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Introduction
Pictures from and based on the books : Ship Dynamics for Mariners (IC Clark, The Nautical Institute) Ship resistance & flow (SNAME 2010) Viscous Fluid Flow (Franck White)
Fluid characteristic
Definition of a fluid : A continuous, amorphous substance whose molecules move freely past one another and that has the tendency to assume the shape of its container; a liquid or gas. Properties : Isotropy : same characteristics whatever the considered direction Mobility : it will take the shape of a tank Viscosity : is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which is being deformed by either shear stress or tensile stress Compressibility : the density depends on the temperature and the pressure (for water, we consider its independent of the pressure
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Forces on a fluid
Gravity : volume force Pressure : force per surface Friction : interaction between particles and surface Inertia : proportional to acceleration Capillarity In general, Surface tension smaller than Chemical forces the other 4. Magneto hydrodynamic force
In static
Only the first 2 forces have to be considered: So, it become : p + g h = 0 The difference of pressure between two points depends only on the vertical distance between the points : Pb-Pa = g Z Unit of the pressure : Pascal (Pa) 1 Pa = 1 N/m
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Dynamic pressure
The static pressure is a kind of potential energy per unit volume. If we make a small hole, because of this pressure, there will be a jet. Potential energy will be changed into kinetic energy It give the dynamic pressure : g h = V
Bernoulli
Daniel Bernoulli (Groningen, 8 February 1700 Basel, 8 March 1782) was a Dutch-Swiss mathematician and was one of the many prominent mathematicians in the Bernoulli family. He is particularly remembered for his applications of mathematics to mechanics, especially fluid mechanics, and for his pioneering work in probability and statistics. (from wikipedia)
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Bernoulli
Bernoullis theorem shows the conservation of energy.
Bernoulli
Lets consider this pipe. Liquid incompressible, so same volumetric flow rate : A1V1=A2V2 g h1 + V1 + p1 = g h2 + V2 + p2 Because same pressure
V1
2g h A1
2
A2
2
9
2 ( pt
ps )
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Surface tension
Due to molecular forces Try to reduce the surface for the volume (thats why the drops are spherical). In still water, force to open the sea = force to close no effect. In rough water, the spray : it costs energy
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Viscosity
Due to intermolecular attractive forces When we move the upper plate, there is a resistance force. F / A Viscosity is define as the ratio Shear stress so
Strain rate V /S
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Viscosity
The classical formulation is (for 2D) : Behaviour of the fluids : Fortunately, water is a newtonian fluid Unit of Ns/m or kg/(ms)
u y
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Laminar flow
All the particle trajectories are parallel. The energy is transfered by the viscosity. Resistance proportionnal to the speed of the flow.
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Turbulent flow
If the speed increases or if the surface length becomes too big, it will be instable. Turbulent Particles move in all direction and the Kinetic energy is directly transfered. Resistance proportionnal to the square of the flow speed.
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Turbulent flow
At the beginning, laminar. After, turbulent. It occur in the boundary layer (zone in which viscosity is considered). At the end of the plank, the wake. Bernoullis law doesnt apply as energy is being dissipated in turbulence. The streamline doesnt fully converge increase of resistance : form drag.
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Reynolds
Osborne Reynolds (23 August 1842 21 February 1912) was a prominent innovator in the understanding of fluid dynamics. Separately, his studies of heat transfer between solids and fluids brought improvements in boiler and condenser design.
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Reynolds number
O. Reynolds worked on the transition of laminar to turbulent flow in pipe.
Re
VD
VD
He concluded that the transition is function of the ratio inertia force / viscosity force.
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For sea water, =1.87x10-3 at 0C and 0.97x10-3 Ns/m at 25C. So, with =1.4x10-3 and =1025 kg/m, Re=112x107 Transition point is around 0.2 % of the length.
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Foil
A flow on a profile produces a lift and a drag forces.
Great to make the aircraft flying but also for the ships :
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Foil
The force is created by the asymmetrical flow. Its the combination of a symmetrical flow (no lift) And the circulation Difference of pressure proportionnal to V
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Foil
The drag costs energy and the lift is what we want. If the profile is symmetrical and no angle of attack no lift If the profile is asymmetrical or angle of attack lift
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Foil
Along the profile, the separation occurs at the end of the profile. So, there is a wake. If the angle of attack is to big, the seperation point will be more in the beginning of the profile stall
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Foil
What does the lift depend on?
So : - The angle of the rudder should be limited. - The rudder area of a fast boat will be smaller. - The force will increase linearily with the area.
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Cavitation
2 problems : the lifting force can not increase (the difference of pressure is limited). The bubbles appear but collapse when the pressure decrease damage It can be a problem for propellers
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Cavitation
If the difference of pressure is to big, the water will boil (changes state from liquid to water vapour) The vapour pressure should counteract the surface tension.
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Residuary resistance
Air resistance
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1 2
0 . 075
f
log
10
Re
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It can also appear in the fore part, if the waterline is too convex.
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Lord Kelvin
William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, (26 June 1824 17 December 1907) was a mathematical physicist and engineer. At the University of Glasgow he did important work in the mathematical analysis of electricity and formulation of the first and second Laws of Thermodynamics, and did much to unify the emerging discipline of physics in its modern form. Lord Kelvin is widely known for realising that there was a lower limit to temperature, absolute zero.
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Interference
Because wavelengths depend on the speed and 2 systems of waves are created Interference between the waves Speed of wave:V Half l:
0 .5 V g
2
g 2
Number of half l:
N 0 . 9 L PP 0 .5 g 0 . 9 L PP V
2
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Wave resistance
Fr = 0.38 is the limit for displacement ship (Friction resistance has to be added) Above that, the bow wave increases. To reduce the wave resistance, the waterline should be as smooth as possible. But contradiction with the goal of merchant ship which is to increase the deadweight concave shape Contradiction with seakeeping performance (concave ships have more buoyancy reserve).
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Bulbous bow
Goal of the bulbous bow: to create a wave, which will make destructive interference
Problem : it is done for certain speeds. At different speed, we may have constructive interference Other advantage: add forward buoyancy waterplane may be finer 44
Appendage resistance
Rudder, stabilisers fins, propeller, etc increase the resistance
Not placed for towing tank test (too many variable) They have their own Fr and Re
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Air resistance
In air resistance, we consider frictional and eddy making resistance In calm conditions : ~4% When wind, it can increase considerably
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Form drag
Frictional resistance is considered equal to the resistance of a flat plate with the same wetted area
But, if we make test at low Froude (so wave making resistance can be considered as negligible), the total resistance is not the frictional resistance. There is an additional residuary resistance : the form drag
Form drag is siginificant for wider boat
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Form drag
It is due to the boundary layer which is thicker when the beam to length ratio increase. Bernoulli flow is forced to undergo a greater acceleration, which make the boundary layer thickness. The stern pressure is lower, so the wake is bigger.
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Towing tank
Why? CFD is not yet very accurate to estimate the power of a boat. Statistical laws are limited Is it possible to use the results? Yes, with some conditions
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Towing tank
3 kinds of forces are involved :
Inertial force (ma) proportional to r U l Gravitationnal force (mg) proportional to g lr
If the ratio of these forces are the same, the flow will be similar
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Towing tank
Inertia Gravity U l g l
2 3 2 2
U gl
Fr
U gl
Inertia Viscous
U l Ul
Ul
Re
Ul
Ul
Gravity Viscous
Inertia Gravity
Inertia Viscous
So, it means that if the Re and the Fr numbers are the same, the flows will be similar.
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Fr M
Fr S
gl M
U
S M M
gl S
U S lS
gl M
S
gl S
M S
Re
Re
lM
U
M S
lM lS
S 3 2
Great, we can have similar flows We just need to respect the two relations above. No problem, lets replace the water by a liquid with another viscosity, there is just 2 100 000 l to put and if we change the scale,
we will replace it again, its easy
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So, if we can obtain the friction resistance, we can calculate the total resistance with respect of Froude number.
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Perform the resistance tests with the model. So, we have RTM We know that : C 1 2 R V S And that C C C for the model and the ship
TM TM 2 M M M
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CF
0 . 075
C RM
C RS
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C FS log
0 . 075
10 2
Rn
RS
C FS
CF
Finally :
R TS
C TS
VS
SS
R TS
VS
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105
k MAA L
0 . 64
10
Where kMAA is the roughness in microns according to the MAA method. ITTC recommend 150 microns. A 0 . 001 Determine the air resistance coefficient: C S Where AT is the frontal area of the ship above the waterline
T AA
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Calculate the total resistance coefficient as before. Calculate the effective power as before also.
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Form factor
It includes the ratio of the viscous resistance and the resistance of the equivalent flat plate. So, it includes the form effect. Empirical formula (Watanabe):
k 0 . 095 25 . 6 L B CB
2
B T
Another way is to calculate it at low Fr (<0.15) (Cw=0) but small forces, so problems on measurement
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Form factor
Method of Prohaska : assumption: wave resistance coefficient is proportional to the 4th power of the Fr. 1 k C k Fn So: C 4 Or: C T Fn
4 T F 1
CF
k1
CF
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Planing
When a ship goes faster and exceed Fr = 0.38 (with enough power and adequate shape), it can go faster than its wave. A lifting force appears. So, displaced water decreases and resistance is smaller.
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Planing
A part of the flow goes forward : spray Hard chine is better.
Shallow water
The Bernoulli pressure distribution distorts the waterline. It will be more pronounced if the depth is small. Between the river bottom and the hull, water is accelerated, creating a depression reduction of the under keel clearance, called the squat. It depends on :
Static pressure, so it will increase in proportion of V/g The sectional area of the water flow ( blockage factor) The block coefficient (the flow will be more restricted in case of high Cb
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Squat
Squat is NOT an augmentation of the draft. It is the total reduction in under keel clearance. (water level also goes down)
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Squat
Blockage factor : B d So, S
0 .5 D W 1 W0
Ships immersed midship sectional area S=
K 3C B
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S2
CB
With
S2
AS AC AS
With
20 S AS AS
CB
And Vk the speed in knots Attention: these formulas are available in a narrow channel
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0 .8
Following Barrass :
Squat Squat
S S
160 600
0 . 81
0 .8
20 1 . 04 m
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d D
CB
With : Vk speed in knots, d deep water draft, D water depth and CB the block coefficient
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7 . 04 B
0 . 85
(m )
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64 m
l (12m water)=
2 V g
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2
tanh
2 D
101 m
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