SENTENCE

A grammatical unit of one or more words that expresses an independent statement, question, request, command, exclamation, and others, and that typically has a subject as well as a predicate. In print or writing, a sentence typically begins with a capital letter and ends with appropriate punctuation; in speech it displays recognizable, communicative intonation patterns and is often marked by preceding and following pauses.

SENTENCE
In simple terms, a sentence is a set of words that contain: o asubject (what the sentence is about, the topic of the sentence) o apredicate (what is said about the subject) -The subject is the person or thing that acts or is described in the sentence. The predicate, on the other hand, is that action or description. -Complete sentences need both the subject and the predicate.

Look at this simple example: <----- sentence -----> subject verb You speak English. predicate

The above example sentence is very short. Of course, a sentence can be longer and more complicated, but basically there is always a subject and a predicate.

Look at this longer example: <----- sentence -----> subject verb Ram and Tara speak English when they are working. predicate

Note that the predicate always contains a verb.

Sometimes, in fact, the predicate is only a verb: <----- sentence -----> subject predicate

verb Smoke rises.

So we can say that a sentence must contain at least a subject and verb.There is one apparent exception to this the imperative. When someone gives a command (the imperative), they usually do not use a subject. They don't say the subject because it is obvious - the subject is YOU!

Look at these examples of the imperative, with and without a subject: <----- sentence -----> subject verb Stop! Wait You Everybody look! look! a minute! predicate

Note that a sentence expresses a complete thought.

Here are some examples of complete and incomplete thoughts: Complete thought? He opened the door. Come in, please. Do you like coffee? people who work hard a fast-moving animal with big ears NO YES

Note also that a sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop* or a question mark or an exclamation mark.

Look at these examples: People need food. How are you? Look out!

o anobject of the sentence is the thing that is directly or indirectly receiving the action that was performed by the subject.

For example: 1. The dog barked at thepostman. - Here we see that the object is postman who is the person who is being barked at by the dog which is the subject. 2. The ballwas kicked by the boy. - Here the object is the ball which is being kicked by the subject the boy

Kinds of Sentences According to Structure

A sentence may consist of one clause (independent clause) or more clauses (independent and dependent clauses). An independent clause is also called main clause. A dependent clause is also called subordinate clause. On the basis of numbers of clause and types of clauses present in a sentence, sentences are divided in to four kinds.

1. Simple Sentence A simple sentence consists of only one independent clause containing a subject and a verb and it expresses complete thought. There is no dependent clause. An independent clause (also called main clause) is called a simple sentence. Examples: He laughed. She ate an apple.

2. Compound Sentence A compound sentence consists of atleast two independent clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions. There is no dependent clause in compound sentence. The coordinating conjunctions use to join independent clauses are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.Independent clauses can also be joined by a semicolon (;). A comma may or may not be used before the conjunction in compound sentence. Examples: I like an applebutmy brother likes a mango. He failed two timesyethe is not disappointed. I asked him a question;he replied correctly.

3. Complex Sentence A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and at least one dependent clause joined by subordinating conjunction (because, although, since, when, unless etc.) or relative pronoun (that, who, which etc.) Examples: I met the boywho had helped me. She is wearing a shirt, which looks nice. You cant pass the testunless you study for it. If a complex sentence begins with an independent clause, a comma is not used between clauses in a complex sentence. If a complex sentence begins with dependent clause then a comma is use after dependent clause in a complex sentence. Examples: He is playing well although he is ill. Although he is ill, he is playing well.

4. Complex - Compound Sentence A complex-compound sentence consists of at least two independents and one or more dependent clauses. It is also sometimes called compound-

complex Sentence. Examples: He went to college and I went to a marketwhere I bought a book. I like Mathematics but my bother likes Biology because he wants to be a doctor. In the first sentence, there are two independent clauses he went to college and I went to a market, and one dependent clause where I bought a book.

Kinds of sentences According to Function

1. Assertive or Declarative Sentence A sentence that makes a statement or assertion is called an assertive or declarative sentence. Assertive sentence ends with a period. Examples: He goes to school. He likes to play chess.

2. Interrogative Sentence A sentence that asks a question is called an interrogative sentence. Interrogative sentence ends with question mark. Examples: Where are you going? Do you use your laptop?

3. Imperative Sentence A sentence that expresses a request, command or advice is called an imperative sentence. Examples: Open the door. (An order) Please help me. (A request)

4. Exclamatory Sentence A sentence that expresses strong feelings or emotions is called an exclamatory sentence. These sentences express surprise, joy, sorrow, appreciation, love excitement, frustration, anger etc. An exclamatory sentence ends with exclamation mark. Examples: What a beautiful flower it is! How nicely she is singing!

CLAUSE
A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a predicate

A clause refers to a group of related words (within a sentence or itself as an independent sentence), which has both subject and predicate. Example: I will meet him in office. The part of above sentence I will meet him is a clause because it has a subject (I) anda predicate (will meet him). On the other hand, the rest part of above sentence in office lacks both subject and predicate (verb) such group of word is called phrase. A clause may stand as a simple sentence or may join another clause to make a sentence. Therefore, a sentence consists of one, two or more clauses. Examples: He is sleeping. (One clause) The kids were laughing at the joker. (One clause) The teacher asked a question, but no one answered. (Two clauses) I am happy, because I won a prize. (Two clauses) I like Mathematics, but my brother likes Biology, because he wants to become a doctor. (Three clauses)

Clauses are divided into two types: the main clause (also called independent clause) and subordinate clause (also called dependent clauses).

The Comparison of the Main Clause and the Subordinate Clause

He is buying a shirt which looks very nice. The above sentence has two clauses He is buying a shirt and which looks very nice. The clause He is buying a shirt expresses a complete thought and can alone stand as a sentence. Such a clause is called main or

independent clause. While the clause which looks very nice does not express a complete thought and cant stand as a sentence. It depends on another clause (main clause) to express complete idea. Such a clause is called subordinate or dependent clause.

Main or Independent Clause

Main (or independent) clause is a clause that expresses a complete thought and can stand as a sentence. Examples: I met the boy who had helped me. She is wearing a shirt which looks nice. The teacher asked a question but no one answered. In the above sentences each underlined part shows main clause. It expresses complete thought and can stand as a sentence that is why a main or an independent clause is normally referred as a simple sentence.

Subordinate or Dependent Clause

Subordinate (or dependent) clause is a clause which does not express complete thought and depends on another clause (main clause) to express a complete thought. Subordinate clause does not express complete idea and cant stand as a sentence. A sentence having a subordinate clause must have a main clause. Example: He likes Chinese rice which tastes good. The clause which tastes good in above sentence is a subordinate clause because it does not express complete thought and cant stand as a sentence. It depends on main clause (he likes Chinese rise) to express complete thought. Examples: I met the boy who had helped me. I bought a table that costs $ 100.

Types of Subordinate Clause A subordinate (dependent) clause may function as a noun, an adjective or an adverb in sentence. On the basis of their function in a sentence, subordinate clauses can be divided in to following types.

1. Noun Clause A dependent clause that functions as a noun in a sentence is called noun clause.A noun clause performs same function like a noun in a sentence. Example: What he did made a problem for his family. In above sentence the clause what he did functions as a noun, hence it is a noun clause. A noun clause works as a noun that acts as a subject, object, or predicate in a sentence. A noun clause starts with words that, what, whatever, who, whom, whoever, whomever. Examples: Whatever you learn will help you in future. (noun clause as subject) What you said made me laugh. (noun clause as a subject) He knows that he will pass the test. (noun clause as an object) Now I realize what he would have thought.(noun clause as an object)

2. Adjective Clause A dependent clause that functions as an adjective in a sentence is called adjective clause.An adjective clause works like adjective in a sentence. The function of an adjective is to modify (describe) a noun or a pronoun. Similarly a noun clause modifies a noun or a pronoun. Example: He wears a shirt which looks nice. The clause which looks nice in above sentence is an adjective clause because it modifies noun shirt in the sentence. An adjective clause always precedes the noun it modifies.

Examples: I met the boy who had helped me. An apple that smells bad is rotten. The book which I likeis helpful in preparation for test. The house where I live consists of four rooms.

Adjective clause begins with relative pronoun (that, who, whom, whose, which, or whose) and is also relative clause. Adjective (relative) clauses can be restrictive clause or nonrestrictive clause

Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses A restrictive clause limits the meaning of preceding noun or pronoun. A nonrestrictive clause tells us something about preceding noun or pronoun but does not limit the meaning of preceding noun or pronoun. Examples: The student in the class who studied a lot passed the test. (restrictive clause) The student in the class, who had attended all the lectures, passed the test. (nonrestrictive clause) In the first sentence, the clause who studied a lot restrict information to preceding noun (student), it means that there is only one student in the class who studied a lot, hence it is a restrictive clause. In the second sentence the clause who had attended all the lectures gives us information about preceding noun but does not limit this information to the preceding noun. It means there can be several other students in the class who had attended all the lectures. A comma is always used before a restrictive clause in a sentence and also after nonrestrictive clause if it is within a main clause. That is usually used to introduce a restrictive clause while which is used to introduce a nonrestrictive clause. Examples:

The table that costs $ 100 is made of steel. (restrictive clause) The table, which costs $ 100, is made of steel. (nonrestrictive clause)

3. Adverb Clause A dependent clause that functions as an adverb in a sentence is called adverb clause. An adverb clause like an adverb modifies a verb, adjective clause or other adverb clause in a sentence. It modifies (describes) the situation in main clause in terms of time, frequency (how often), cause and effect, contrast, condition, intensity (to what extent).

The subordinating conjunctions used for adverb clauses are as follows. Time: when, whenever, since, until, before, after, while, as, by the time, as soon as Cause and effect: because, since, now that, as long as, so, so that, Contrast: although, even, whereas, while, though Condition: if, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, providing or provided that, in case

Examples: Dont go before he comes. He takes medicine because he is ill. Although he tried a lot, he couldnt climb up the tree. Unless you study for the test, you cant pass it. I will go to the school unless it rains. You are safe as long as you drive carefully. You can achieve anything provided that you struggle for it.

PHRASE
A phrase is defined as a group of related words that lacks both subject and verb.A phrase is a part of a sentence. It is a group of words (within a sentence) that does not contain both subject and verb, and does not express a complete idea. Example: He is standing near a wall. The part of above sentence near a wall is a phrase because it does not contain subject and verb, and does not express a complete idea. A phrase does not include both subject and verb at a same time and does not make a complete sense; hence a phrase cannot stand as a sentence on its own. If a group of words include both subject and verb then it becomes a clause, so the difference in a clause and a phrase is that a clause contains subject and verb but a phrase does not contain subject and verb. Here are some examples of phrases. He is laughing at a joker. She is making tea for the guests. A sentence may consist of one or more phrases. For example: The boy in the red shirt behaves in a strange way. A phrase functions as a noun, adverb, or adjective in a sentence, therefore a phrase is also defined as a group of words (lacking subject and verb), that functions as a single part of speech, in a sentence. Examples: He is wearing a nice read shirt. (as a noun/object) The people at the party were dancing. (as a noun/subject) The man in the room is our teacher. (as adjective, modifies noun man) She gave me a glass full of water. (as adjective, modifies noun glass) He always behaves in a strange way. (as adverb, modifies verbbehave) He returned in a short while. (as adverb, modifies verb return)

On the basis of their functions and constructions, phrases are divided into various types.

Types of Phrases
A phrase functions as a noun, verb, adverb, adjective or preposition in a sentence. The function of a phrase depends on its construction (words it contains). On the basis of their functions and constructions, phrases are divided into various types such as noun phrase, verb phrase, adverb phrase, adjective phrase, appositive phrase, infinite phrase, participle phrase and gerund phrase.

1. Noun Phrase A noun phrase consists of a noun and other related words (usually modifiers and determiners), which modify the noun. It functions like a noun in a sentence. A noun phrase consists of a noun as the head word and other words (usually modifiers and determiners) which come after or before the noun. The whole phrase works as a noun in a sentence. Noun Phrase = noun + modifiers (the modifiers can be after or before noun) Examples: He is wearing a nice red shirt. (as noun/object) She brought a glass full of water. (as noun/object) The boy with brown hair is laughing. (as noun/subject) A man on the roof was shouting. (as noun/subject) A sentence can also contain more noun phrases. For example: The girl with blue eyes bought a beautiful chair.

2. Prepositional phrase A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, object of preposition(noun or pronoun) and may also consist of other modifiers. e.g. on a

table, near a wall, in the room, at the door, under a tree. A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition and mostly ends with a noun or pronoun. Whatever prepositional phrase ends with is called object of preposition. A prepositional phrase functions as an adjective or adverb in a sentence. Examples: A boy on the roof is singing a song. (As adjective) The man in the room is our teacher.(As adjective) She is shouting in a loud voice.(As adverb) He always behaves in a good manner.(As adverb)

3. Adjective Phrase An adjective phrase is a group of words that functions like an adjective in a sentence. It consists of adjectives, modifier and any word that modifies a noun or pronoun. An adjective phrase functions like an adjective to modify (or tell about) a noun or a pronoun in a sentence. Examples: He is wearing a nice red shirt. (modifiesshirt) The girl with brown hair is singing a song. (modifiesgirl) He gave me a glass full of water. (modifiesglass) A boy from America won the race. (modifiesboy) Prepositional phrases and participle phrases also function as adjectives so we can also call them adjective phrases when they function as adjective. In the above sentence The girl with brown hair is singing a song, the phrase with brown hair is a prepositional phrase but it functions as an adjective.

4. Adverb Phrase An adverb phrase is a group of words that functions as an adverb in a sentence. It consists of adverbs or other words (preposition, noun, verb, modifiers) that make a group works like an adverb in a sentence. An adverb phrase functions like an adverb to modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb.

Examples: He always behaves in a good manner.(modifies verb behave) They were shouting in a loud voice. (modifies verb shout) A prepositional phrase can also act as an adverb phrase. For example in above sentence He always behaves in a good manner, the phrase in a good manner is a prepositional phrase but it acts as adverb phrase here.

5. Verb Phrase A verb phrase is a combination of main verb and its auxiliaries (helping verbs) in a sentence. Examples: He is eating an apple. She has finished her work. You should study for the exam. She has been sleeping for two hours. According to generative grammar, a verb phrase can consist of main verb, its auxiliaries, its complements and other modifiers. Hence it can refer to the whole predicate of a sentence. Example: You should study for the exam.

6. Infinitive Phrase An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive (to + simple form of verb) and modifiers or other words associated to the infinitive. An infinitive phrase always functions as an adjective, adverb or a noun in a sentence. Examples: He likes to read books. (As noun/object) To earn money is a desire of everyone.(As noun/subject) He shouted to inform people about fire.(As adverb, modifies verb shout) He made a plan to buy a car.(As adjective, modifies noun plan)

7. Gerund Phrase A gerund phrase consists of a gerund (verb + ing) and modifiers or other words associated with the gerund. A gerund phrase acts as a noun in a sentence. Examples: I like writing good essays. (As noun/object) She started thinking about the problem. (As noun/object)

8. Participle Phrase A participle phrase consists of a present participle (verb + ing), a past participle (verb ending in -ed or other form in case of irregular verbs) and modifiers or other associate words. A participle phrase is separated by commas. It always acts as an adjective in a sentence. Examples: The kids, making a noise, need food. (modifieskids) I received a letter, mentioning about my exam. (modifiesletter) The table, made of steel, is too expensive. (modifiestable) We saw a car, damaged in an accident. (modifiescar)

9. Absolute Phrase Absolute phrase (also called nominative phrase) is a group of words including a noun or pronoun and a participle as well as any associated modifiers. Absolute phrase modifies (give information about) the entire sentence. It resembles a clause but it lacks a true finite verb. It is separated by a comma or pairs of commas from the rest sentence. Examples: He looks sad, his face expressing worry. She was waiting for her friend, her eyes on the clock. John is painting a wall, his shirt dirty with paint.

PARTS OF SPEECH
A category to which a word is assigned in accordance with its syntactic functions.

PARTS OF SPEECH
Parts of Speech Verb Function or "job" action or state (to) be, have, do, like, work, sing, can, must Noun thing or person pen, dog, work, music, town, London, teacher, John Adjective describes a noun Adverb describes a verb, adjective or adverb Pronoun replaces a noun I, you, he, she, some Tara is Indian. She is beautiful. Preposition links a noun to another word Conjunction joins clauses or and, but, when sentences or words Interjection short exclamation, sometimes inserted into a sentence oh!, ouch!, hi!, well Ouch! That hurts! to, at, after, on, but We went to school on Monday. I like dogs and I like cats. a/an, the, 2, some, good, I have two dogs. big, red, well, interesting quickly, silently, well, badly, very, really My dog eats quickly. This is my dog. I likedogs. Example Words Example Sentence

NOUN
Noun is a word, which names a person, a place or a thing, event, idea, and so on. Nouns usually function as subjects or objects within sentences, although they can also act as adjectives and adverbs.

Different types of nouns

1. Proper nouns Used to describe a unique person or thing, proper nouns always start with a capital letter. Examples include Mary, India, and Manchester United.

2. Common nouns Common nouns are used to describe persons or things in general. Examples include girl, country, and team

3. Concrete nouns Nouns that can be perceived through the five senses are called concrete nouns. Examples include ball, rainbow and melody.

4. Abstract nouns Nouns that cannot be perceived through the five senses are called abstract nouns. Examples include love, courage, and childhood. 5. Countable nouns Nouns that can be counted. They also have both a singular and a plural form. Examples include toys, children and books.

6. Non-countable nouns These nouns (usually) cannot be counted, and they dont have a plural form. Examples include sympathy, laughter and oxygen.

7. Collective nouns Collective nouns are used to describe groups of things. Examples include flock,committee and murder.

Plural Form of Nouns

The English language has both regular and irregular plural forms of nouns. The most common case is when you need to add -s to the noun. For example one

car and two cars. The other two cases of the regular plural form are: 1. Nouns that end with s, x, ch or sh, where you add -es (e.g., one box, two boxes) 2. Nouns that end with consonant + y, where you change the y with i and add -es (e.g., one enemy, two enemies) On the irregular plural form of nouns there are basically eight cases: 1. Nouns that end with -o, where you add -es (e.g., one potato, two potatoes) 2. Nouns ending with -is, where you change -is to -es (e.g., one crisis, two crises) 3. Nouns ending with -f, where you change -f to -v and add -es (e.g., one wolf, two wolves) 4. Nouns ending with -fe, where you change -f to -v and add -s (e.g., one life, two lives)

5. Nouns ending with -us, where you change -us to -i (e.g., one fungus, two fungi) 6. Nouns that contain -oo, change -oo to -ee(e.g., one foot, two feet) 7. Nouns that end with -on, where you change -on with -a (e.g., phenomenon, phenomena) 8. Nouns that dont change (e.g., sheep, offspring, series) It might appear overwhelming, but after using these nouns a couple of times you will be able to memorize their plural form easily.

PRONOUN
Pronouns are used to replace nouns within sentences, making them less repetitive and mechanic. Example: John is an intelligent student. He goes to school daily. He studies a lot. He is making preparation for examination. He will get high marks examination. In the above paragraph pronoun he is used instead of noun John. If we do not use pronoun in above paragraph we will have to use the noun John again and again in each sentence. So, the purpose of pronoun is to avoid the repetition of a noun.

Pronoun can be divided into following groups.

1. Personal Pronouns Personal pronoun describes a particular person or thing or group. Personal pronoun describes the person speaking (I, me, we, us), the person spoken to (you), or the person or thing spoken about (he, she, it, they, him, her, them). Example: 1. He helps poor. The pronoun he in above sentence describes a person who helps poor.

Use of Personal Pronouns

Personal Pronoun Person Subject 1st Person Singular 2nd Person 3rd Person Plural 1st Person I You He, She, It We Object Me You Him, Her, It Us

2nd Person 3rd Person Examples: 1. She is intelligent. 2. They are playing chess. 3.He sent me a letter. 4. It is raining. 5. We love our country. 6. The teacher appreciated them. 7. I met him yesterday. 8. He gave her a gift. 9. Did you go to home?

You They

You Them

2. Possessive Pronouns Possessive Pronoun indicates close possession or ownership or relationship of a thing/person to another thing/person. E.g. yours, mine, his, hers, ours, theirs, hers, Example: 1. This book is mine. The pronoun mine describes the relationship between book and a person (me) who possesses this book or who is the owner of this book.

Person 1st Person Singular 2nd Person 3rd Person 1st Person Plural 2nd Person 3rd Person

Possessive Pronoun Mine Yours Hers, his, its Ours Yours Theirs

Examples: 1. That car is hers. 2. Your book is old. Mine is new. 3. The pen on the table is mine. 4. The smallest cup is yours. 5. The car is ours not theirs. 6. I have lost my camera. May I use yours? 7. They received your letter. Did you receive theirs?

Note: Possessive adjectives (my, her, your) may be confused with possessive pronouns. Possessive adjective modifies noun in terms of possession. Both possessive adjective and possessive show possession or ownership, but possessive adjective is used (with noun) to modify the noun while Possessive pronoun is used instead (in place of) a noun. Examples: 1. This is my book. (Possessive adjective: my modifies the noun book) 2.This book is mine. (Possessive pronoun: mine is used instead of noun to whom the book belongs)

3. Reflexive Pronoun Reflexive pronoun describes noun when subjects action affects the subject itself e.g. himself, yourself, herself, ourselves, themselves, itself are reflexive pronouns. Reflexive pronouns always act as objects not subjects, and they require an interaction between the subject and an object.

Person 1st Person Singular 2nd Person 3rd Person

Subject I You He, she, it

Reflexive Pronoun Myself Yourself Himself, Herself, Itself

1st Person Plural 2nd Person 3rd Person Examples:

We You They

Ourselves Yourselves Themselves

1. I looked at myself in the mirror. 2. You should think about yourself. 3. They prepared themselves for completion. 4. She pleases herself by think that she will win the prize. 5. He bought a car for himself. 6. He locked himself in the room. 7. He who loves only himself is a selfish.

Note: Reflexive noun can also be used to give more emphasis on subject or object. If a reflexive pronoun is used to give more emphasis on a subject or an object, it is called Intensive Pronoun. Usage and function of intensive pronoun are different from that of reflexive pronoun.

For example, she herself started to think about herself. In the above sentence the first herself is used as intensive pronoun while the second herself is used as reflexive pronoun. Examples of Intensive Pronouns: 1. I did it myself. 2. I myself did it. 3. She herself washed the clothes. 4. He himself decided to go to New York. 5. She herself told me.

4. Reciprocal Pronouns

Reciprocal Pronouns are used when each of two or more subjects reciprocate to the other. These pronouns are used when two subjects act in same way towards each other,or, more subjects act in same way to one another. For example: 1. A loves B and B love A. We can say that A and B loves each other.

There are two reciprocal pronouns

Each other One another.

Examples: 1. John and Marry are talking to each other. 2. The students gave cards to one another. 3. The people helped one another in hospital. 4. Two boys were pushing each other. 5. The car and the bus collided with each other. 6. The students in the class greeted one another.

5. Relative Pronouns Relative Pronoun describes a noun, which is mentioned before, and more information is to be given about it. Or Relative pronoun is a pronoun, which joins relative clauses, and relative sentences.

For example: 1. It is the person, who helped her. In this sentence the word who is a relative pronoun which refers to the noun (the person) which is already mentioned in beginning of sentence (It is the person) and more information (he helped her) is given after using a relative pronoun (who) for the noun (the person). Similarly, in above sentence the pronoun who joins two clauses which are it is the person and who helped her.

The most commonly used five relative pronouns are, who, whom, whose, which, that. Who is for subject and whom is used for object. who and whom are used for people. Whose is used to show possession and can be used for both people and things. Which is used for things. That is used for people and things. Examples: 1. It is the girl who got first position in class. 2. Adjective is a word that modifies noun. 3. The man whom I met yesterday is a nice person. 4. It is the planning that makes succeed. 5. The boy who is laughing is my friend. 6. It is the boy whose father is doctor. 7. The car which I like is red.

6. Demonstrative Pronouns Demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun that points to a thing or things. E.g. this, that, these, those, none, neither These pronouns point to thing or things in short distance/time or long distance/time. Short distance or time: This, these. Long distance or time: That, those. this and that are used for singular thing while these or those are used for plural things.

Examples: 1.This is black. 2. That is heavy. 3. Can you see these? 4. Do you like this? 5. John brought these. 6. Those look attractive

D. Indefinite Pronouns: An indefinite pronoun does not refer to any specific person, thing or amount. It is vague and "not definite". Note that many indefinite pronouns also function as other parts of speech. Look at "another" in the following sentences: 1. He has one job in the day and another at night. (pronoun) 2. I'd like another drink, please. (adjective)

Most indefinite pronouns are either singular or plural. However, some of them can be singular in one context and plural in another. Notice that a singular pronoun takes a singular verb AND that any personal pronoun should also agree (in number and gender). Look at these examples: Each of the players has a doctor. I met two girls. Onehas given me her phone number. Similarly, plural pronouns need plural agreement: Manyhave expressed their views.

Pronoun

Meaning Singular

Example

another

an additional or different That ice cream was good. Can I person or thing have another? Can anyone answer this question? The doctor needs to know if you have eaten anything in the last two hours.

anybody/anyone no matter what person anything no matter what thing

each

every one of two or more Each has his own thoughts. people or things, seen separately

either

one or the other of two people or things

Do you want tea or coffee? / I don't mind. Either is good for me.

enough

as much or as many as Enough is enough. needed

everybody/everyo all people ne everything all things

We can start the meeting because everybody has arrived. They have no house or possessions. They lost everything in the earthquake.

less little much neither

a smaller amount a small amount a large amount not one and not the other of two people or things

"Less is more" (Mies van der Rohe) Little is known about his early life. Much has happened since we met. I keep telling Jack and Jill but neither believes me.

nobody/no-one

no person

I phoned many times but nobody answered.

nothing

no single thing, not anything

If you don't know the answer it's best to say nothing. Can one smoke here? | All the students arrived but now one is missing.

one

an unidentified person

other

a different person or thing from one already mentioned

One was tall and the other was short.

somebody/someo an unspecified or ne something unknown person an unspecified or unknown thing you an unidentified person

Clearly somebody murdered him. It was not suicide. Listen! I just heard something! What could it be? And you can see why.

(informal) Plural both two people or things, seen together few a small number of people or things fewer a reduced number of people or things many a large number of people Many have come already. or things others other people; not us I'm sure that others have tried before us. several more than two but not many they people in general (informal) They all complained and several left the meeting. They say that vegetables are good for you. Singular or Plural all the whole quantity of something or of some things or people any no matter how much or Is any left? how many more a greater quantity of something; a greater number of people or things most the majority; nearly all Most is lost. Most have refused. none not any; no person or persons They fixed the water so why is none coming out of the tap? Are any coming? There is more over there. More are coming. All is forgiven. All have arrived. John likes coffee but not tea. I think both are good. Few have ever disobeyed him and lived. Fewer are smoking these days.

I invited five friends but none have come. * some an unspecified quantity Here is some. of something; an unspecified number of people or things such of the type already mentioned He was a foreigner and he felt that he was treated as such. Some have arrived.

ADJECTIVES
Adjectives are words used to describe or modify nouns (people, places, things) and pronouns (e.g., I, she, he, it, they, etc.) by depicting, quantifying, or identifying them. o Adjectives can be used before a noun (I like Chinesefood) or after certain verbs (It is hard). o We can often use two or more adjectives together (a beautifulyoungFrenchlady).

There are two kinds: attributive and predicative. - An adjective is used attributively when it stands next to a noun and describes it. For example: The black cat climbed a tree. An adjective is used predicatively when a verb separates it from the noun or pronoun it describes: Examples: 1. The umpire was wrong. 2. The crowd was furious. 3. This soup tastes bad. 4. The dogs coat feels smooth. The verbs that can be completed by predicate adjectives are called being verbs or copulative verbs. They include all the forms of to be and sensing verbs like seem, feel, and taste.

Proper Sequence of Objectives

Being able to identify adjectives is one thing, but for those who often make mistakes in English, the order adjectives must follow when listed in a series may be confusing. It can seem arbitrary at first, but there is a basic order you should use:

1. Determiners: Are articles and other limiters (e.g., a, your, the, five, her). 2. Observations/Opinions: Describes what is thought about the noun (e.g., pretty, expensive, delicious). 3. Size: Describes how big or small the noun is (e.g., small, big, tiny, enormous). 4. Age: Describes how young or old the noun is (e.g., young, old, ancient, new). 5. Shape: Describes what shape the noun is (e.g., round, square, flat). 6. Color: Describes what color the noun is (e.g., blue, pinkish, green). 7. Material: Describes what the noun is made of (e.g., wood, cotton, silver, metal). 8. Origin: Describes where the noun is from (e.g., American, eastern, lunar). 9. Purpose/Qualifier: Describes what the noun is used for or what it does (e.g., racing [as in racing car], sleeping [as in sleeping bag]). 10. The noun: The word that is being described. It is also important not to overuse adjectives. Two or three well-chosen adjectives are more than sufficient. Consider this sentence: She had an expensive, big, long, blue, cotton, Coleman sleeping bag. While technically correct, the abundance of adjectives should be avoided in favor of something simpler, such as: She had an expensive, blue sleeping bag. Of course, as with most rules in English, there are exceptions to this order. For example, you may switch opinion and fact (such as size) adjectives for emphasis: He had a big, ugly truck.

Adjective Classifications
o qualitative: good, bad, happy, blue, French o possessive: my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their

o relative and interrogative: which, what, whatever, etc. o numeral: one, two, second, single, etc. o indefinite: some, any, much, few, every, etc. o demonstrative: this, that, the, a (an), such The demonstrative adjectives the anda (an) are so important in English that they have a special name: articles.

Articles
The words a, an, and the are generally called articles and sometimes classed as a separate part of speech. In function, however, they can be grouped with the demonstrative adjectives that are used to point things out rather than describe them. A. Definite Article The is called the definite article because it points out a particular object or class. Examples: o This is the book I was talking about. o The dodo bird is extinct. B. Indefinite Article A is called the indefinite article because it points out an object, but not any particular specimen. Examples: o a book o a dog o a lawn mower o a horse

The indefinite article has two forms: A is used before words beginning with a consonant sound or an aspirated h: a car, a lamb, a hope, a habit, a hotel -An is used before words beginning with a vowel sound: an ape, an image, an untruth, an honorable man

Three Degree of Comparison of Adjectives

1. The positive degree is used when simply describing persons or things. Examples: The atis tree is tall. Anita is young. Chicos are expensive. Carlo is intelligent.

2. The comparative degree is used when comparing two person or things. Examples: The ipil-ipil tree is taller than the atis tree. Josephine is younger than Anita. Mangoes are more expensive than chicos. Alex is more intelligent than Carlo. Rule! * The Comparative degree of adjectives with one or two syllables is formed by addinger. If the word ends with y, change y to I and add er. Examples: bright - brighter loud - louder funny funnier easy - easier

* The comparative degree of adjective with two or more syllables is formed by adding more before the adjective. Examples: more obedient, more comfortable, more responsible, more studious, more industrious. Note that the word than follows the comparative form. Examples: Celia is prettier than Doris. Water is more refreshing than juice.

3. The superlative degree is used when comparing three or more persons or things.

Examples: The acacia tree is the tallestof all them. Irene is the youngest of them all. Grapes are the most expensive of the three. Eric is the most intelligent of the three. Rule: * The superlative degree of adjectives is formed by adding est to the adjective or If the word ends with y, change y to I and add es. Examples: long - longest thin thinnest lovely loveliest pretty - prettiest

* The superlative degree of adjective with two or more syllables is formed by adding most before the adjective. Examples: most courteous most beautiful most intelligent The article the preceded the superlative form. Example: Dado runs the fastest. Christy is the most responsible person in the class.

VERB
Verbs arewords, which shows action or state of being. In the sentence: The dog bit the man;bit is the verb and the word which shows the action of the sentence.

In the sentence: The man is sitting on a chair, even though the action doesn't show much activity, sitting is the verb of the sentence.

In the sentence: She is a smart girl, there is no action but a state of being expressed by the verb is. The word be is different from other verbs in many ways but can still be thought of as a verb.

Kinds of Verbs
English has three kinds of Verbs: transitive, intransitive, and incomplete. 1. Transitive Verbs A verb is transitive when the action is carried across to a receiver: Examples: The farmer grows potatoes. Elvis sang ballads. The receiver is called the direct object. It answers the question What? or Whom? after the verb. Grows what? Potatoes. Sang what? Ballads. 2. Intransitive Verbs A verb is intransitive when the action stays with the verb. It is not carried across to a receiver: Examples: Corn grows. Elvis sang.

Adding a prepositional phrase to modify the verb does not change the fact that the action remains with the subject: Corn grows in the fields. Elvis sang all over the world. Both transitive and intransitive verbs are action verbs. 3. Incomplete Verbs There are three types of incomplete verbs: a. being verbs also called linking or copulative verbs (to be, seem, become, taste, smell, sound, feel) Tip: Some of these verbs can also be used transitively. If in doubt, substitute a form of to be for the verb. If the sentence still makes sense, the verb is being used as a copulative verb: may.) He could have gone earlier. c. semi-auxiliary verbs (must, can, ought, dare, need). You must not go. You dare not go. He feels depressed. He is depressed. He feels the wall. He is the wall.

b. auxiliary verbs also called helping verbs (be, have, shall, will, do, and

Unlike most of the other parts of speech, verbs change their form. Sometimes endings are added (learn - learned) and sometimes the word itself becomes different (teach-taught). The different forms of verbs show different meanings related to such things as tense (past, present, future), person (first person, second person, third person), number (singular, plural) and voice (active, passive). Verbs are also often accompanied by verb-like words called modals (may, could, should, etc.) and auxiliaries(do, have, will, etc.) to give them different meanings. One of the most important things about verbs is their relationship to time. Verbs tell if something has already happened, if it will happen later, or if it is

happening now. For things happening now, we use the present tense of a verb; for something that has already happened, we use the past tense; and for something that will happen later, we use the future tense. Some examples of verbs in each tense are in the chart below: Present look move talk Past looked moved talked Future will look will move will talk

Verbs like those in the chart above that form the past tense by adding -d or -ed are called regular verbs. Some of the most common verbs are not regular and the different forms of the verb must be learned. Some examples of such irregular verbs are in the chart below: Present see hear speak Past saw heard spoke Future will see will hear will speak

The charts above show the simple tenses of the verbs. There are also progressive or continuousforms, which show that the action takes place over a period of time, and perfect forms which show completion of the action and a few examples are given in the chart below: Present Continuous is looking is speaking is talking Present Perfect has looked has spoken has talked

Simple present tense verbs have a special form for the third person

singular. Singular means "one" and plural means "more than one." Person is used here to show who or what does the action and can have the following forms: 1st person or the self (I, we) 2nd person or the person spoken to (you)3rd person or a person not present (he, she, it, they). The third person singular forms are represented by the pronouns he, she, it. The chart below shows how the third person singular verb form changes: Singular see 1st Person (I) hear come see 2nd Person (you) hear come sees 3rd Person (he, she, it) hears comes 3rd Person (they) 2nd Person (you) 1st Person (we) Plural see hear come see hear come see hear come

A verb must "agree" with its subject. Subject-verb agreement generally means that thethird person singular verb form must be used with a third person subject in the simple present tense. The wordbe - the most irregular and also most common verb in English - has different forms for each person and even for the simple past tense. The forms of the word be are given in the chart below: Number Person 1st (I) Singular 2nd (you) 3rd (he, she, it) Plural 1st (we) 2nd (you) Present am are is are are Past was were was were were Future will be will be will be will be will be

3rd (they)

are

were

will be

Usually a subject comes before a verb and an object may come after it. The subject is what does the action of the verb and the object is what receives the action. In the sentence Bob ate a hamburger, Bob is the subject or the one who did the eating and the hamburger is the object or what got eaten. A verb, which has an object, is called a transitive verb and some examples are throw, buy, hit, love. A verb which has no object is called an intransitive verb and some examples are go, come, walk, listen. As you can see in the charts above, verbs are often made up of more than one word. The future forms, for example, use the word will and the perfect forms use the word have. These words are called helping or auxiliary verbs. The word be can serve as an auxiliary and will and shall are also auxiliary forms. The chart below shows two other verbs which can also be used as auxiliaries: Number Person 1st (I) Present have do have do has does have do have do have do Past had did had did had did had did had did had did

Singular

2nd (you)

3rd (he, she, it)

1st (we)

Plural

2nd (you)

3rd (they)

Verbs Tenses
The Twelve Tenses of English PRESENT (main verb) I study English. He studies English. PAST (past tense of main verb) I studied English. He studied English.

FUTURE (will or shall + main verb) I will study English. He will study English. PRESENT PERFECT (have or has + past participle of verb) I have studied English. He has studied English.

PAST PERFECT (had + past participle of verb) I had studied English. He had studied English.

FUTURE PERFECT (will or shall + have + past participle of verb) I will have studied English. He will have studied English. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE (form of "be" verb + "ing" form of main verb) I am studying English. He is studying English.

PAST PROGRESSIVE (past tense of form "be" verb + "ing" form of main verb)

 I was studying English. He was studying English. FUTURE PROGRESSIVE (will or shall +be + "ing" form of main verb) I will be studying English. He will be studying English. PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE (have or has + been + "ing" form of main verb) I have been studying English. He has been studying English. PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE (had + been + "ing" form of main verb) I had been studying English. He had been studying English.

FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE (will or shall + have + been + "ing" form of main verb) I will have been studying English. He will have been studying English.

The Voices of the Verb

Active Form In active sentences, the thing doing the action is the subject of the sentence and the thing receiving the action is the object. Most sentences are active. [Thing doing action] + [verb] + [thing receiving action] Examples:

Passive Form In passive sentences, the thing receiving the action is the subject of the sentence and the thing doing the action is optionally included near the end of the sentence. You can use the passive form if you think that the thing receiving the action is more important or should be emphasized. You can also use the passive form if you do not know who is doing the action or if you do not want to mention who is doing the action. [Thing receiving action] + [be] + [past participle of verb] + [by] + [thing doing action] Examples:

Active and Passive Voice Overview

Tense Simple Present Present Continuous Simple Past Past Continuous Active Once a week, Tom cleans the house. Right now, Sarah is writing the letter. Sam repaired the car. The salesman was helping the customer when the thief came into the store. Present Perfect Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect George had repaired many cars before he received his mechanic's license. Past Perfect Continuous Chef Jones had been preparing the restaurant's fantastic dinners for two years before he moved to Paris. Simple Future will Simple Future be going to Future Continuous will Someone will finish the work by 5:00 PM. Sally is going to make a beautiful dinner tonight. At 8:00 PM tonight, John will be washing the dishes. The work will be finished by 5:00 PM. A beautiful dinner is going to be made by Sally tonight. At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes will be being washed by John. Many cars had been repaired by George before he received his mechanic's license. The restaurant's fantastic dinners had been being prepared by Chef Jones for two years before he moved to Paris. Many tourists have visited that castle. Recently, John has been doing the work. Passive Once a week, the house is cleaned by Tom. Right now, the letter is being written by Sarah. The car was repaired by Sam. The customer was being helped by the salesman when the thief came into the store. That castle has been visited by many tourists. Recently, the work has been being done by John.

Future Continuous be going to Future Perfect will

At 8:00 PM tonight, John is going to be washing the dishes. They will have completed the project before the deadline.

At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes are going to be being washed by John. The project will have been completed before the deadline.

Future Perfect be going to

They are going to have completed the project before the deadline.

The project is going to have been completed before the deadline. The mural will have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished. The mural is going to have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished. The bills used to be paid by Jerry.

Future Perfect Continuous will

The famous artist will have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished.

Future Perfect Continuous be going to

The famous artist is going to have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished.

Used to

Jerry used to pay the bills.

Would Always

My mother would always make the pies.

The pies would always be made by my mother. I knew the work would be finished by 5:00 PM.

Future in the Past Would Future in the Past Was Going to

I knew John would finish the work by 5:00 PM.

I thought Sally was going to make a beautiful dinner tonight.

I thought a beautiful dinner was going to be made by Sally tonight.

Verbs Mood
Mood is the form of the verb that shows the mode or manner in which a thought is expressed. English verbs have four moods: indicative, imperative, subjunctive, and infinitive.

1. Indicative Mood: expresses an assertion, denial, or question: Examples: Little Rock is the capital of Arkansas. Ostriches cannot fly. Have you finished your homework?

2. Imperative Mood: expresses command, prohibition, entreaty, or advice: Examples: Dont smoke in this building. Be careful! Dont drown that puppy!

3. Subjunctive Mood: expresses doubt or something contrary to fact. Modern English speakers use indicative mood most of the time, resorting to a kind of mixed subjunctive that makes use of helping verbs: Examples: If I should see him, I will tell him. Americans are more likely to say: If I see him, I will tell him. The verb maycan be used to express a wish: May you have many more birthdays. May you live long and prosper. The verb were can also indicate the use of the subjunctive: If I were you, I wouldnt keep driving on those tires. If he were governor, wed be in better fiscal shape.

4. Infinitive Mood: expresses an action or state without reference to any subject. It can be the source of sentence fragments when the writer mistakenly thinks the infinitive form is a fully functioning verb. When we speak of the English infinitive, we usually mean the basic form of the verb with to in front of it: to go, to sing, to walk, to speak. Verbs said to be in the infinitive mood can include participle forms ending in -ed and -ing. Verbs in the infinitive mood are not being used as verbs, but as other parts of speech: Example: To err is human; to forgive, divine. Here, to err and to forgive are used as nouns.

Example: He is a man to be admired. Here, to be admired is an adjective, the equivalent of admirable. It describes the noun man. Example: He came to see you. Here, to see you is used as an adverb to tell why he came.

ADVERBS
Adverbs are used to describe or modify a verb, adjective, clause, or another adverb. Basically, they modify everything except nouns and pronouns (which are modified by adjectives).

Example of an adverb modifying a verb: He was running fast. (fast modifies running) Example of an adverb modifying an adjective: She took a very small piece of the cake. (very modifies small) Example of an adverb modifying a sentence: Strangely, the man left the room. (strangely modifies the whole sentence)

Kinds of Adverbs
1. Adverbs of Manner These adverbs tell us that in which manner the action occurs or how the action occurs or occurred or will occur. Examples: a. She speaks loudly. b. He was driving slowly. c. You replied correctly. d. He runs fast. e. They solved the problem easily. f. Listen to me carefully.

2. Adverb of Place Adverb of place tells us about the place of action or where action occurs/occurred/will occur. e.g. here, there, near, somewhere, outside, ahead, on the top, at some place. Examples: a. He will come here.

b. The children are playing outside. c. He was standing near the wall. d. They were flying kites on the top of hill. e. He lives somewhere in New York. f. She went upstairs.

3. Adverb of time These adverbs tell us about the time of action. e.g. now, then, soon, tomorrow, yesterday, today, tonight, again, early, yesterday. Examples: a. I will buy a computer tomorrow. b. The guest came yesterday. c. Do it now. d. She is still waiting for her brother. e. He got up early in the morning.

4. Adverb of frequency Adverbs of frequency tell us how many times the action occurs or occurred or will occur. e.g. daily, sometimes, often, seldom, usually, frequently, always, ever, generally, rarely, monthly, yearly. Examples: a. He goes to school daily. b. She never smokes. c. He is always late for class. d. They always come in time. e. Barking dogs seldom bite. f. The employees are paid monthly. g. The employees are paid every month.

5. Adverbs of purpose

Adverbs of purpose describe why something happens. Here are some common examples e.g. so that , in order to , because since, accidentally, intentionally and purposely. Examples: a. Jenny walks carefully to avoid falling. b. Bob accidentally broke the vase.

Order of Adverbs
There is a basic order in which adverbs will appear when there is more than one. It is similar to The Royal Order of Adjectives, but it is even more flexible. THE ROYAL ORDER OF ADVERBS Manner Dad walks Tashonda naps Place into town Frequency every afternoon every morning Time before supper before lunch. Purpose to get a newspaper.

quietly

in her room

PREPOSITION
Prepositions are used to link nouns and pronouns to other words within a sentence. The words linked to are called objects. Usually prepositions show a spatial or temporal relationship between the noun and the object, like in the example below:

The cat is under the table. Cat is the noun. Under is the preposition. Table is the object.

Here is a list with the most common prepositions: about, above, after, among, around, along, at, before, behind, beneath, beside, between, by, down, from, in, into, like, near, of, off, on, out, over, through, to, up, upon, under, and with. Notice that you can also have a prepositional phrase, which is formed by the preposition and its object. A preposition phrase can function as adverb, adjective or noun. For example: The dog was running under the rain. The prepositional phrase under the rain acts as an adverb, specifying where the dog was running.

CONJUNCTIONS
A conjunction is a word, which connects two words or clauses or sentences and shows the relation between them. They are used to avoid making the text seem like bullet points and to make the text flow.

Example: Jai saw a dog on the road. He decided to adopt the dog. Jai brought the dog home. Jai saw a dog on the road and decided to adopt the dog, so he brought the dog home. Here and and so are conjunctions which are used to join the sentences and show the relation between them. There are three main categories of conjunctions that are explained below.

Coordinating Conjunctions
These conjunctions are used to link or join two words or phrases that are equally important and complete in terms of grammar when compared with each other. That is to say, the sentences or words do not depend on anything to give themselves meaning. There are seven main coordinating conjunctions For And Nor But Or Yet Soon These conjunctions are always placed between the two clauses or words that they are joining. The following are some examples of the

coordinating conjunctions -

1. Chris does not want tea. Chris does not want coffee. Chris does not want tea or coffee. Here, we see how or was used to combine the two words and make a cohesive sentence using them. Also, notice how the or is between the two words. 2. I scored 60% in the exams this year. Anita scored 7% more than me this year. I scored 60% in the exams but Anita scored 7% more than me this year. Here we see that but was used in the middle to combine and show the relation between the two sentences that were both equally important and cohesive by themselves.

Subordinating Conjunctions
These conjunctions are used to join an independent and complete clause with a dependent clause that relies on the main clause for meaning and relevance. The dependent clause cannot exist on its own as a sentence and often does not make sense without the main clause. The subordinating conjunction always comes before the dependent clause but the dependent clause itself can be placed either ahead of or following the independent clause.

Example: Since they had misbehaved, the boys were given one-week suspensions from school. Here, we see the dependent clause is they had misbehaved which is not a valid sentence by itself.The independent main clause is the boys were given one week suspensions from school.They are joined by the subordinating conjunction since.

Other subordinating conjunctions are - Although, As, Before, Once, Though, Until, Whether, etc.

Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative Conjunctions are simply pairs of conjunctions used in a sentence to join different words or groups of words in a sentence together. Correlative Conjunctions are generally not used to link sentences themselves, instead they link two or more words of equal importance within the sentence itself. Some of the more commonly used correlative conjunctions are Both the shoes and the dress were completely overpriced. This is an example of using the correlative conjunctions both/and in a sentence. As you can see in this sentence, the shoes and the dress were equally important elements that needed to be given the same importance. They should either change their strategy or just forfeit the game. The either/or conjunctions are used to suggest a choice between two options. Here the choice being suggested is between - change their strategy or forfeit the game. Just as she loves hiking so she enjoys travelling as well. 1. The correlative conjunctions just as/so are used to link two phrases that have a similar theme or are referring to a similar thing together. This conjunction is used to show the correspondence between two phrases or words. He neither helps around the house nor does he look for a job. Neither/nor are conjunctions that are used to deny or negate words and phrases. In the case of neither, it gives two options that are both negated. Nor is the negative form of or. Not only does he play the lead guitar but he is also the bands songwriter. The correlative conjunctions not only/but are used to show an additional and important element in the sentence that is used to indicate excess when combined with the first element. For instance, in this

sentence the fact that he is a guitarist and a songwriter are equally important but when shown together, they indicate an excess of talent in the person. It doesnt matter whether the roses are fresh or if they are drooping, just buy them. Whether/or is used as a conjunction to show two different options in the sentence. The conjunction can be used both in a manner of negation and confirmation.

INTERJECTIONS
Interjection comes from a Latin word that means, throw between. Its a word or phrase that is thrown into a sentence to express an emotion: Strictly speaking, an interjection is not a part of speech. It serves no grammatical function but is rather a noisy utterance like the cry of an animal (F.J. Rahtz). Interjections express feeling or emotion, not thought and have been called the miserable refuge of the speechless.

Interjection Ah

Meaning expressing pleasure expressing realization expressing resignation expressing surprise

Example "Ah, that feels good." "Ah, now I understand." "Ah well, it can't be helped." "Ah! I've won!" "Alas, she's dead now." "Oh dear! Does it hurt?" "Dear me! That's a surprise!" "It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot today."

Alas dear

expressing grief or pity expressing pity expressing surprise

Eh

asking for repetition

expressing enquiry expressing surprise inviting agreement Er hello, hullo expressing hesitation expressing greeting expressing surprise Hey calling attention expressing surprise, joy etc Hi Hmm expressing greeting expressing hesitation,

"What do you think of that, eh?" "Eh! Really?" "Let's go, eh?" "Lima is the capital of...er...Peru." "Hello John. How are you today?" "Hello! My car's gone!" "Hey! Look at that!" "Hey! What a good idea!"

"Hi! What's new?" "Hmm. I'm not so sure."

doubt or disagreement oh, o expressing surprise expressing pain expressing pleading Ouch Uh uh-huh um, umm well expressing pain expressing hesitation expressing agreement expressing hesitation expressing surprise introducing a remark "Oh! You're here!" "Oh! I've got a toothache." "Oh, please say 'yes'!" "Ouch! That hurts!" "Uh...I don't know the answer to that." "Shall we go?" "Uh-huh." "85 divided by 5 is...um...17." "Well I never!" "Well, what did he say?"

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
Subject-verb agreement is a grammar rule that requires the subject (noun) to agree in number and person with the verb. So if the subject of a sentence is singular, the verb must be singular. If the subject of a sentence is plural, the verb must be plural.

SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT

A. Basic Principle: Singular subjects need singular verbs; plural subjects need plural verbs. 1. My brother is a nutritionist. 2. My sisters are mathematicians. The indefinite pronouns anyone, everyone, someone, no one, nobody are always singular and, therefore, require singular verbs. 1. Everyone has done his or her homework. 2. Somebody has left her purse. Some indefinite pronouns such as all, some are singular or plural depending on what they're referring to. (Is the thing referred to countable or not?) Be careful choosing a verb to accompany such pronouns. 1. Some of the beads are missing. 2. Some of the water is gone. On the other hand, there is one indefinite pronoun, none, that can be either singular or plural; it often doesn't matter whether you use a singular or a plural verb unless something else in the sentence determines its number. (Writers generally think of none as meaning not any and will choose a plural verb, as in "None of the engines are working," but when something else makes us regard none as meaning not one, we want a singular verb, as in "None of the food is fresh.") 1. None of you claims responsibility for this incident? 2. None of you claim responsibility for this incident? 3. None of the students have done their homework. (In this last example, the word theirprohibits the use of the singular verb.

B. Some indefinite pronouns are particularly troublesome Everyone and everybody certainly feel like more than one person and, therefore, students are sometimes tempted to use a plural verb with them. They are

always singular, though. Each is often followed by a prepositional phrase ending in a plural word (Each of the cars), thus confusing the verb choice. Each, too, is always singular and requires a singular verb. 1. Everyone has finished his or her homework. You would always say, "Everybody is here." This means that the word is singular and nothing will change that. 1. Each of the students is responsible for doing his or her work in the library.Don't let the word "students" confuse you; the subject is each and each is always singular Each is responsible.

C. Phrases such as together with, as well as, and along with are not the same as and. The phrase introduced by as well as or along with will modify the earlier word (mayor in this case), but it does not compound the subjects (as the word and would do). 1. The mayor as well as his brothers is going to prison. 2. The mayor and his brothersare going to jail.

D. The pronouns neither and either are singular and require singular verbs even though they seem to be referring, in a sense, to two things. 1. Neither of the two traffic lights is working. 2. Which shirt do you want for Christmas? Either is fine with me.

E. The conjunction or does not conjoin (as and does): when nor or or is used the subject closer to the verb determines the number of the verb. Whether the subject comes before or after the verb doesn't matter; the proximity determines the number. 1. Either my father or my brothers are going to sell the house. 2. Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the house. 3. Are either my brothers or my father responsible? 4. Is either my father or my brothers responsible?

Because a sentence like "Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the house" sounds peculiar, it is probably a good idea to put the plural subject closer to the verb whenever that is possible. F. The words there and here are never subjects. 1. There are two reasons [plural subject] for this. 2. There is no reason for this. 3. Here are two apples. With these constructions (called expletive constructions), the subject follows the verb but still determines the number of the verb. G. Verbs in the present tense for third-person, singular subjects (he, she, it and anything those words can stand for) have s-endings. Other verbs do not add s-endings. 1. He loves and she loves and they love_ and . . ..

H. Sometimes modifiers will get between a subject and its verb, but these modifiers must not confuse the agreement between the subject and its verb. 1. The mayor, who has been convicted along with his four brothers on four counts of various crimes but who also seems, like a cat, to have several political lives, is finally going to jail.

I. Sometimes nouns take weird forms and can fool us into thinking they're plural when they're really singular and vice-versa. Words such as glasses, pants, pliers, and scissors are regarded as plural (and require plural verbs) unless they're preceded the phrase pair of (in which case the word pair becomes the subject). 1. My glasses were on the bed. 2. My pants were torn. 3. A pair of plaid trousers is in the closet.

J. Some words end in -s and appear to be plural but are really singular and require singular verbs. 1. The news from the front is bad. 2. Measles is a dangerous disease for pregnant women. On the other hand, some words ending in -s refer to a single thing but are nonetheless plural and require a plural verb. 1. My assets were wiped out in the depression. 2. The average worker's earnings have gone up dramatically. 3. Our thanks go to the workers who supported the union. The names of sports teams that do not end in "s" will take a plural verb: 1. The Miami Heat have been looking , 2. The Connecticut Sun are hoping that new talent .

K. If your sentence compounds a positive and a negative subject and one is plural, the other singular, the verb should agree with the positive subject. 1. The department members but not the chair have decided not to teach on Valentine's Day. 2. It is not the faculty members but the president who decides this issue. 3. It was the speaker, not his ideas, that has provoked the students to riot.

L. Use a singular verb with sums of money or periods of time. 1. Ten dollars is a high price to pay. 2. Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.

M. Sometimes the pronoun who, that, or which is the subject of a verb in the middle of the sentence. The pronouns who, that, and which become singular or plural according to the noun directly in front of them. So, if that noun is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb. 1. Salma is the scientist who writes the reports. The word in front of who is scientist, which is singular. Therefore, use the singular verb writes.

2. He is one of the men who do the work. The word in front of whois men, which is plural. Therefore, use the plural verb do.

N. Collective nouns such as team and staff may be either singular or plural depending on their use in the sentence. 1. The staff is in a meeting. Staff is acting as a unit here. 2. The staff are in disagreement about the findings. The staff are acting as separate individuals in this example. The sentence would read even better as: The staff members are in disagreement about the findings.

O. The pronouns each, everyone, every one, everybody, anyone, anybody, someone, and somebody are singular and require singular verbs. Do not be misled by what follows of. 1. Each of the girls sings well. 2. Every one of the cakes is gone. NOTE:Everyone is one word when it means everybody. Every one is two words when the meaning is each one. P. With words that indicate portionspercent, fraction, part, majority, some, all, none, remainder, and so forth look at the noun in your of phrase (object of the preposition) to determine whether to use a singular or plural verb. If the object of the preposition is singular, use a singular verb. If the object of the preposition is plural, use a plural verb. 1. Fifty percent of the pie has disappeared. Pie is the object of the preposition of. 2. Fifty percent of the pies have disappeared. Pies is the object of the preposition. 3. One-third of the city is unemployed. 4. One-third of the people are unemployed. 5. All of the pie is gone. 6. All of the pies are gone.

7. Some of the pie is missing. 8. Some of the pies are missing. 9. None of the garbage was picked up. 10. None of the sentences were punctuated correctly. 11. Of all her books, none have sold as well as the first one.

NOTE: Apparently, the SAT testing service considers none as a singular word only. However, according to Merriam Webster's Dictionary of English Usage, "Clearly none has been both singular and plural since Old English and still is. The notion that it is singular only is a myth of unknown origin that appears to have arisen in the 19th century. If in context it seems like a singular to you, use a singular verb; if it seems like a plural, use a plural verb. Both are acceptable beyond serious criticism" (p. 664).

Other Examples: 1. Some of the voters are still angry. 2. A large percentage of the older population is voting against her. 3. Two-fifths of the troops were lost in the battle. 4. Two-fifths of the vineyard was destroyed by fire. 5. Forty percent of the students are in favor of changing the policy. 6. Forty percent of the student body is in favor of changing the policy. 7. Two and two is four. 8. Four times four divided by two is eight.

Q. The expression the number is followed by a singular verb while the expression a number is followed by a plural verb. 1. The number of people we need to hire is thirteen. 2. A number of people have written in about this subject.

PUNCTUATION MARKS
Punctuation marks are symbols that indicate the structure and organization of written language, as well as intonation and pauses to be observed when reading aloud.

Punctuation Marks Punctuation marks are important in both written and spoken English. In written English, the correct usage of these symbols helps to express the intended meaning of the sentence. In spoken English, punctuation marks denote the pauses and intonations to be used when reading aloud. Incorrect punctuation can change the meaning of a sentence.

For instance, compare the following two sentences: 1. Lets eat Mom. 2. Lets eat, Mom.

Do you see how the usage of a comma changes the entire meaning in both the sentences? The disappearance of comma in the first sentence indicates that the speaker is asking to eat their Mom, which does not make sense. Whereas, the comma after lets eat in the second sentence helps to convey the meaning that the speaker is suggesting to their Mom to go and start eating, which sounds more sensible and also saves a life.

Symbols of Punctuation Some of the commonly used punctuation marks are: 1. Full Stop - (.) Usually used at the end of a sentence. 2. Question Mark - (?) Usually used at the end of an interrogative sentence to form a question. 3. Comma - (,) Usually used to denote a pause in a sentence. 4. Exclamation Mark - (!) Used to denote shock, surprise, anger or a raised voice. 5. Colon (:) Used to indicate what is to follow next 6. Semi Colon (;) Used to link two independent clauses not joined by a conjunction or used to separate two independent clauses in place of

comma 7. Apostrophe - (') Used to show possession or for contraction of word.

FIGURES OF SPEECH
A figure of speech is the use of a word or a phrase, which exceeds its literal interpretation. It can be a special repetition, arrangement or omission of words with literal meaning, or a phrase with a specialized meaning not based on the literal meaning of the words in it. Figures of speech often provide emphasis, freshness of expression, or clarity. However, clarity may also suffer from their use, as any figure of speech introduces an ambiguity between literal and figurative interpretation. A figure of speech is sometimes called a rhetorical figure or a locution.

Figures of Speech -is the use of a word or words diverging from its usual meaning. It can also be a special repetition, arrangement or omission of words with literal meaning, or a phrase with a specialized meaning not based on the literal meaning of the words in it.

a. Simile - is a figure of speech that directly compares two different things, usually by employing the words like or as. Examples: 1. He runs like a cheetah. 2. She swims like a dolphin.

b. Metaphor - the comparison that show how two things that are not alike in most are similar in one important way. Examples: 1. Language is a road map of culture. 2. Her eyes were glistening jewels.

c. Personification - is a figure of speech in which distinctive human characteristics are attributed to an animal, object or idea. Examples: 1. My car is happy to be washed! 2. The road isn't built that can make it breathe hard!

d. Hyperbole

- a figure of speech which is a large exaggeration, it is used as a means of emphasizing the truth of a statement. Examples: 1. I'd give my right arm for a piece of pizza. 2. He snorted and hit me in the solar plexus. e. Apostrophe -is an exclamatory rhetorical figure of speech, when a speaker or writer breaks off and directs speech to an imaginary person or abstract quality or idea. Examples: 1. "Bright star, would I were steadfast as thou art" 2. "Then come, sweet death, and rid me of this grief."

f. Alliteration -a series of words that begin with the same letter Examples: 1. You'll never put a better bit of butter on your knife. 2. The soul selects her own society.

g. Assonance -is the relatively close juxtaposition of the same or similar vowel sounds, but with different end consonants in a line or passage, thus a vowel rhyme, as in the words, date and fade. Examples: 1. I must confess that in my quest I felt depressed and restless. 2. Strips of tinfoil winking like people.

h. Onomatopoeia -is the formation or use of words which imitate sounds like whispering, clang and sizzle, but the term is generally expanded to refer to any word whose sound is suggestive of its meaning. Examples:

1. "Brrrrrrriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinng! An alarm clock clanged in the dark and silent room." 2. "Chug, chug, chug. Puff, puff, puff. Ding-dong, ding-dong. The little train rumbled over the tracks"

i. Oxymoron - is a figure of speech that deliberately uses two contradictory ideas. This contradiction creates a paradoxical image in the reader or listener's mind that generates a new concept or meaning for the whole. Some typical oxymorons are: Examples: 1. Sometimes you have to be cruel to be kind 2. He was conspicuous by his absence.

j. Euphemism Examples: - It involves substitution of an inoffensive term or phrase for one that has coarse or sordid unpleasant associations. Examples: 1. "toilet" for "lavatory" 2. "pass away" for "die"

Direct Speech / Quoted Speech We often have to give information about what people say or think. In order to do this you can use direct or quoted speech, or indirect or reported speech. Saying exactly what someone has said is called direct speech (sometimes called quoted speech)Here what a person says appears within quotation marks ("...") and should be word for word. For example: She said, "Today's lesson is on presentations." Or"Today's lesson is on presentations", she said.

Indirect Speech / Reported Speech Indirect speech (sometimes called reported speech), doesn't use quotation marks to enclose what the person said and it doesn't have to be word for word. When reporting speech the tense usually changes. This is because when we use reported speech, we are usually talking about a time in the past (because obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in the past). The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too.

For example: Direct speech "I'm going to the cinema", he said. Indirect speech He said he was going to the cinema.

Tense change As a rule when you report something someone has said you go back a tense: (the tense on the left changes to the tense on the right): Direct speech Present simple She said, "It's cold." Present continuous She said, "I'm teaching English online." Present perfect simple She said, "I've been on the web since 1999." Present perfect continuous She said, "I've been teaching English for seven years." Past simple She said, "I taught online yesterday." Past continuous She said, "I was teaching earlier." Past perfect She said, "The lesson had already started when he arrived." Past perfect continuous She said, "I'd already been teaching for five minutes." Indirect speech Past simple She said it was cold. Past continuous She said she was teaching English online. Past perfect simple She said she had been on the web since 1999. Past perfect continuous She said she had been teaching English for seven years. Past perfect She said she had taught online yesterday. Past perfect continuous She said she had been teaching earlier. Past perfect NO CHANGE - She said the lesson had already started when he arrived. Past perfect continuous NO CHANGE - She said she'd already been teaching for five minutes.

Modal verb forms also sometimes change: Direct speech will She said, "I'll teach English online tomorrow." can She said, "I can teach English online." must She said, "I must have a computer to teach English online." shall She said, "What shall we learn today?" may She said, "May I open a new browser?" would She said she would teach English online tomorrow. could She said she could teach English online. had to She said she had to have a computer to teach English online. should She asked what we should learn today. might She asked if she might open a new browser. Indirect speech

Note - There is no change to; could, would, should, might and ought to. Direct speech "I might go to the cinema", he said. Indirect speech He said he might go to the cinema.

You can use the present tense in reported speech if you want to say that something is still true i.e. my name has always been and will always be Lynne so: Direct speech Indirect speech She said her name was Lynne. "My name is Lynne", she said. or She said her name is Lynne.

You can also use the present tense if you are talking about a future event. Direct speech (exact quote) "Next week's lesson is on reported speech", she said. Indirect speech (not exact) She said next week's lesson will be on reported speech.

Time change If the reported sentence contains an expression of time, you must change it to fit in with the time of reporting. For example we need to change words like here and yesterday if they have different meanings at the time and place of reporting. Now + 24 hours - Indirect speech She said yesterday's lesson was on "Today's lesson is on presentations." presentations. or She said yesterday's lesson would be on presentations.

Expressions of time if reported on a different day this (evening) today these (days) now (a week) ago last weekend here next (week) tomorrow that (evening) yesterday ... those (days) then (a week) before the weekend before last / the previous weekend there the following (week) the next/following day

In addition if you report something that someone said in a different place to where you heard it you must change the place (here) to the place (there).

For example: At work "How long have you worked here?" At home She asked me how long I'd worked there.

Pronoun change In reported speech, the pronoun often changes. For example: Me You Direct Speech She said, "I teach English online." "I teach English online", she said. "I teach English online." Reported Speech She said she teaches English online. or She said she taught English online.

Reporting Verbs Said, told and asked are the most common verbs used in indirect speech. We use asked to report questions:For example: I asked Lynne what time the lesson started.

We use told with an object. For example:

Lynne told me she felt tired. Note- Here me is the object.

We usually use said without an object. For example: Lynne said she was going to teach online.

If said is used with an object we must include to; For example: Lynne saidto me that she'd never been to China.

Note - We usually use told. For example: Lynne told me (that) she'd never been to China.

There are many other verbs we can use apart from said, told and asked. These include: accused, admitted, advised, alleged, agreed, apologised, begged, boasted, complained, denied, explained, implied, invited, offered, ordered, promised, replied, suggested and thought.

Using them properly can make what you say much more interesting and informative.

For example: He asked me to come to the party. He invited me to the party. He begged me to come to the party. He ordered me to come to the party. He advised me to come to the party. He suggested I should come to the party.

Use of 'That' in reported speech In reported speech, the word that is often used. For example: He told me that he lived in Greenwich. However, that is optional.

For example: He told me he lived in Greenwich. Note - That is never used in questions, instead we often use if.

For example: He asked me if I would come to the party.

http://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/reportedspeech.htm http://tl.answers.com/Q/What_is_figure_of_speech_and_its_kinds http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/parts-of-speech_1.htm http://www.dailywritingtips.com/english-grammar-101-all-you-need-to-know/ http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/activepassive.html http://utminers.utep.edu/micontreras/12%20verb%20tenses.htm http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/interjections.htm http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/what-is-a-sentence.htm http://www.studyandexam.com/sentence-types.html http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/pronouns-indefinite.htm http://www.scribendi.com/advice/all_about_adjectives.en.html http://tx.english-ch.com/teacher/angelyn/level-a/three-degree-of-comparison-ofadjectives/ http://eslus.com/LESSONS/GRAMMAR/POS/pos3.htm http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/adverbs.htm http://www.studyandexam.com/adverb2.html http://www.momswhothink.com/reading/list-of-adverbs.html http://www.englishleap.com/grammar/conjunctions http://uwc.utexas.edu/handouts/subject-verb http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure_of_speech