7es and 5us* 6i7e an indica*ion of *-eir o+en and closed +osi*ion8 +ater level gauge. 'a*er le7el 6au6es or <6au6e 6lasses< are fi**ed in +airs, a* o++osi*e ends of *-e ,oiler8 T-e cons*ruc*ion of *-e le7el 6au6e de+ends u+on *-e ,oiler +ressure8 ressure gauge connection. '-ere necessar9 on *-e ,oiler aru5 su+er-ea*er, e*c8, +ressure 6au6es are fi**ed *o +ro7ide +ressure readin6s8 Air release coc*. T-ese are fi**ed in *-e -eaders, ,oiler dru5, e*c8, *o release air 3-en fillin6 *-e ,oiler or ini*iall9 raisin6 s*ea58 Sampling connection. A 3a*er ou*le* cocB and coolin6 arran6e5en* in +ro7ided for *-e sa5+lin6 and anal9sis of feed 3a*er8 A +ro7ision 5a9 also ,e 5ade for inHec*in6 3a*er *rea*5en* c-e5icals8 ,low down valve. T-is 7al7e ena,les 3a*er *o ,e ,lo3n do3n or e5+*ied fro5 *-e ,oiler8 I* 5a9 ,e used 3-en +ar*iall9 or co5+le*el9 e5+*9 in *-e ,oiler8 Scum valve. A s-allo3 dis- +osi*ioned a* *-e nor5al 3a*er le7el connec*ed *o *-e scu5 7al7e8 T-is ena,les *-e ,lo3in6 do3n or re5o7e of scu5 and i5+uri*ies fro5 *-e 3a*er surface8 +histle stop valve. T-is is a s5all ,ore non4re*urn 7al7e 3-ic- su++l9 *-e 3-is*le 3i*- s*ea5 s*rai6-* fro5 *-e ,oiler dru58 *oiler mountings -water-tu%e %oilers. 'a*er*u,e ,oilers, ,ecause of *-eir s5aller 3a*er con*en* in rela*ion *o *-eir s*ea5 raisin6 ca+aci*9, reCuire cer*ain addi*ional 5oun*in6sF Automatic feed water regulator. Fi**ed in *-e feed line +rior *o *-e 5ain c-ecB 7al7e, *-is de7ice is essen*ial *o ensure *-e correc* 3a*er le7el in *-e ,oiler durin6 all load condi*ions8 !oilers 3ill<4 a -i6e7a+ora*ion ra*e 3ill use a 5ul*i+le4ele5en* feed 3a*er con*rol s9s*e5 :see &-a+*er .1;8 "ow level alarm. A de7ice *o +ro7ide audi,le 3arnin6 of lo3 3a*er le7el condi*ions8 Superheater circulating valves. Ac*in6 also as air 7en*s, *-ese fi**in6s ensure a no3 of s*ea5 3-en ini*iall9 3ar5in6 *-rou6- and raisin6 s*ea5 in *-e ,oiler8 Soot-lowers. O+era*ed ,9 s*ea5 or co5+ressed air, *-e9 ac* *o ,lo3 a3a9 soo* and *-e +roduc*s of co5,us*ion fro5 *-e *u,e surfaces8 #e7eral are fi**ed in s*ra*e6ic +laces8 T-e soo*,lo3er lance is inser*ed, soo* is ,lo3n and *-e lance is 3i*-dra3n8 1ater le)el gauges T-e 3a*er le7el 6au6e +ro7ides a 7isi,le indica*ion of *-e 3a*er le7el in *-e ,oiler in *-e re6ion of *-e correc* 3orBin6 le7el8 If *-e 3a*er le7el 3ere *oo -i6- *-en 3a*er 5i6-* +ass ou* of *-e ,oiler and do serious da5a6e *o an9 eCui+5en* desi6ned *o acce+* s*ea58 If *-e 3a*er le7el 3ere *oo lo3 *-en *-e -ea* *ransfer surfaces 5i6-* ,eco5e ex+osed *o excessi7e *e5+era*ures and fail8 &ons*an* a**en*ion *o *-e ,oiler 3a*er le7el is *-erefore essen*ial8 Due *o *-e 5o*ion of *-e s-i+ i* is necessar9 *o -a7e a 3a*er le7el 6au6e a* eac- end of *-e ,oiler *o correc*l9 o,ser7e *-e le7el8

De+endin6 u+on *-e ,oiler o+era*in6 +ressure, one of *3o ,asicall9 differen* *9+es of 3a*er le7el 6au6e 3ill ,e fi**ed8 For ,oiler +ressures u+ *o a 5axi5u5 of .> ,ar a round 6lass *u,e *9+e of 3a*er le7el 6au6e is used8 T-e 6lass *u,e is connec*ed *o *-e ,oiler s-ell ,9 cocBs and +i+es, as s-o3n in Fi6ure @8..8 PacBin6 rin6s are +osi*ioned a* *-e *u,e ends *o 6i7e a *i6-* seal and +re7en* leaBs8 A 6uard is usuall9 +laced around *-e *u,e *o +ro*ec* i* fro5 acciden*al da5a6e and *o a7oid inHur9 *o an9 +ersonnel in *-e 7icini*9 if *-e *u,e s-a**ers8 T-e 3a*er le7el 6au6e is usuall9 connec*ed direc*l9 *o *-e ,oiler8 Isola*in6 cocBs are fi**ed in *-e s*ea5 and 3a*er +assa6es, and a drain cocB is also +resen*8 A ,all 7al7e is fi**ed ,elo3 *-e *u,e *o s-u* off *-e 3a*er s-ould *-e *u,e ,reaB and 3a*er a**e5+* *o rus- ou*8 For ,oiler +ressures a,o7e .> ,ar a +la*e46lass4*9+e 3a*er le7el 6au6e is used8 T-e 6lass *u,e is re+laced ,9 an asse5,l9 5ade u+ of 6lass +la*es 3i*-in a 5e*al -ousin6, as s-o3n in Fi6ure @8.28 T-e asse5,l9 is 5ade u+ as a Osand3ic-< of fron* and ,acB 5e*al +la*es 3i*- *-e 6lass +la*es and a cen*re 5e*al +la*e ,e*3een8 Join*s are +laced ,e*3een *-e 6lass and u45e*al +la*e and a 5ica s-ee* +laced o7er *-e 6lass surface lacin6 L 3a*er and s*ea58 T-e 5ica s-ee* is an effec*i7e insula*ion *o +re7en* 5e 6lass ,reaBin6 a* *-e 7er9 -i6*e5+era*ure8 '-en ,ol*in6 u+ *-is asse5,l9, care 5us* ,e *aBen *o ensure e7en all4round *i6-*enin6 of *-e ,ol*s8 Failure *o do *-is 3ill resul* in a leaBin6 asse5,l9 and +ossi,l9 s-a**ered 6lass +la*es8 In addi*ion *o *-e direc*4readin6 3a*er le7el 6au6es, re5o*e4readin6 le7el indica*ors are usuall9 led *o 5ac-iner9 con*rol roo5s8 I* is +ossi,le for *-e s5all 3a*er or s*ea5 +assa6es *o ,locB 3i*- scale or dir* and *-e 6au6e 3ill 6i7e an incorrec* readin68 To c-ecB *-a* passages are clear a &blowing through& procedure should be followed.

Referrin6 *o Fi6ure @8.., close *-e 3a*er cocB ! and o+en drain cocB &8 T-e ,oiler +ressure s-ould +roduce a s*ron6 He* of s*ea5 fro5 *-e drain8 &ocB A is no3 closed and &ocB ! o+ened8 A He* of 3a*er s-ould no3 +ass *-rou6- *-e drain8 T-e a,sence of a flo3 *-rou6- *-e drain 3ill indica*e *-a* *-e +assa6e *o *-e o+en cocB is ,locBed8

Safety valves #afe*9 7al7es are fi**ed in +airs, usuall9 on a sin6le 7al7e c-es*8 Eac- 7al7e 5us* ,e a,le *o release all *-e s*ea5 *-e ,oiler can +roduce 3i*-ou* *-e +ressure risin6 ,9 5ore *-an .0S o7er a se* +eriod8 #+rin64loaded 7al7es are al3a9s Fi**ed on ,oard s-i+ ,ecause of *-eir +osi*i7e ac*ion a* an9 inclina*ion8 T-e9 are +osi*ioned on *-e ,oiler dru5 in *-e s*ea5 s+ace8 T-e ordinar9 s+rin6 loaded safe*9 7al7e is s-o3n in Fi6ure @8.08 T-e 7al7e is -eld closed ,9 *-e -elical s+rin6

3-ose +ressure is se* ,9 *-e co5+ression nu* a* *-e *o+8 T-e s+rin6 +ressure, once se*, is fixed and sealed ,9 a #ur7e9or8 '-en *-e s*ea5 exceeds *-is +ressure *-e 7al7e is o+ened and *-e s+rin6 co5+ressed8 T-e esca+in6 s*ea5 is *-en led *-rou6- a 3as*e +i+e u+ *-e funnel and ou* *o a*5os+-ere8 T-e co5+ression of *-e s+rin6 ,9 *-e ini*ial 7al7e o+enin6 resul*s in 5ore +ressure ,ein6 necessar9 *o co5+ress *-e s+rin6 and o+en *-e 7al7e fur*-er8 To so5e ex*en* *-is is coun*ered ,9 a li+ arran6e5en* on *-e 7al7e lid 3-ic- 6i7es a 6rea*er area for *-e s*ea5 *o ac* on once *-e 7al7e is o+en8 A 5anuall9 o+era*ed easin6 6ear ena,les *-e 7al7e *o ,e o+ened in an e5er6enc98 Aarious refine5en*s *o *-e ordinar9 s+rin64loaded safe*9 7al7e -a7e ,een desi6ned *o 6i7e a -i6-er lif* *o *-e 7al7e8 T-e i5+ro7ed -i6-4lif* safe*9 7al7e -as a 5odified arran6e5en* around *-e lo3er s+rin6 carrier, as s-o3n in Fi6ure @8.@8 T-e lo3er s+rin6 carrier is arran6ed as a +is*on for *-e s*ea5 *o ac* on i*s underside8 A loose rin6 around *-e +is*on ac*s as a con*ainin6 c9linder for *-e s*ea58 #*ea5 +or*s or access -oles are +ro7ided in *-e 6uide +la*e8 'as*e s*ea5 released as *-e 7al7e o+ens ac*s on *-e +is*on underside *o 6i7e increased force a6ains* *-e s+rin6, causin6 *-e 7al7e *o <o+en fur*-er8 Once *-e o7er+ressure -as ,een relie7ed, *-e s+rin6 force 3ill CuicBl9 close *-e 7al7e8 T-e 7al7e sea*s are usuall9 s-a+ed *o *ra+ so5e s*ea5 *o <cus-ion< *-e closin6 of *-e 7al7e8 A drain +i+e is fi**ed on *-e ou*le* side of *-e safe*9 7al7e *o re5o7e an9 condensed s*ea5 3-ic- 5i6-* o*-er3ise collec* a,o7e *-e 7al7e and s*o+ i* o+enin6 a* *-e correc* +ressure8

Combustion
&o5,us*ion is *-e ,urnin6 of fuel in air order *o release -ea* ener698 For co5+le*e and efficien* co5,us*ion *-e correc* Cuan*i*ies of fuel air 5us* ,e su++lied *o *-e furnace and i6ni*ed8 A,ou* .@ *i5es as 5uc- air as fuel is reCuired for co5+le*e co5,us*ion8 T-e air and fuel 5us* ,e in*i5a*el9 5ixed and a s5all +ercen*a6e of excess air is usuall9 su++lied *o ensure *-a* all *-e fuel is ,urn*8 '-en *-e air su++l9 is insufficien* *-e fuel is no* co5+le*el9 ,urn* and ,lacB ex-aus* 6ases 3ill resul*8 Air supply T-e flo3 of air *-rou6- a ,oiler furnace is Bno3n as Odrau6-*P 8 $arine ,oilers are arran6ed for forced drau6-*, i8e8 fans 3-ic- force *-e air *-rou6- *-e furnace8 #e7eral arran6e5en*s of forced drau6-* are +ossi,le8 T-e usual forced drau6-* arran6e5en* is lar6e fan 3-ic- su++lies air alon6 duelin6 *o *-e furnace fron*8 T-e furnace fon* -as an enclosed ,ox arran6e5en*, Bno3n as an Oair re6is*erP 3-ic- can con*rol *-e air su++l98 T-e air duc*in6 nor5all9 +asses *-rou6- *-e ,oiler ex-aus* 3-ere so5e air -ea*in6 can *aBe +lace8 T-e induced drau6-* arran6e5en* -as a fan in *-e ex-aus* u+*aBe 3-ic- dra3s *-e air *-rou6- *-e furnace8 T-e ,alanced drau6-* arran6e5en* -as 5a*c-ed forced drau6-* and induced drau6-* fans 3-ic- resul*s in a*5os+-eric +ressure in *-e furnace8 Fuel supply $arine ,oilers curren*l9 ,urn residual lo346rade fuels8 T-is fuel is s*ored in dou,le4,o**o5 *anBs fro5 3-ic- i* is dra3n ,9 a *ransfer +u5+ u+ *o se**lin6 *anBs :Fi6ure @8.1;8 Here an9 3a*er in *-e fuel 5a9 se**le ou* and ,e drained a3a9 8

T-e oil fro5 *-e se**lin6 *anB is fil*ered and +u5+ed *o a -ea*er and *-en *-rou6- a fine fil*er8 Hea*in6 *-e oil reducer i*s 7iscosi*9 and 5aBes i* easier *o +u5+ and fil*er 8T-is -ea*in6 5us* ,e carefull9 con*rolled o*-er3ise OcracBin6P or ,reaBdo3n of *-e fuel 5a9 *aBe +lace8 A su++l9 of diesel fuel 5a9 ,e a7aila,le *o

*-e ,urners for ini*ial firin6 or lo34+o3er o+era*ion of *-e ,oiler8 Fro5 *-e fine fil*er *-e oil +asses *o *-e ,urner 3-ere i* is Oa*o5iGedP, i8e8 ,roBen in*o dro+le*s, as i* en*ers *-e furnace8 A recircula*in6 line is +ro7ided *o ena,le ini*ial -ea*in6 of *-e oil8 Fuel %urning T-e -i6-4+ressure fuel is su++lied *o a ,urner 3-ic- i* lea7es as an a*o5iGed s+ra9 :Fi6ure @8.=;8 T-e ,urner also ro*a*es *-e fuel dro+le*s ,9 *-e use of a s3irl +la*e8 A ro*a*in6 cone of *in9 oil dro+le*s *-us lea7es *-e ,urner and +asses in*o *-e furnace8 Aarious desi6ns of ,urner exis*, *-e one Hus* descri,ed ,ein6 Bno3n as a <+ressure He* ,urner< :Fi6ure @8.=:a;;8 T-e <ro*a*in6 cu+ ,urner< :Fi6ure @8.@:,;; a*o5iGes and s3irls *-e fuel ,9 *-ro3in6 i* off *-e ed6e of a ro*a*in6 *a+ered cu+8 T-e <s*ea5 ,las* He* ,urner<, s-o3n in Fi6ure @8.=:c;, a*o5iGes and s3irls *-e fuel ,9 s+ra9in6 i* in*o a -i6-47eloci*9 He* of s*ea58 T-e s*ea5 is su++lied do3n a cen*ral inner ,arrel in *-e ,urner8 T-e air re6is*er is a collec*ion of fla+s, 7anes, e*c8, 3-ic- surrounds eac- ,urner and is fi**ed ,e*3een *-e ,oiler casin6s8 T-e re6is*er +ro7ides an en*r9 sec*ion *-rou6- 3-ic- air is ad5i**ed fro5 *-e 3ind,ox8 Air s-u*4off is ac-ie7ed ,9 5eans of a slidin6 slee7e or c-ecB8 Air flo3s *-rou6- +arallel *o *-e ,urner, and a s3irler +ro7ides i* 3i*- a ro*a*in6 5o*ion8 T-e air is s3irled in an o++osi*e direc*ion *o *-e fuel *o ensure adeCua*e 5ixin6 :Fi6ure @8.>:a;;8 Hi6-4+ressure, -i6-4ou*+u* 5arine 3a*er*u,e ,oilers are roof fired :Fi6ure @8.> :,;;8 T-is ena,les a lon6 fla5e +a*- and e7en -ea* *ransfer *-rou6-ou* *-e furnace8

T-e fuel en*erin6 *-e furnace 5us* ,e ini*iall9 i6ni*ed in order *o ,urn8 Once i6ni*ed *-e li6-*er fuel ele5en*s ,urn Firs* as a +ri5ar9 fla5e and +ro7ide -ea* *o ,urn *-e -ea7ier ele5en*s in *-e secondar9 fla5e8 T-e +ri5ar9 and secondar9 air su++lies feed *-eir res+ec*i7e fla5es8 T-e +rocess of co5,us*ion in a ,oiler furnace is of*en referred *o as <sus+ended fla5e< since *-e ra*e of su++l9 of oil and air en*erin6 *-e furnace is eCual *o *-a* of *-e +roduc*s of co5,us*ion lea7in68

Purity of boiler feedwater

$odern -i6-4+ressure, -i6-4*e5+era*ure ,oilers 3i*- *-eir lar6e s*ea5 ou*+u* reCuire 7er9 +ure feed3a*er8 (ost &pure& water will contain some dissolved salts which come out of solution on boiling. These salts then adhere to the heating surfaces as a scale and reduce heat transfer, which can result in local overheating and failure of the tubes. 3ther salts remain in solution and may produce acids which will attack the metal of the boiler. An excess of alkaline salts in a boiler, together with the effects of operating stresses, will produce a condition known as &caustic cracking&. This is actual cracking of the metal which may lead to serious failure.

T-e +resence of dissol7ed ox96en and car,on dioxide in ,oiler feed3a*er can cause considera,le corrosion of *-e ,oiler and feed s9s*e5s8 '-en ,oiler 3a*er is con*a5ina*ed ,9 sus+ended 5a**er, an excess of sal*s or oil *-en <foa5in6< 5a9 occur8 T-is is a foa5 or fro*- 3-ic- collec*s on *-e 3a*er surface in *-e ,oiler dru58 Foa5in6 leads *o <+ri5in6< 3-ic- is *-e carr94o7er of 3a*er 3i*- *-e s*ea5 lea7in6 *-e ,oiler dru58 An9 3a*er +resen* in *-e s*ea5 en*erin6 a *ur,ine 3ill do considera,le da5a6e8

"ommon impurities Aarious a5oun*s of differen* 5e*al sal*s are *o ,e found in 3a*er8 T-ese include *-e c-lorides, sul+-a*es and ,icar,ona*es of calciu5, 5a6nesiu5 and, *o so5e ex*en*, sul+-ur8 T-ese dissol7ed sal*s in 3a*er 5aBe u+ 3-a* is called *-e <-ardness< of *-e 3a*er8 &alciu5 and 5a6nesiu5 sal*s are *-e 5ain causes of -ardness8 T-e ,icar,ona*es of calciu5 arid 5a6nesiu5 are deco5+osed ,9 -ea* and co5e ou* of solu*ion as scale4 for5in6 car,ona*es8 T-ese alBaline sal*s are Bno3n as <*e5+orar9< -ardness<8 T-e c-lorides, sul+-a*es and ni*ra*es are no* deco5+osed ,9 ,oilin6 and are Bno3n as <+er5anen* -ardness<8 To*al -ardness is *-e su5 of *e5+orar9 and +er5anen* -ardness and 6i7es a 5easure of *-e scale4for5in6 sal*s +resen* in *-e ,oiler feed3a*er8 "eedwater treatment Feed3a*er *rea*5en* deals 3i*- *-e 7arious scale and corrosion causin6 sal*s and en*rained 6ases ,9 sui*a,le c-e5ical *rea*5en*8 T-is is ac-ie7ed as follo3sF .8 !9 Bee+in6 *-e -ardness sal*s in a sus+ension in *-e solu*ion *o +re7en* scale for5a*ion8 28 !9 s*o++in6 an9 sus+ended sal*s and i5+uri*ies fro5 s*icBin6 *o *-e -ea* *ransfer surfaces8 08 !9 +ro7idin6 an*i4foa5 +ro*ec*ion *o s*o+ 3a*er carr94o7er8 @8 !9 eli5ina*in6 dissol7ed 6ases and +ro7idin6 so5e de6ree of alBalini*9 3-ic- 3ill +re7en* corrosion8 T-e ac*ual *rea*5en* in7ol7es addin6 7arious c-e5icals in*o *-e feed3a*er s9s*e5 and *-en *es*in6 sa5+les of ,oiler 3a*er 3i*- a *es* Bi*8 T-e *es* Bi* is usuall9 su++lied ,9 *-e *rea*5en* c-e5ical 5anufac*urer 3i*si5+le ins*ruc*ions for i*s use8 For auxiliar9 ,oilers *-e c-e5icals added 5i6-* ,e li5e :calciu5 -9droxide; and soda :sodiu5 car,ona*e;8 Al*erna*i7el9 caus*ic soda :sodiu5 -9droxide; 5a9 ,e used on i*s o3n8 For -i6-4+ressure 3a*er*u,e ,oilers 7arious +-os+-a*e sal*s are used, suc- as *risodiu5 +-os+-a*e, disodiu5 +-os+-a*e and sodiu5 5e*a+-os+-a*e8 &oa6ulan*s are also used 3-ic- co5,ine *-e scale4for5in6

sal*s in*o a slud6e and s*o+ i* s*icBin6 *o *-e ,oiler surfaces8 #odiu5 alu5ina*e, s*arc- and *annin are used as coa6ulan*s8 Final de4aera*ion of *-e ,oiler 3a*er is ac-ie7ed ,9 c-e5icals, suc- as -9draGine, 3-ic- co5,ine 3i*- an9 ox96en +resen*8

*oiler operation
T-e +rocedure ado+*ed for raisin6 s*ea5 3ill 7ar9 fro5 ,oiler *o ,oiler and *-e 5anufac*urersP ins*ruc*ions s-ould al3a9s ,e follo3ed8 A nu5,er of as+ec*s are co55on *o all ,oilers and a 6eneral +rocedure 5i6-* ,e as follo3s8 Preparations The uptakes should be checked to ensure a clear path for the exhaust gases through the boilerE any dampers should be operated and then correctly positioned. All vents, alarm, water and pressure gauge connections should be opened. The superheater circulating valves or drains should be opened to ensure a flow of steam through the superheater. All the other boiler drains and blowdown valves should be checked to ensure that they are dosed. The boiler should then be filled to slightly below the working level with hot de-aerated water. The various header vents should be closed as water is seen to from them. The economiser should be checked to ensure that it is full of water and all air vented off. The operation of the forced draught fan should be checked and where exhaust gas air heaters are fitted they should be bypassed. The fuel oil system should be checked for the correct positioning of valves, etc. The fuel oil should then be circulated and heated. &aising steam The forced draught fan should be started and air passed though the furnace for several minutes to Fpurge& it of any exhaust gas or oil vapours. The air slides -checks0 at every register, except the Flighting up burner, should then be closed. The operating burner can now be lit and l ad4usted to provide a low firing rate with good combustion. The fuel oil pressure and forced draught pressure should be matched to ensure good combustion with a full steady flame. The superheater header vents may be closed once steam issues from them. 5hen a drum pressure of about $*2 kPa -1.%&ar' has been reached the drum air vent may be closed. The boiler must be brought slowly up to working pressure in order to ensure gradual expansion and to avoid overhearing the superheater elements and damaging any refractory material. :oiler manufacturers usually provide a steam- raising diagram in the form of a graph of drum pressure against hours after ,lashing up. The main and auxiliary steam lines should now be warmed through and then the drains closed. +n addition the water level gauges should be blown through and checked for correct reading. 5hen the steam pressure is about %22 kPa -% bar0 below the normal operating value the safety valves should be lifted and released using the easing gear. Once a* o+era*in6 +ressure *-e ,oiler 5a9 ,e +u* on load and *-e su+er-ea*er circula*in6 7al7es closed8 All o*-er 7en*s, drains and ,9+asses s-ould *-en ,e closed8 T-e 3a*er le7el in *-e ,oiler s-ould ,e carefull9 c-ecBed and *-e au*o5a*ic 3a*er re6ula*in6 arran6e5en*s o,ser7ed for correc* o+era*ion8