Brake Roughness - Disc Brake Torque Variation, Rotor Distortion and Vehicle Response

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930803
Brake Roughness - Disc Brake Torque Variation, Rotor Distortion and Vehicle Response
Walter Stringham, Peter Jank, Jerry Pfeifer, and Alex Wang
Allied Signal Automotive
Reprinted from: ABS/TCS and Brake Technology (SP-953)
International Congress and Exposition Detroit, Michigan March 1-5, 1993
THIS DOCUMENT IS PROTECTED BY U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT It may not be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, distributed or transmitted, in whole or in part, in any form or by any means. Downloaded from SAE International by Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Monday, October 29, 2012 09:49:43 PM
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No part of this publication may by reproduced in any form, in an electronic retrieval system or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. ISSN 0148-7191 Copyright 1993 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc. Positions and opinions advanced in this paper are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of SAE. The author is solely responsible for the content of the paper. A process is available by which discussions will be printed with the paper if it is published in SAE transactions. For permission to publish this paper in full or in part, contact the SAE Publications Group. Persons wishing to submit papers to be considered for presentation or publication through SAE should send the manuscript or a 300 word abstract of a proposed manuscript to: Secretary, Engineering Activity Board, SAE. Printed in USA
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930803
Brake Roughness - Disc Brake Torque Variation, Rotor Distortion and Vehicle Response
Walter Stringham, Peter Jank, Jerry Pfeifer, and Alex Wang
Allied Signal Automotive
ABSTRACT
Noise and vibration related functional characteristics of the disc brake has, for a long time, been the nemesis of the design engineer's existence. New methods of measurement and analysis techniques are providing information which improves the practical assessment of a disc brake design and improves the basic understanding of noise and vibration operational aspects. Utilization of these new techniques make undesirable roughness prediction more feasible and potential solutions more rapidly identifiable. Development of these new measurement methods involved the measurement of in-stop torque variation and rotor thickness variation (TV), as well as rotor total indicated runout. Detailed analysis of the torque variation signature of vehicle and dynamometer data indicates significant differences. These differences are shown to be influenced by vehicle suspension resonant characteristics and (in-stop) changes to both lining and rotor mechanical characteristics.
INTRODUCTION Vehicle "Brake Roughness" is the generic term used to describe undesirable tactile vibration felt during the braking event. The term "Brake Roughness" oversimplifies the complex vibratory
environment which occurs during braking; therefore, the goal of this investigation was to gain a better understanding of the braking forces and their role in brake roughness. The goal was met by application of multiple measurement and analysis techniques of data acquired during extensive vehicle and inertial dynamometer testing. Two (2) new measurement techniques were developed which provided real time, non-intrusive torque measurement and in-stop rotor thickness variation (TV), and rotor total indicated runout (TIR) data. As a result of this study the following benefits were realized, namely: That a relationship between objective brake torque variation measurements and subjective roughness evaluations does exist and that it can be successfully utilized as a development tool. The determination that utilization of the brake torque variation measurement methodology can be successfully employed as a means to benchmark various caliper designs, compare lining material formulation, as well as provide a means to assess the vehicle's role in "brake roughness". That multiple test and analytical methodologies must be employed in concert to successfully gain an improved understanding of the complex vehicle vibratory environment called "brake roughness".
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BACKGROUND
Three (3) test measurement techniques and several analysis techniques will be discussed which resulted in a better understanding of the braking forces and their role in brake roughness. Measurement techniques: Non-intrusive torque variation measurement for both dynamometer and vehicle Non-intrusive rotor thickness variation measurement. Vehicle suspension and steering system frequency response function measurement. Analysis techniques: A variety of time and frequency based analysis techniques were used to develop the interrelationship of torque variation and Steering/Suspension Systems. NON-INTRUSIVE TORQUE VARIATION MEASUREMENTS Since the ultimate goal of this investigation was to gain a better understanding of braking forces and their role in brake roughness, measurement of torque variation during vehicle testing was required. Commercially available wheel end installed torque transducers are a means to measure a torque variation during vehicle testing. However, torque wheels influence (to some degree) the operational characteristics of both the disc brake and suspension system. This influence stems from the fact that the torque wheel installation alters the torsional inertia, unsprung weight, air flow, scrub radius, etc. In an effort to compare dynamometer and vehicle torque variation data and to avoid the intrusiveness of the instrumented torque wheel, it was necessary that the following two (2) issues be addressed, namely: 1. A single torque variation measurement technique had to be implemented. This single measurement technique had to be used for both dynamometer and vehicle testing. 2. The measurement of torque variation had to be non-intrusive to both caliper and vehicle suspension functional operation.
To fulfill these two (2) requirements, a method of strain gaging the disc brake anchor plate was developed. The location of the strain gages was on the trailing end load bearing member and at a point between the shoe reaction point and anchor plate to spindle mounting bolt (Figure 1). It is at this location that virtually all the braking forces generated by the inner/outer pads are transmitted to the suspension knuckle. The benefit of this particular location is that it is as close as possible to where braking forces are generated. The general sequence to implement this torque variation measurement technique included anchor plate preparation, strain gage installation, dynamometer calibration and, finally, vehicle installation.
Anchor plate preparation involved surface preparation in the area where the strain gages were to be applied. The as cast surface of the anchor plate beam had to be machined to provide the necessary flat and uniform surface finish for proper gage adhesion. Material removal was kept at an absolute minimum to avoid changing the beam's stiffness. Strain gage installation was the conventional full bridge "bending beam" technique with adhesive selection based on an upper surface temperature of 93C.
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DYNAMOMETER CALIBRATION OF THE INSTRUMENTED ANCHOR PLATE - The dynamometer calibration procedure consisted of performing a series of ten (10) stops from the same speed at a prescribed fluid pressure and initial brake pad temperature. The prescribed fluid pressure and brake pad temperatures had four (4) test points (Figure 2) and were selected because they are similar to the four (4) test conditions typically used during a subjective brake roughness evaluation:
All stops were analyzed in this fashion and the average of all conversion factors thus became the anchor plate bridge output-to-torque calibration factor. ANALYSIS OF DYNAMOMETER TORQUE - In addition to providing the strain-to-torque calibration factor, analysis of the dynamometer torque time history indicates that the in-stop magnitude of torque variation increases in a
During each stop, fluid pressure, anchor plate bridge output, lining temperature, once-per-revolution tach pulse and dynamometer torque were simultaneously recorded utilizing a transient data recording system. For all subsequent data processing tasks, the acquired data was downloaded into the analysis software. The following data processing sequence was easily accomplished via the software's worksheet and macro capabilities. 1. Perform seventh order polynomial fit on both dynamometer and instrumented anchor plate bridge output data. Figures 3 and 4 reflect the seventh order fit and time history relationships. Since data acquisition was triggered on a pressure threshold of 68.9 kPa (10 lbf/in2), the time history data as shown does not originate from zero. This procedure was employed to provide a repeatable starting point for data acquisition from stop to stop. 2. Relating both dynamometer torque and anchor plate bridge output via x-y plot. 3. Determining the torque-to-bridge output conversion factor via the slope of the linear regression performed on Item 2 above.
uniform manner (Figure 5) and that there are no distinct peaks present. Generating Figure 5 involved the extraction of the torque variation magnitude per rotor revolution. Therefore, figure 5
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is actually compiled revolution-by-revolution from start to finish with the peak-to-peak torque variation value plotted versus revolution. The lower trace in Figure 5 was typical of the stops performed at test point 1 (low pressure, low temperature), while the upper trace was typical of stops performed at test point 2 (low pressure, high temperature). The level of torque variation for the higher temperature condition was 1.9 that of the low temperature condition.
seen in Figure 6, there are numerous "mountain ranges" and that these mountain ranges slope gradually to the left (i.e., decreases in frequency). This decrease in frequency is directly proportional to the decrease in speed which occurred during the braking event. This proportional relationship between rotational speed and frequency is commonly referred to as rotational order(s). Frequencies which do not change proportionately to speed are classified as "stationary frequencies" and are indicative of a resonant characteristic being present. Therefore, the significance of Figure 6 is in the information contained therein, namely: The first "mountain range" from the left is directly related to rotor rotation and is first order, the next mountain range to the right is second order and so on. The magnitude of first order clearly dominates over all other orders. There are no "stationary frequencies" present in this frequency range, thus indicating the absence of any resonances. These two observations remained consistent throughout the dynamometer testing that was performed at each of the four (4) test points which were listed in Figure 2.
Further analysis of in-stop torque variation is illustrated in Figure 6. Figure 6 is a three-dimensional plot with the horizontal axis being frequency (Hz), vertical axis being torque variation magnitude (N-m) and the axis into the paper being time (seconds). Time starts at the bottom (first) trace (coincident with zero on the vertical axis) and increases upward toward the top (last) trace. The plot is made up of many traces and each trace is the frequency spectrum of a small time slice 1.024 seconds long. Therefore, the first trace is the frequency spectrum of the time slice from 0 to 1.024 seconds, but the second (and all subsequent slices thereafter) are overlapped by 97%, which means the second time slice starts at time 0.024 seconds and ends 1.048 seconds later. The benefit of overlapping the time slices is that changes in the frequency spectrum with respect to time are more easily distinguished. As can be
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The major sequential steps in this vehicle test program are:
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VEHICLE TESTING -This investigation involved many tasks of which the major steps have been itemized in Figure 7. Vehicle related testing included laboratory-based experimental modal analysis and over-the-road brake applies. Experimental modal analysis was utilized to determine suspension and steering column frequency response functions (FRF), along with identification of dominant resonant frequencies below 50 Hz. This upper frequency limit was selected because it is consistent with the frequency range generally associated with the study of brake roughness. Over-the-road testing involved performing 112-48 km/h (70-30 mph) decelerations at each of the four test points indicated in Figure 2. The rotor, inner/outer lining and caliper assembly utilized during dynamometer testing was installed on the subject test vehicle at the right front location. Measured parameters included brake pressure, anchor plate bridge output, outer lining temperature and a once-per-revolution tach pulse. Data acquisition instrumentation and data processing software was also the same as that used during dynamometer calibration of the instrumented anchor plate. To extract the desired information from the data, it was necessary to utilize four (4) different analysis techniques. A listing of the types of analysis and what each provides is shown in Figure 8. The following two (2) examples provide the specific analysis sequence which ultimately produced the torque variation comparison (Figure 9) of two (2) different
lining materials and the torque variation vs. roughness rating plot (Figure 10), respectively.
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The analysis sequence which is shown above to generate Figure 9 was repeated for ail ten (10) stops at each of the four (4) test points for two (2) lining materials and compiled. Two (2) conclusions are drawn from this information; namely: That both materials exhibit an increase in torque variation at elevated temperatures. That material A exhibits a significantly higher torque variation (at all test points) than lining B. Next, the maximum first order torque variation values are plotted versus their respective subjective roughness evaluation ratings to produce Figure 10. The conclusion drawn from this analysis is that the first order torque variation magnitude versus roughness rating has an inverse linear relationship. Figure 11 shows an overplot of vehicle and dynamometer first order torque variation at similar test point conditions.
Observations derived from this information are as follows: the vehicle torque variation data has a peak at 86.9 km/hr (55 mph) and 12.5 Hz while the dynamometer data does not. the vehicle torque variation peak coincides with the first major suspension resonance of 12.5 Hz and 13 Hz, respectively. the magnitude of vehicle torque variation at the peak is observed to be 3.5 times higher than the dynamometer value. NON-INTRUSIVE IN-STOP ROTOR THICKNESS VARIATION MEASUREMENT Rotors and pads were removed from vehicles that had exhibited varying degrees of driver perceived roughness and mounted on an inertial dynamometer for further study. Although room temperature static characteristics of rotors can easily be measured, it is their dynamic properties at braking temperatures that are relevant for properly understanding roughness. Even though some uncertainty remains as to whether actual rotor/pad alignment from the vehicle can be reestablished in the dynamometer setup, some properties can still be measured minus the interaction of the caliper/rotor/pad with the vehicle suspension system. Although many factors can contribute to creating roughness in the vehicle, the primary concern here was the influence of rotor thickness variation on roughness. An inertial dynamometer test procedure has been established whereby in-stop variations in torque and pressure can be compared against
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rotor properties such as runout, thickness variation and thermally induced deformations (coning, surface rippling). The in-stop rotor deformations and thickness variation have been measured using a pair of non-contacting capacitance sensors. These fast responding sensors, one on each side of the rotor, are mounted approximately 0.5mm away from the rotor surface and exhibit a linear output over a +/- 0.2mm range. An x-y machinist table, along with a micrometer stage, allows for translational adjustment and alignment of the capacitance sensors with different rotor configurations. The outputs from the capacitance sensors, along with a variety of other in-stop variables such as listed below, are collected with a data acquisition and analyzer system: - Runout, inner rotor surface - Runout, outer rotor surface - Rotor Thickness Variation - Pressure - Torque - Rotor Orientation - Accelerometer outputs, mounted on brake components - Microphone, noise studies - Temperature, pad and or rotor As an example, the results of dynamometer studies on a pad/rotor couple exhibiting roughness on a vehicle is presented below. The stops were made from 1005 rpm (equivalent to 113 km/hr or 70 mph) with constant pressure of 14 Kg(f)/cm2 (200 psi), and at several different initial brake pad temperatures (IBT) The IBT for the first stop was 177C. Figure 12 shows the pressure vs. time trace for this stop.
The constant low frequency modulation observed here is due to the dynamometer pressure control system and is not from the brake; this is neglected in the subsequent analysis. A minor variation in the pressure fluctuation seen in the expanded marker section, however, is due to the rotor. Figure 13 shows the torque signal for this stop; a severe fluctuation is noted that occurs once per rotor revolution (confirmed with rotor orientation sync signal). The runout of the rotor inner and outer surfaces recorded during the stop with the capacitance sensors are shown in Figures 14 and 15. As thermal energy is inputted into the rotor during the stop, the rotor begins to cone or deflect outward. The degree of coning is supported by the theoretical thermal modeling done on the rotor geometry. The difference in magnitude between the measured coning for the inner and outer surfaces is caused by the thermal expansion of the rotor in thickness during the stop. By taking the sum of the outputs from the two capacitance sensors, the relative variation in the rotor thickness per revolution can be displayed as shown in Figure 16. The difference between the maximum and minimum readings per revolution gives the rotor thickness variation (RTV). A slight increase in RTV was observed to occur during this stop, as marked in Figure 16.
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Comparisons can now be made between this 177C stop and the following stop starting from near room temperature. Figure 17 shows the torque trace. The peak-to-peak torque variation is 13 N-m (116 in-lb) as compared to 52 N-m (460 in-lb) which was observed on the higher temperature stop. In terms of percentage of torque variation (delta torque/torque), the percentage increased from 4.1% to 8.6% by increasing the IBT to 177 c. Note that the stop starting near 25 C took about 20.5 seconds to stop compared to 11.4 seconds for the hotter stop. The coefficient of friction for the cooler stop was much lower, hence the lower torque value and longer stopping time. The runout shown in Figure 18 is similar to the runout on the higher temperature stop. However, the rotor coning is about half the value as observed on the hotter stop. This is consistent with having a smaller thermal gradient throughout the rotor. The more significant observation is that the RTV, seen in Figure 19, is smaller, 6.1 to 7.9 um (.24 to .31 mils) than the 13.7 to 18.3 um (.54 to .72 mils) measured on the 177C IBT stop. The rotor thickness variation is increasing with temperature. This accounts for some of the increase in percent torque variation.
Since runout and thickness variation are both usually first order related and often have about the same phase, it is difficult to say precisely which is contributing to roughness. One evaluation method has been to do a frequency response analysis on the torque, runout and thickness variation signals and compare their signatures. Figures 20, 21 and 22 show the frequency response analysis for the 177 C stop data. From the amplitude relationships of the various orders, it is apparent that the rotor thickness variation has a good match with the torque variation.
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From this series of tests performed with pad/rotors taken from vehicles exhibiting roughness, a linear relationship has been observed between in-stop rotor thickness variation measurements and percent increase in torque variation. This relationship from experimental dynamometer testing is shown in Figure 23.
TORQUE VARIATION, SUSPENSION, STEERING SYSTEM INTERRELATIONSHIP - An observation from vehicle testing is that brake roughness (i.e., the vehicle response to brake torque variation) is "maximum" at certain vehicle speeds. Maximum vehicle response occurs as the frequency(s) of torque variation input (i.e., first order, second order, etc.), which is proportional to vehicle speed, becomes coincident with vehicle steering and/or suspension resonant frequencies. At these resonant frequencies, the brake torque variation is "amplified". In an effort to identify the vehicle system resonances, experimental modal analysis was utilized. The vehicle was at curb weight with the brakes locked. A shaker was positioned to provide input into the right front suspension lower ball joint. The shaker axis was parallel to the ground and perpendicular to the spindle axis. In this fashion, the shaker forces produced a torque about the spindle axis. This approach was used in an effort to simulate torque variation force inputs which would have the propensity to excite suspension torsional resonances (only). This survey, therefore, was not intended to be a full vehicle 3-axis modal survey, but rather to identify those torsional resonances and their respective frequencies which could be excited by brake torque variation AND fall below 50 Hz (i.e., the roughness frequency range). Then, once having identified these resonant frequencies, determine their relationship to vehicle speed and rotational frequency. Figures 24 and 25 are the graphical representation of this relationship. Both figures are composed of two (2) graphs. The graph on the right is the frequency response function acquired during experimental modal analysis, while the graph on the left displays the relationships of frequency, tire rotational order and vehicle speed. The frequency vs. vehicle speed graph was the result of calculations made using the tire static loaded radius (SLR) of the test vehicle at curb weight with OEM tires at nominal tire pressure. The usefulness of both Figures 24 and 25 lies in the fact that they show the approximate speed at which to expect the measured suspension and steering column resonances to occur as well as which rotational
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frequency is necessary to excite them. It should be pointed out that while Figure 25 identifies three resonant frequencies of 13.5, 21 and 24.5 Hz, subsequent frequency response measurements made on the steering column have identified that only the 21 Hz frequency is local to the steering column and that the remaining two (i.e.; 13 and 24.5) are the result of the transmissibility between the suspension, body structure and steering column (i.e., they appear to be strongly influenced by the suspension resonances identified at 13 and 23 Hz, respectively). Another significant attributes of Figures 24 and 25 is contained within the information the transfer function provides. In this case, the transfer function trace is the ratio of output response (measured in g's) to the input force (measured in kgf) over the frequency range of 10-110 Hz. This ratio provides a relative measure of amplification, thus, the higher the magnitude of the ratio, the higher the amplification. For this vehicle, tested in this manner, the suspension resonance at 13 Hz has the highest transfer function ratio within the roughness frequency range of 1-50 Hz. Likewise for the 21 Hz steering column resonance. The suspension transfer function magnitude at 13 Hz was more than two (2) times higher than the steering column transfer function magnitude at 21 Hz. SUMMARY The findings presented throughout this paper are based on extensive experimental testing. To arrive at these findings, three (3) separate test methodologies were employed, namely: Vehicle Testing dynamometer Testing Experimental Modal Analysis Testing It was shown that each of the three (3) test methodologies provided relevant pieces of information and that when these pieces were combined, yet another, larger picture (of brake roughness) began to develop. Therefore, the conclusions drawn from the testing performed during this investigation are provided in two (2) sections. The first section is a listing of
conclusions derived from each of the test methodologies listed above. The later section addresses the more global aspects of this investigation. CONCLUSIONS FROM TEST METHODOLOGIES The disc brake torque variation is a non-stationary function and its frequency content is a function of rotational speed. Torque variation signature is significantly influenced by both rotor and lining physical characteristics and that these physical characteristics are further influenced by (increasing) temperature. Different lining materials can produce significantly different levels of torque variation Rotor thickness variation increases linearly with increasing temperature. Lining coefficient of friction increases with increasing temperature (for the linings tested as part of this investigation). The disc brake torque variation signature is dominated by first order (once per revolution) component and that rotor thickness variation (TV) is the primary contributor. Vehicle "brake roughness" is a resonant response characteristic which is influenced by suspension and steering column resonances and the degree of roughness is associated with the resonance amplification factor.
CONCLUSIONS OF A GLOBAL NATURE Multiple test methodologies must be employed in the characterization and study of vehicle brake roughness. The strain gaged anchor plate technique can be successfully utilized as a non-intrusive means to measure torque variation and provides a link between dynamometer and vehicle measurements.
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Brake Roughness - Disc Brake Torque Variation, Rotor Distortion and Vehicle Response

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THIS DOCUMENT IS PROTECTED BY U.S.

Reprinted from: ABS/TCS and Brake Technology (SP-953)

International Congress and Exposition Detroit, Michigan March 1-5, 1993

The major sequential steps in this vehicle test program are:

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