Contents

Chapter 1Introduction
1.0 Introduction ..........................................................................................

1.1 U.S. Clean Energy Needs ...................................................................

1.2 Future Role of Natural Gas .................................................................

1.3 The Conventional Natural Gas Resource ............................................

1.4 The Coal Resource .............................................................................

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1.5 The CBM Resource .............................................................................

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1.6 Overview: CBM vs. Conventional Reservoir .......................................

1.6.1 Gas Composition ....................................................................
1.6.2 Adsorption ...............................................................................
1.6.3 Water Production ....................................................................
1.6.4 Gas Flow .................................................................................
1.6.5 Rock Physical Properties ........................................................
1.6.6 Gas Content ............................................................................
1.6.7 Coal Rank ...............................................................................
1.6.8 Gas Production .......................................................................

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1.7 CH4 Potential of Major U.S. Coal Basins ............................................

1.7.1 San Juan Basin .......................................................................
1.7.2 Black Warrior Basin ................................................................
1.7.3 Raton Basin ............................................................................
1.7.4 Piceance Basin .......................................................................
1.7.5 Greater Green River Coal Region ...........................................
1.7.6 Powder River Basin ................................................................
1.7.7 Northern Appalachian Basin ...................................................
1.7.8 Central Appalachian Basin ......................................................
1.7.9 Western Washington ...............................................................
1.7.10 Wind River Basin ....................................................................
1.7.11 Illinois Basin ............................................................................
1.7.12 Arkoma Basin ..........................................................................
1.7.13 Uinta Basin ..............................................................................
1.7.14 Cherokee Basin ......................................................................

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Chapter 2Geological Influences on Coal
2.1 Formation of Coals ..............................................................................
2.1.1 Stratigraphic Periods ...............................................................
2.1.2 Tertiary Coals of Western United States .................................
2.1.3 Cretaceous Coals of Western United States ..........................
2.1.4 Carboniferous Coals of Eastern United States .......................
2.1.5 Influence of Coal Properties ....................................................
2.1.6 A Genesis Model of Coal ........................................................
2.1.7 Geochemical Transformation ..................................................

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2.2 Coal Chemistry .................................................................................... 91

2.2.1 Molecular Structure ................................................................. 91
2.2.2 Macerals ................................................................................. 96
2.2.3 Lithotypes ................................................................................ 99
2.2.4 Functional Groups ................................................................... 101
2.2.5 Proximate Analysis ................................................................. 103
2.2.6 Ultimate Analysis .................................................................... 108
2.3 Significance of Rank ...........................................................................
2.3.1 Definition and Measurement ...................................................
2.3.2 Vitrinite Reflectance Measurement .........................................
2.3.3 Physical Properties .................................................................
2.3.4 Volatiles Generated ................................................................
2.3.5 Micropores ..............................................................................

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2.4 Cleat System and Natural Fracturing .................................................. 128

Chapter 3Sorption
3.1 Principles of Adsorption ......................................................................
3.1.1 Theory Overview .....................................................................
3.1.2 Langmuir Isotherm ..................................................................
3.1.3 Similarities of Adsorbed Methane and Liquid Behavior ..........
3.1.4 Extended Langmuir Isotherm ..................................................
3.1.5 Industry Uses of Adsorbents ...................................................

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3.2 The Isotherm Construction .................................................................. 160

3.3 CH4 Retention by Coalseams ............................................................. 165
3.4 CH4 Content Determination in Coalseams .......................................... 169
3.5 The Isotherm for Recovery Prediction ................................................. 174
3.6 Model of the Micropores ...................................................................... 176
3.6.1 Pore Geometry ........................................................................ 176
3.6.2 Carbon Molecular Sieves ........................................................ 177

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3.7 Coal Sorption of Other Molecular Species ..........................................

3.7.1 Swelling of Coal Matrix ............................................................
3.7.2 Heavier Hydrocarbons .............................................................
3.7.3 Carbon Dioxide and Nitrogen ..................................................

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3.8 Effects of Ash and Moisture on Ch4 Adsorption .................................. 183

Chapter 4Reservoir Analysis

4.1 Coal as a Reservoir ............................................................................. 191
4.2 Permeability .........................................................................................
4.2.1 Drillstem Test (DST) ...............................................................
4.2.2 Slug Test .................................................................................
4.2.3 Injection Falloff Tests ..............................................................
4.2.4 Depth Effects on Permeability .................................................
4.2.5 Klinkenberg, Shrinkage, and Stress Effects on Permeability ..
4.2.6 Water Composition as Permeability Indicator .........................
4.2.7 Relative Permeability ...............................................................
4.2.8 Butt and Cleat Permeabilities ..................................................

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4.3 Porosity ................................................................................................ 231

4.4 Gas Flow .............................................................................................
4.4.1 Diffusion in Micropores ............................................................
4.4.2 Darcy Flow in Cleats ...............................................................
4.4.3 Sorption Time ..........................................................................

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4.5 Reserve Analysis ................................................................................. 247

4.5.1 Gas In Place .............................................................................. 247
4.5.2 Decline Curves .......................................................................... 258
4.6 Well Spacing and Drainage Area ........................................................ 265
4.7 Enhanced Recovery ............................................................................ 268

Chapter 5Well Construction

5.1 Drilling .................................................................................................. 283
5.1.1 Drill Bits ................................................................................... 284
5.1.2 Drilling Fluids ........................................................................... 284
5.2 Cementing ........................................................................................... 285
5.2.1 Foam Cement .......................................................................... 286
5.2.2 Lightweight Additives ............................................................... 287

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Chapter 6Formation Evaluations, Logging
6.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 289
6.2 Borehole Environment ......................................................................... 290
6.2.1 Downhole Environment .......................................................... 290
6.2.2 Wireline Logging .................................................................... 291
6.3 Tool Measurement Response in Coal .................................................
6.3.1 Natural Gamma Ray ...............................................................
6.3.2 Spontaneous Potential ............................................................
6.3.3 Resistivity Measurements .......................................................
6.3.4 Micro-Resistivity Measurements .............................................
6.3.5 Nuclear Measurements ...........................................................
6.3.6 Acoustic Measurements ..........................................................
6.3.7 Magnetic Resonance Measurements .....................................
6.3.8 Electrical Imaging ....................................................................

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6.4

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Wireline Log Evaluation of CBM Wells ..............................................

6.4.1 Coal Identification ...................................................................
6.4.2 Coal Tonnage .........................................................................
6.4.3 Proximate Analysis .................................................................
6.4.4 Gas Content in Coal ................................................................

6.5 Gas-In-Place Calculations ................................................................... 317

6.6 Recovery Factor .................................................................................. 317
6.7 Drainage Area Calculations ................................................................. 318
6.8 Coal Permeability/Cleating .................................................................. 318
6.9 Natural Fracturing and Stress Orientation ........................................... 319
6.10 Mechanical Rock Properties in CBM Evaluation ................................. 320
6.11 Summary ............................................................................................. 320

Chapter 7Completions
7.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 323
7.2 Openhole Completions ........................................................................ 323
7.3. Openhole Cavitation Process ..............................................................
7.3.1 Introduction .............................................................................
7.3.2 Case Study: Cavitation Research Project ...............................
7.3.3 Case Study: Devon Cavity Process ........................................

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7.4 Cased-Hole Completions ....................................................................

7.4.1 Conditions for Cased Hole ......................................................
7.4.2 Access by Slotting ...................................................................
7.4.3 Access by Perforating .............................................................

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7.5 Multizone Entry in Cased Hole ............................................................

7.5.1 Baffled Entry ...........................................................................
7.5.2 Frac Plug Entry .......................................................................
7.5.3 Partings Entry .........................................................................
7.5.4 Coiled Tubing and Packer Completions ..................................

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Chapter 8Hydraulic Fracturing of Coalseams

8.1 Need for Fracturing Coals ................................................................... 357
8.1.1 Appalachian Wells Inadequately Stimulated ........................... 358
8.1.2 Unstimulated Wells in Big Run Field ....................................... 362
8.2 Unique Problems in Fracturing Coals ..................................................
8.2.1 Fines .......................................................................................
8.2.2 Fluid Damage ..........................................................................
8.2.3 Excessive Treating Pressures ................................................
8.2.4 Leakoff ....................................................................................

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8.3 Types of Fracturing Fluids for Coal .....................................................

8.3.1 Crosslinked Gels .....................................................................
8.3.2 Water ......................................................................................
8.3.3 Comparison of Gel and Water ................................................
8.3.4 Foam .......................................................................................
8.3.5 Proppant Considerations ........................................................

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8.4 In-Situ Conditions ................................................................................

8.4.1 Rock Properties ......................................................................
8.4.2 Stress ......................................................................................
8.4.3 Determining Stress Values .....................................................

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8.5 Visual Observation of Fractures .......................................................... 411

Chapter 9Water Production and Disposal

9.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 421
9.2 Water Production Rates from Methane Wells .....................................
9.2.1 Initial Water Production Rates ................................................
9.2.2 Water Decline Rates ...............................................................
9.2.3 Anomalous Water Production Rates .......................................

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9.3 Chemical Content ................................................................................ 427

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9.4 Environmental Regulations ..................................................................

9.4.1 Toxicity Limitations of Coalbed Water .....................................
9.4.2 Regulatory Agencies of the Warrior Basin ..............................
9.4.3 Regulatory Agencies of the San Juan Basin ...........................

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9.5 Water Disposal Techniques ................................................................. 443

9.5.1 Surface-Stream Disposal ........................................................ 443
9.5.2 Injection Wells ......................................................................... 453
9.6 Summary ............................................................................................. 455

Chapter 10Economics of Coalbed Methane Recovery

10.0 Introduction .......................................................................................... 461
10.1 Tax Credit ............................................................................................ 462
10.1.1 History of the Credit ................................................................. 462
10.2 Measures of Profitability ...................................................................... 463
10.2.1 Criteria for Economical Methane Project ................................. 463
10.2.2 Comparison of Measures of Profitability .................................. 467
10.3 Costs ...................................................................................................
10.3.1 Drilling and Completion ...........................................................
10.3.2 Water Disposal ........................................................................
10.3.3 Finding Costs ..........................................................................

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10.4 Structured Resource Evaluation ..........................................................

10.4.1 Gas Content Sensitivity ...........................................................
10.4.2 Permeability Sensitivity ...........................................................
10.4.3 Spacing Sensitivity ..................................................................
10.4.4 Permeability Anisotropy Sensitivity .........................................
10.4.5 Fracture Length Sensitivity ......................................................

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Acronyms ..................................................................................................... 491

Index ............................................................................................................ 495