Industrial Training Report - Pritesh Gupta

Industrial Training Report On FM Transmission and Broadcasting
SUBMITTED TO RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI VISHWAVIDYALAYA, BHOPAL IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING IN ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING 2013-14 Submitted To Dr. S. J. Basha H.O.D. Dept. of ECE Submitted by Pritesh Gupta 0820EC101071 BE Final year, ECE LNCT Indore
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering June 2013
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project work carried out and recorded in this Industrial Training Report entitled FM Transmission and Broadcasting submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement of the award of the degree of BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING in Electronics & Communication at the Lakshmi Narain College of Technology, Indore affiliated to the Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya, Bhopal is a faithful record of bona fide project work carried out by PRITESH GUPTA (0820EC101071). Hence this Project Report is here by approved for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Engineering to him. (...) Internal Examiner Examiner (...) External
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering ACKNOWLEDGEMENT It is my pleasure to be indebted to various people, who directly and indirectly contributed in the development of this work and who influenced my thinking. I acknowledge Managing Director Mr. Suprabhat Choksey and Principal Mr. D. Mitra for providing the great infrastructure of the college and unique academic environment. I am also thankful and acknowledge my gratitude to our H.O.D. Mr. S. J. Basha and faculties for their guidance and supervision. Their constant source of inspiration and encouragement enabled me to complete my dissertation work. I wish to thank and acknowledge my gratitude to for his permission and providing all facilities for carrying out the training. I also thankful to all staff members of AIR Indore, Mr. R.K. Agrawal and Mr. S. Kadam togive me an opportunity to undergo vocational training at AIR Indore.
Pritesh Gupta 0820EC101071
TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I Contents Introduction to all India Radio

1.1 History 1.2 Studio and labs intro 1.3 Services
Page No. 1
1 2 2
II
Description about the Industrial Training

2.1 Objectives 2.2 Studio Centre 2.3 Studio Acoustic 2.4Acoustic Treatment
3
3 3 6 6
III
Methodology Adopted
3.1 Optical Fiber Communication 3.2 Satellite Communication 3.3 Earthing arrangement in Broadcast station
10
10 12 17
IV 20 V VI
Materials and Methods

4.1 AM Transmitters 4.2 FM Transmitters 4.3 Microphones
20
20 23 31
Advantages and disadvantages Summary and Conclusion Scope of Future Work References
42 43 44
45
FM TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION
List of Tables
Description S. No. 1 Table 1 Satellite frequency bands allocation 13 Page
Electronics and Communication Department, LNCT Indore
List of figures
S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Description Fig. 2.1 Mixing and Switching board Fig. 2.2 Master Control Room Fig. 3.1 Optical Fiber Structure Fig.3.2 Types Of Optical Fibers Fig.3.3 Satellite Communication Fig.3.4 - Flow of current through human body in a proper earthing Fig. 4.1 AM Transmitter Fig. 4.2 Commercial 35 kW FM radio transmitter Fig. 4.3 Schematic of AIR RAU center transmitter Fig. 4.4 Frequency Modulation Fig. 4.5 FM stereo frequency bands Fig. 4.6 BW of FM signal Fig. 4.7 FM transmitter Fig. 4.8 FM Receiver Fig. 4.9 Electro Microphone Fig. 4.10 Ribbon Microphone Fig. 4.11 Condenser Microphone Fig. 4.12 Electret microphone Fig. 4.13 Gun Microphone Fig. 4.14 Lapel Microphone Fig. 4.15 Contact Microphone Fig. 4.16 Boundary Microphone Fig. 4.17 Laser Microphone Fig. 4.18 Wireless Microphone Page 4 5 9 10 11 15 18 19 20 21 22 23 25 25 27 28 28 29 29 30 31 31 32 33
II
List of symbols used

Symbols Full form Average absorption coefficient
III
List of Units used

Units m Full form Ohms Micrometers
VI
FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction to All India Radio

1.1.1 History of AIR:
All India R a d i o ( A I R ), officially known si n c e 1956 a s A k a s hv a n i i s t h e r a d i o b ro a d c a s t e r o f I n d i a a n d a d i v i s io n o f P r a s a r B h a r a t i . E s t a b li s h e d i n 1 9 3 0 , i t i s t h e s i s t e r s e r v i c e o f P r a s a r B h a r a t i 's D o o r d a r sh a n , t h e n a t io n a l t e l e v is i o n b r o a d c a st e r . A l l In d i a R a d i o i s o n e o f t h e l a r g e st r a d i o n e t w o r k s i n t h e w o rl d . I t s headquarters is at the Akashvani Bhavan in New Delhi. Akashvani Bh a v a n h o u s e s t h e D r a ma S e c t i o n , t h e F M S e c t i o n a n d t h e N a t i o n a l S e r v i c e . D o o rd a r sh a n K e n d r a ( D e l h i ) o f fi c e s a r e a l s o l o c a t e d o n t h e sixth floor at Akashvani Bhavan. In B r i t i sh I n d i a , b r o a d c a s t i n g b e g a n i n J u ly 1 9 2 3 w i t h p ro g ra m me s b y t h e R a d i o C l u b o f B o mb a y a n d o t h e r r a d io c l u b s . A c c o rd i n g t o a n a g r e e me n t o f J u l y 2 3 , 1 9 2 7 , t h e p r i v a t e In d i a n B r o a d c a s t in g Company LTD (IBC) was authorized to operate two radio stations; th e B o mb a y s t a t io n b e g a n o n 2 3 J u l y 1 9 2 7 , a n d t h e Ca l c u t t a s t a t io n fo l l o w e d o n 2 6 A u g u s t 1 9 2 7 . O n 1 Ma r c h 1 9 3 0 , h o w e v e r, t h e c o mp a n y w e n t i n t o l i q u i d a t i o n . T h e g o v e r n me n t t o o k o v e r t h e b r o a d c a s t i n g f a c i l i t i e s , b e g i n n i n g t h e I n d i a n S t a t e B r o a d c a s t in g S e rv i c e ( I S B S ) o n 1 A p ri l 1 9 3 0 ( o n a n e x p e ri m e n t a l b a si s fo r t w o y e a r s , a n d p e r ma n e n t l y i n M a y 1 9 3 2 ) . O n Ju n e 8 , 1 9 3 6 ; t h e I S BS w a s r e n a me d A l l In d i a Ra d i o . O n 1 O c t o b e r 1 9 39 t h e Ex te r n a l S e rv i c e b e g a n w i t h a b ro a d c a st in Pu s h t u ; i t w a s i n t e n d e d t o c o u n t e r r a d i o p ro p a g a n d a f r o m G e r ma n y d i r e c t e d t o A f g h a n i s t a n , I ra n a n d t h e A ra b n a t i o n s . W h e n In d i a b e c a me i n d e p e n d e n t i n 1 9 4 7 t h e A I R n e t w o r k h a d o n ly si x s t a t i o n s ( in D e l h i , B o mb a y , C a l c u t t a , M a d r a s , Lu c k n o w , a n d T i r u c h i ) ; t h e t o t a l n u mb e r o f r a d io s e t s a t t h a t t i m e w a s a b o u t 2 7 5 ,0 0 0 . O n 3 O c t o b e r 1 9 5 7 t h e V i v i d h B h a r a t i S e r v i c e w a s l a u n c h e d , t o c o mp e t e w i t h R a d i o C e y l o n . Te l e v i s i o n br o a d c a s t in g b e g a n i n D e l h i i n 1 9 5 9 a s p a rt o f A IR , b u t w a s sp l i t o ff f r o m t h e r a d i o n e t w o r k a s D o o rd a r s h a n o n 1 A p ri l 1 9 7 6 . F M b r o a d c a s t i n g b e g a n o n 2 3 J u l y 1 9 7 7 i n M a d r a s , a n d w a s e x p a n d e d d u ri n g t h e 1990s. T h e w o r d " A k a sh v a n i " w a s c o i n e d b y M . V . G o p a l a sw a my a ft e r s e t t i n g u p th e n a t i o n s f i r s t p r i v a t e r a d i o s t a t io n i n h i s r e s id e n c e , V i t t a l V i h a r ( a b o u t 2 0 0 y a rd s fr o m A IR s c u rr e n t l o c a t io n in M y s o r e ) i n 1 9 3 6 . [ 5 ] A k a sh v a n i me a n s " c e l e st i a l a n n o u n c e me n t " ; th e wo rd , o f S a n sk r i t o r i g i n , i s o f t e n f o u n d i n H i n d u my th o l o g y . W h e n t h e g o d s w i s h e d t o s a y s o me t h i n g , a n a k a s h v a n i o c c u r r e d . L i t e r a l l y , a k a sh m e a n s "sky" a n d v a n i me a n s " so u n d " or [6] Th u s , A k a sh v a n i se e me d t o b e f i t fo r u s e b y a r a d i o me s s a g e " . b r o a d c a s t e r a n d w a s l a t e r a d o p t e d a s A l l I n d i a R a d i o 's o n - a i r n a me a ft e r i n d e p e n d e n c e .
1.1.2 STUDIO & LABS INTRO:

A s tu d i o i s a n a c ou s t i c a l l y t r e a t e d c o m p a c t a n e c h o ic r o o m. I t i s s u i t a b l y fu r n i s h e d a n d e q u i p p e d w i t h f l o o d li g h t f o r p ro p e r l i g h t e f fe c t e d . A l a r g e n u m b e r o f m i c r o p h on e s a r e u s e d a t d i f f e r e n t l o c a t i o n s t o p i c k u p s o u n d a s so c i a t e d w i t h p ro g r a m s o t h a t t h e p r o g r a m c a n b e r e c o r d e d i n e x c e l l e n t f o r m a t w i t h z e r o d i s t u rb a n c e s . T h e mi c ro p h o n e o u t p u t s a r e f e d i n t o t h e c o n t ro l ro o m b y c o a x i a l c a b l e s . Th e c o n t ro l r o o m h a s se v e r a l mo n i t o r s t o v i e w p i c t u r e p i c k e d u p b y d i f fe r e n t c a me r a s . A mo n i t o r i s a T V r e c e iv e r t h a t c o n t a i n s n o p r o v i s i o n s f o r r e c e i v i n g b ro a d c a s t si g n a l s b u t o p e ra t e s o n a d i r e c t i n p u t o f u n p o p u l a t e d si g n a l . A l a r g e n u m b e r o f su c h m o n i t o r s a r e u s e d t o k e e p a c h e c k o n h t c o n t e s t a n d q u a l it y o f p i c t u r e s b e i n g t e l e c a s t . I n a d d i t i o n t o l i v e s t u d i o . V i d e o t a p e r e c o rd i n g a n d t e l e c o m s ma c h i n e r o o m s a r e l o c a te d c l o s e t o t h e c o n t ro l ro o m. I n mo st c a s e s , p r o g r a m a s e n a c t e d i n t h e s t u d i o a r e r e c o rd e d o n v id e o t a p e r e c o r d e r (V T R ) t h r o u g h th e c o n t r o l . T h e se a r e l a t e r b r o a d c a s t w i t h V TR o u t p u t p a s si n g t h r o u g h t h e s a me c o n t ro l r o o m. A l l t h e s e r o o m s a r e i n t e r c o n n e c t e d b y c o - a x i a l c a b l e s a n d shielding wires.
1.3 SERVICES:
A I R h a s ma n y d i ff e r e n t s e rv i c e s e a c h c a t e ri n g t o d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s/ l a n g u a g e s a c ro ss I n d i a . O n e o f t h e m o s t f a mo u s se r v i c e s o f th e A I R i s t h e V i vi d h B h a r a t i S e v a ( r o u g h l y t r a n s l a t i n g t o " M u l t i In d i a n s e rv i c e " ) . V i v i d h B h a ra t i c e l e b r a t e d i t s G o ld e n J u b i l e e o n 3 O c t o b e r 2 0 0 7 . V i v id h B h a r a t i h a s t h e o n l y c o mp r e h e n si v e d a t a b a se o f s o n g s f ro m t h e so t e r me d " G o l d e n Er a " o f H i n di fi l m m u s i c ( r o u g h ly fr o m 1 9 4 0 s t o 1 9 8 0 s ) . Th i s se r v i c e i s t h e mo s t c o m me r c i a l o f a l l a n d i s p o pu l a r i n M u m b a i a n d o t h e r c i t i e s o f I n d i a . Th i s s e r v i c e o f f e r s a w i d e r a n g e o f p r o g ra m me s i n c l u d i n g n e w s , f i l m mu s i c , c o me d y sh o w s , e t c . T h e V i v i d h B h a rt i s e r v i c e o p e ra t e s o n different MW band frequencies for each city as shown below. Some p r o g r a ms b r o a d c a s t o n t h e V i v i d h B h a rt i : H a w a - ma h a l - S k i t ( Ra d i o P l a y ) b a se d o n s o m e n o v e ls / p l a y s. S a n t o g e n k i me h fi l - Jo k e s & h u mo u r
CHAPTER 2 DESCRIPTION ABOUT THE INDUSTRIAL TRAINING
2.1 Objectives:
T o o r i g i n a t e p r o g r a m f r o m s t u d i o s e i th e r f o r l iv e t e le c a s t o r fo r r e c o rd i n g o n a v i d e o t a p e . T o k n i t v a r i o u s o t h e r so u r c e s o f p r o g r a ms a v a i la b l e a t t h e p r o d u c ti o n d e s k - c a me r a o u t p u t f ro m s t u d i o s , fe e d fr o m o t h e r K e n d r a , o u td o o r , p l a y b a c k fr o m p r e r e c o r d e d t a p e , v id e o graphics and characters generator etc. P ro c e s si n g / d i s t r i b u t i o n of d i ff e r e n t so u r c e s to v a ri o u s d e st i n a t io n s i n t e c h n i c a l a re a s . R o u t i n g o f mi x e d p ro g r a m fo r r e c o r d i n g / t r a n s mi s s i o n v i a ma s t e r switching room and Microwave to the transmitter or any other desired destinations.
2.2 Studio Centre:

A c t i v i t i e s i n a re c o rd i n g s t u d i o c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e m a j o r a r e a s s u c h a s: 1. Studio floor/ Action area, 2 . P ro d u c t i o n c o n t ro l r o o m, a n d 3 . M a s t e r c o n t ro l r oo m/ C e n tr a l a p p a r a t u s ro o m, 4 . O t h e r fa c il i t i e s
2.2.1 Studio floor/ Action area:

The studio floor is the actual stage on which the actions that will be recorded take place. A studio floor has the following characteristics and installations decoration: Microphones L i g h t i n g r i g s a n d t h e a s s o c i a t e d c o n t r o l l i n g e q u i p me n t A s ma l l p u b l i c a d d r e s s s y s t e m fo r c o m mu n i c a t i o n A floor manager, who has overall charge of the studio area stage ma n a g e me n t , a n d w h o re l a y s t i mi n g a n d o t h e r i n fo r ma t i o n fr o m t h e t e l e v i s io n d i r e c t o r.
2.2.2 Production control room:

The studio control room (SCR) or production control room is the p l a c e i n s t u d i o i n w h i c h t h e c o mp o s i t i o n o f t h e o u t g o i n g p r o g r a m t a k e s p l a c e . Th e p r o d u c t io n c o n t r o l r o o m i s o c c a s i o n a l l y a l so c a l l e d a st u d i o c o n t r o l r o o m ( SC R ) o r a " g a l l e ry " . M a st e r c on t ro l i s t h e t e c h n i c a l h u b o f a b r o a d c a s t o p e r a t i o n c o m mo n a mo n g mo s t o v e rt h e - a i r F M / A M s t a t i o n s a n d F M/ A M n e t w o rk s. M a s t e r c o n t r o l i s distinct from a PCR in studios where the activities such as s w i t c h i n g f ro m m i c r o p h o n e t o m i c r o p h o n e a r e c o o rd i n a t e d . A t r a n s mi s s i o n c o n t r o l r o o m ( TC R ) i s u s u a l l y s ma l l e r i n s i z e a n d i s a s c a l e d d o w n v e rs i o n o f c e n t ra l c a st i n g . F a c i l i ti e s i n a P C R i n c l u d e : A mi x e r , a l a r g e c o n t r o l p a n e l u s e d t o s e l e c t t h e mu l t i p l e mi c r o p h o n e s e t u p a n d o t h e r v a r i o u s so u rc e s t o b e r e c o rd e d o n air.

A u d i o mi x i n g c o n s o l e a n d o t h e r a u d i o e q u i p m e n t su c h a s e f f e c ts d e v i c e s a re u s e d t o mi x th e g e n e r a t e d p r o g r a m v o i c e a t r e a l t i me . Some storage media to store the composed program temporarily. Control units or remote control panels for the control of the i n n e r a n d o u t e r e n v i ro n me n t o f s t u d i o .
F i g . 2 .1 M i xi n g a n d S w i t c h i n g b o a r d 2.2.3 Master control room : T h e ma s t e r c o n t r o l r o o m h o u s e s e q u i p me n t t h a t i s t o o n o i sy . I t a l so ma k e s s u r e t h a t w i r e l e n g t h s a n d i n s t a l l a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e w i t h i n ma n a g e a b l e l e n g t h s . This can include: T r a n s mi s s io n C o n t ro l R o o m N e t w o rk O p e r a t i o n s C e n t e r It also makes sure that coax cable and other wire lengths and i n s t a l l a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s k e e p w i t h in ma n a g e a b l e l e n g t h s , s i n c e mo s t h i g h- q u a l i t y w i r i n g r u n s o n ly b e t w e e n d e v i c e s i n t h i s ro o m. This can include the actual circuitry and connections between Audio servers Mixer (Audio Switcher) patch panels
F i g . 2 .2 Ma s t e r C o nt r o l R o o m
2.2.4 Other facilities:

A t e l e v i s i o n s t u d i o u su a l l y h a s o t h e r r o o ms w i t h n o t e c h n i c a l r e q u i r e me n t s b e y o n d b r o a d c a s t r e fe r e n c e mo n i to r s a n d s t u d i o mo n i t o r s f o r a u d i o . A mo n g t h e m a r e : O n e o r mo r e a c o u st i c ro o ms . A r e c e p t i o n a r e a fo r c r e w , t a l e n t , a n d v i s i t o r s.
2.3 Studio Acoustic 2.3.1 Introduction

A b r o a d c a s t i n g st u d i o i s a r o o m i n s t u d i o c o mp l e x w h i c h h a s b e e n sp e c i a l l y d e si g n e d a n d c o n s t r u c t e d t o s e rv e t h e p u rp o s e o f o r i g i n a t i n g b r o a d c a s t i n g p ro g r a ms . W h e n e v e r a n y m u s i c i a n s i n g s a n d w e s i t i n f r o n t o f a p e r f o r mi n g m u s i c i a n t o l i s t e n t o h i m, w e e n j o y t h e p r o g r a m b y v i r t u e o f t h e su p e r b q u a l i t i e s o f o u r se n so ry o r g a n s n a me l y e a r s . H o w e v e r , w h e n w e l i s te n t o t h e s a me p r o g r a m o v e r t h e b ro a d c a s t c h a i n a t o u r h o me t h o u g h d o me s ti c r e c e i v e r s , t h e conditions are entirely different. We as broadcasters are c o n t i n u o us l y e n g a g e d i n t h e t a sk o f e ns u r i n g t h e ma x i mu m p l e a s u r e fo r t h e l is t e n e r a t h o me w h e n t h e a r t i s t s a re p e r fo r mi n g i n si d e t h e s t u d i o s. I n o rd e r to a c h i e v e o u r g o a l w e mu s t th o ro u g h l y u n d e rs ta n d th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e d i f f e r e n t c o mp o n e n t s i n v o l v e d i n t h e b r o a d c a s t c h a i n , a n d i n t h i s p r o c e s s w e mu s t p r e se r v e th e o r i g i n a l q u a l i t y o f s o u n d p r o d u c e d by t h e a r t i s t s i n s i d e t h e s t u d i o . T h e s c i e n c e o f s o u n d i s o ft e n c a l l e d A c o u s t i c s . I t w o u l d b e t h us p r u d e n t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e fi e l d o f a c o u s t i c s a s a p p l i e d t o broadcasting.
2.4 Acoustic Treatment

G o o d a c o u s t i c s i s a p r e - re q u i si t e o f h i g h q u a li t y b r o a d c a s t i n g o r r e c o rd i n g . A c o u s t i c t re a t me n t i s p ro v i d e d i n s t u d i o s , c o n t r o l r o om s , and other technical areas in order to achieve the acoustic conditions w h i c h h a v e b e e n f o u n d f ro m e x p e ri e n c e t o b e su i t a b l e fo r t h e v a r i o u s ty p e s o f p r o g r a ms . I n t h i s s e c t i o n p ro b l e m s a n d d e s ig n a sp e c t s o f i n t e r n a l a c o u st i c s o f a b ro a d c a s t st u d i o a re e x p l a i n e d .
2.4.1 Propagation of Sound Waves

S o u n d w a v e s e ma n a t i n g fr o m a s o u n d so u r c e a r e p ro p a g a t e d i n a l l d i r e c t io n s. Th e s e so u n d w a v e s a r e s u b j e c t t o r e fl e c t i o n , a b s o r p t io n a n d re f r a c t i o n o n e n c o u n t e r in g a n o b s t a c l e . Ex t e n t t o w h i c h e a c h o f th e s e p h e n o me n o n t a k e s p l a c e d e p e n d s u p o n t h e s t ru c t u re a n d sh a p e o f t h e o b s t a c l e , a n d a l so o n t h e fr e q ue n c y o f so u n d w a v e s . I n c l o s e ro o m s , t h e s o u n d w o u l d b e r e fl e c t e d a n d r e - r e fl e c t e d t i l l t h e i n t e n si ty w e a k e n s a n d i t d i e s d o w n . P h y s ic a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s o u n d w a v e s a re t h u s mo d i fi e d i n v a ri o u s w a y s b e fo r e t h ey r e a c h t h e h u ma n e a r . T h e s e r e f l e c t e d w a v e s c a n c r e a t e e c h o e f f e c t i n t h e r o o m. T o a c h i e v e t h e d e s i r a b le e ff e c t s o f th e r e fl e c t e d so u nd , t h e d i me n s i o n s a n d sh a p e o f t h e r o o m a r e d e c i d e d w i t h d u e c a r e a n d a c o u s t i c t r e a t me n t s a r e a l s o p ro v i d e d o n th e v a ri o u s su r fa c e s .
2.4.2 Reverberation Time(R/T)

In a n y e n c l o s e d ro o m w h e n a s o u n d i s s w i t c h e d o ff , i t t a k e s a fi n i t e l e n g t h o f t i me t o d e c ay t o i n a u d ib i l i t y . T h e h a n g i n g - on o f t h e so u n d i n a r o o m a ft e r t h e e x c i t i n g s i g n a l h a s b e e n r e mo v e d , i s called reverberation and the time taken for the sound to decay to o n e mi l l i o n t h o f i t s i n i t ia l v a l u e , i .e . 6 0 d B , a ft e r t h e so u r c e h a s s t o p p e d , is t e r me d R e v e r b e r a t i o n T i me (R / T ) .
2.4.3 Factor Covering Reverberation Time

R / T o f a r o o m d e p e n d s u p o n sh a p e a n d s i z e o f r o o m a n d o n t h e t o t a l a b so r p t i o n o f fe r e d o n b o u n d a r y su r fa c e s . F o r a ro o m o f g iv e n volume and surface area, the R/T can be derived by Eyrings formula
Where, R / T = R e v e r b e r a t i o n t i me i n s e c o n d s V = V o lu me i n c u b i c f t . S = To t a l su r f a c e a r e a o f r o o m i n Sq . ft . = A v e r a g e a b s o r p t i o n c o e ff i c i e n t A v e r a g e a b s o r p t i o n c o e ff i c i e n t ( ) i s g i v e n b y
FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING Where, S 1 , S 2 S n a r e t h e a r e a s ( i n sq . ft .) o f d i f f e r e n t ma t e r ia l s p ro v i d e d , a n d 1 , 2 n a r e t h e a b s o r p t io n c o e f fi c i e n t s o f t h e se ma t e r i a l s . o f a c o u s t i c ma t e r i a l i s d e f i n e d a s t h e r a t i o o f a b so r b e d s o u n d to t h e to t a l i n c i d e n t e n e rg y o f so u n d . A n o p e n w i n d o w a b s o r b s / a l l o w s t o p a s s a l l o f t h e so u n d e n e r g y s t r i k i n g i t a n d r e fl e c t s n o n e . T h u s i t h a s o f u n i t y . o f p r a c t i c a ll y a l l a c o u s t i c ma t e r i a ls v a r y w i t h frequency.
2.4.4 Effects of Reverberation on Program:

R e v e r b e r a t i o n i s t h e mo s t i m p o rt a n t s i n g l e p a r a m e t e r o f a ro o m. I t i n f l u e n c e s t h e a u d i o p r o g r a ms i n f o l l o w i n g w a y s : Volume of program increases due to reverberation of sound. This is a d e s i r a b l e f e a t u r e , h o w e v e r , t o o mu c h o f r e v e r b e r a t i o n ma y i mp a i r the quality of proram and, therefore, should be controlled. Reverberation results in prolongation of sound inside the room. This leads to blending of one sound with the next and produces a v e r y p l e a s a n t c o n t i n u i t y i n t h e f l o w o f mu s i c . T o o mu c h o f p r o l o n g a t i o n , h o w e v e r , ma y c r e a t e l o s s i n i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y o f p r o g r a m due to decrease in clarity. Reverberation time of a room is dependent on frequency. Therefore, it modifies the frequency characteristics of the total s o u n d f i e l d i n s i d e t h e r o o m . H i g h R / T a t mi d a n d h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s leads to increased liveness and that at low frequencies increases warmth. This effect can be used judiciously for desirable qualities.
2.4.5 Acoustic absorbers:

Acoustic absorbers are provided on the inner surfaces of the room to a c h i e v e o p t i m u m R / T c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s . D i f f e r e n t a b s o r b e r s h a v e different absorption characteristics. No single absorber generally provides uniform absorption over the complete frequency spectrum. S o me o f t h e c o m mo n l y u s e d a b s o r b e r s a r e : i ) P o r o u s M a t e r i a l s : M i n e r a l w o o l , g l a s s w o o l , e t c . a r e m e mb e r s o f this class. These materials are very good absorber and are most e f f e c t i v e i n mi d a n d h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s , h o w e v e r , t h e s e c a n n o t b e u s e d w i t h o u t s o me f a c i n g m a t e r i a l . C a r p e t s a n d c u r t a i n s a l s o f a l l i n t h i s category. ii) Fibrous Materials: Celotak, insulation boards, perfotiles, jollylowtone tiles etc. fall in this category. Absorption of these materials depends upon their softness. Absorption efficiency of these materials depends upon the trapping and dissipation of sound energy in tiny pores. Absorption gets reduced if the surface pores are filled with p a i n t s e t c . T h e s e ma t e r i a l s h a v e v e r y p o o r a b s o r p t i o n o n l o w f r e q u e n c i e s . H o w e v e r a p p r e c i a b l e i mp r o v e me n t a t t h e s e f r e q u e n c i e s i s p o s s i b l e b y p r o v id i n g a i r - g a p b e h i n d . i i i ) P a n e l A b s o r b e r s : P a n e l a b s o r b e r s a r e t h i n s h e e t s / m e mb r a n e s w i t h a n a i r c a v i t y b e h i n d . T h e ma s s o f t h e p a n e l a n d t h e s p r i n g i n e s s o f t h e air in the cavity resonant at some particular frequency. Panel absorbers with 3mm teak ply-facing + 50mm air gap + 25mm mineral

wool resonate at about 125Hz. This is generally used as low frequency absorber (LFA). iv) Perforated Panel Absorbers: Perforated hardboard (PHB) spaced from the wall constitute a resonant type of sound absorber. The absorption can be considerably enhanced by inserting asuitable p o r o u s / f i b r o u s d a m p i n g ma t e r i a l i n t h e a i r c a v i t y . T h e a b s o r p t i o n pattern can be varied by adjusting the front and rear air gap from the d a m p in g m a t e r i a l . A b s o r p t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t o f t h i s a b s o r b e r d e p e n d s o n the percentage open area of PHBs also.
2.4.6 Design of Room Acoustic:

D e s i g n fo r c o r r e c t r e v e r b e r a t i o n t i me c o n s i s t s o f e s t i m a t i n g t h e t o t a l absorption which must be present in the studio. This is calculated by E y r i n g s F o r mu l a , s o me o f t h e a b s o r p t i o n i s o f f e r e d b y w i n d o ws , doors, flooring and artists inside the studio. For the balance r e q u i r e me n t s o u n d a b s o r b i n g ma t e r i a l s a r e p r o v i d e d o n w a l l s a n d c e i l i n g s u r f a c e s . C a l c u l a t i o n s a r e g e n e r a l l y ma d e a t s i x s p o t frequencies of 125, 250, 500, 1000, 2000 and 4000 Hz. Quantities of materials of known absorption coefficients are selected by trial and e r r o r me t h o d s o t h a t R / T r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e m e t w i t h i n + 5 % o f t h e o p t i mu m R / T a t a l l t h e s e f r e q u e n c i e s . C o mp u t e r a i d e d d e s i g n f o r t h e s a me h a s a l s o b e e n e v o l v e d . T h e r e a f t e r t h e s e a c o u s t i c m a t e r i a l s a r e distributed on various surfaces for proper diffusion of sound in the studio.
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CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY ADOPTED
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3.1 Optical Fiber Communication:

F i b e r o p t i c s i s b e i n g u s e d t o t r a n s mi t t e l e v i si o n , v o i c e , a n d d ig i t a l data signals by light waves over flexible hair like threads of glass a n d p la s t i c . It h a s e v o lv e d i n t o a sy st e m o f g r e a t i mp o r t a n c e a n d u s e since the 1980s. T h e a d v a n t a g e s o f fi b e r o p t ic s c o mp a r e d t o c o a x i a l c a b l e o r t w i st e d pair cable, are endless. Millions of dollars are being spent to put l i g h t w a v e c o m mu n i c a t i o n sy s t e ms i n to o p e r a t io n , a s a re s u l t o f i t s p e r fo r ma n c e .
3.1.1 Definition:
O p t ic a l F i b e r C o mmu n i c a t i o n Sy st e m c o n v e r t s e l e c tr i c a l s i g n a l i n t o l i g h t s ig n a l w i t c h a ft e r p a s s i n g t h r o u g h o p t i c a l f ib e r c a b l e is r e c o n v e r t e d i n t o e l e c t r i c a l si g n a l b y u s in g o p t i c a l R e c e i v e r
3.1.2 Composition of optical fiber:

S i l i c a b a s e d g l a s s o r p l a st i c f i l a m e n t s a r e s p u n a n d p a c k e d i n t o b u n d l e s o f s e v e r a l h u n d r e d s o r t h o u sa n d s . B u n d l e s ma y b e p u t t o g e th e r a s r o d s o r r i b b o n s a n d sh e e ts . These bundles are flexible and can be twisted and contorted to c o n d u c t l i g h t a n d i ma g e s a r o u n d c o r n e r s T h e t h in g l a s s c e n t e r o f t h e fi b e r w h e re t h e l i g h t t r a v e l s i s c a l l e d t h e C o r e . T h e o u t e r o p t i c a l m a t e r i a l su r ro u nd i n g t h e c o r e th a t r e f l e c t s t h e light back into the core is called the cladding. I n o r d e r t o p r o t e c t t h e o p t i c a l s u r f a c e f r o m mo i st u r e a n d d a ma g e , i t i s c o a t e d w i t h a l a y e r o f b u ff e r c o a t i n g .
F i g . 3 .1 O p t i c a l F i b e r S t r uc t u r e
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3.3.3 Operation in optical fiber system:

I n a f ib e r o p t i c s y st e m , t h e r e a r e a f e w ma j o r c o m p o n e n t s t o p e r fo r m t h e t a sk o f c o m mu n i c a t io n . T h e I n p u t Mo d u l a t o r i s n e e d e d ; t h i s mo d u l a t e s t h e i n c o m in g s ig n a l w i t h a l i g h t b e a m . A l i g h t e mi t t i n g d e v i c e i s u s e d ; i t c a n b e e i t h e r a l i g h t e mi t t in g d i o d e ( L ED ) o r a s e mi c o n d u c t o r l a s e r d i o d e . A f i b e r o p t i c c a b l e i s u s e d a s a t ra n s p o r t a t i o n m e d i u m . A f i b e r o p t i c sy st e m c o n v e rt s a n e l e c t r i c a l s i g na l t o a n i n f r a re d l i g h t s i g n a l , a n d t h e n tr a n s m i t s t h e si g n a l o n t o a n o p t i c a l f i b e r . A n O u tp u t Mo d u l a t o r i s u s e d t o s e p a r a t e t h e si g n a l f ro m t h e l i g h t b e a m.
3.3.4 Types of optical fiber:

1. Step index: T h i s c a b l e h a s i n d e x o f r e fra c t i o n fo r t h e c o r e a n d t h e c l a d d i n g . I t c a u se s d e f o r ma t i o n s d u e t o t h e v a ri o u s p a t h s l e n g t h s o f t h e l i g h t r a y . Th i s i s c a l l e d mo d a l d i s t o r t i o n . I t i s th e c h e a p e s t ty p e o f c a b l i n g . W i t h i n t h e c l a d d i n g a n d t h e c o r e , t h e r e fr a c t i v e h a s a sp e c i f i c i n d e x i s c o n s t a n t . 2. Graded index: In g r a d e d i n d e x f i b e r , r a y s o f l i g h t fo l l ow s i n u so id a l p a t hs . Although the paths are different lengths, they all reach the end of th e fi b e r a t t h e s a m e t i me . M u lt i mo d e d i sp e r s i o n i s e l i mi n a t e d a n d p u l se s p r e a d i n g i s r e d u c e d . G r a d e d I n d e x f i b e r c a n h o l d t h e s a me a mo u n t o f e n e rg y a s mu l t i m o d e fi b e r. T h e d i sa d v a n t a g e i s t h a t t h is takes place at on one wavelength.
F i g .3 . 2 T y p e s O f O p t i c a l Fi b e r s
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3.2 Satellite communication

3.2.1 Introduction:
A s a t e l l i t e i s a r a d i o fr e q u e n c y r e p e a t e r . N e w - g e n e r a t io n s a t e l l i te s are regenerative; that is, they have on board processing capability ma k i n g t h e m m o r e o f a n i n t e l l ig e n t u n i t t h a n a me r e r e p e a t e r . Th is c a p a b i l i ty e n a b l e s t h e s a t e l l i t e t o c o n d it i o n , a m p l i fy , o r r e f o r ma t r e c e i v e d u p li n k d a t a a n d r o u t e t h e d a t a t o s p e c i f i e d l o c a t i o n s , o r a c t u a l l y r e g e n e r a t e d a t a o n b o a r d t h e sp a c e c r a ft a s o p p o s e d t o s i mp ly a c t i n g a s a r e l a y s t a t io n b e t w e e n t w o o r mo r e g r o u n d s t a t i o n s . I t w a s p a r t o f t h e p a y l o a d o n t h e S p a c e S h u t t l e D i sc o v e ry l a u n c h e d o n Se p t e mb e r 1 2 , 1 9 9 3 . A c c o rd i n g t o N A S A , i ts s a t e l l i t e w e i g h s 3 2 5 0 l b . ( 1 4 7 7 .3 k g ) a n d me a s u r e s 4 7 . 1 f t . ( 1 4 .3 6 m) fr o m t i p t o t i p o f t h e s o l a r a r r a y s a n d 2 9 . 9 f t . ( 9 .1 1 m) a c r o s s t h e ma i n r e c e i v i n g a n d t r a n smi t t i n g a n t e n n a r e fl e c t o rs , w i t h a h e i g h t o f 1 5 . 2 ft . ( 4 .6 3 m) f r o m t h e sp a c e c r a ft s e p a r a t i o n p l a n e to t h e t i p o f t h e h i g h e s t a n t e n n a . Th e s o l a r a r r a y s p ro v i de a p p r o x i ma t e l y 1 .4 k i l o w a t t s . T h e m a i n c o mmu n i c a t i o n a n t e n n a s a r e a 7 .2 - f t ( 2 . 1 9 - m) r e c e i v i n g a n t e n n a a n d a 1 0 .8 - f t ( 3 . 2 9 - m ) t r a n s m i t t i n g a n t e n n a .
F i g .3 .3 S a t e l l i t e C o m m u ni c a ti o n I n mo s t s y s t e m a p p l i c a t i o n s , o n e s a t e l l i t e s e r v e s m a n y e a r t h s t a t i o n s . W i th t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f e a r t h s t a t i o n s , f i x e d o r transportable, satellites a reopening a new era for global satellite mu l t i - a c c e s s c h a n n e l s d a t a t r a n s mi s s io n a n d b r o a d c a s t o f m a j o r n e w s e v e n t s , l i v e , fr o m a n y w h e r e i n t h e w o r l d . C o mm e r c i a l a n d
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FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING o p e ra t i o n a l n e e d s d i c t a t e t h e d e si g n a n d c o mp l e x i ty o f s a t e l li t e T h e mo s t c o mm o n e x p e c t e d s a t e l l i t e a t tr i b u t e s in c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g : I mp ro v e d c o v e r a g e a r e a s a n d q u a l i t y s e r v i c e s , a n d f r e q u e n c y r e u sa b i l i t y . C o mp a t i b i l i ty o f s a te l l i t e s y s t e m w i t h o t h e r s y s t e ms a n d expandability of current system that enhances future operations. H i g h - g a i n , mu lt i p l e h o p p i n g b e a m a n t e n n a sy st e ms t h a t p e r mi t s ma l l e r - a p e r t u r e e a r t h s t a t i o n s . I n c r e a s e d c a p a c i t y r e q u ir e me n t s t h a t a l l o w s e v e r a l G = s e c c o m mu n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n u se r s . C o mp e t i t i v e p ri c i n g .
3.2.2 Types of Satellites:

H e r e a r e , i n g e n e r a l , f o u r t y p e s o f s a te l l i t e : G e o s t a ti o n a r y s a t e l l i t e ( G E O ) High elliptical orbiting satellite (HEO) Middle-earth orbiting satellite (MEO) L o w - e a r t h- o r b i t in g s a t e l l i t e (L E O ) 1 . G e o st a t i o na r y sa t e l l i t e (G E O ) : GEO stands for Geostationary Earth Orbit. This refers to satellites t h a t a r e p l a c e d i n o r b i t s u c h t h a t t h e y r e ma i n s t a t i o n a r y r e l a t i v e t o a fixed spot on earth. If a satellite is placed at 35,900 km above the e a r t h , i t s a n g u l a r v e lo c i t y i s e q u a l to t h a t o f t h e e a r t h , t h e r e b y c a u s i n g i t t o a p p e a r t o b e o v e r t h e s a me p o in t o n e a r t h . Th i s a ll o w s fo r t h e m t o p r o v i d e c o n s t a n t c o v e r a g e o f t h e a r e a a n d e l i mi n a t e b l a c k o u t p e ri o d s o f o r d i n a r y o r b i t i n g s a t e l l it e s , w h i c h i s g o o d f o r p r o v i d i n g t e l e v i si o n b r o a d c a st i n g . H o w e v e r th e i r h i g h a l t i tu d e c a u se s a l o n g d e l a y , so t w o w a y s c o m mu n i c a t i o n s , w h i c h w o u l d need to be uploaded and then downloaded over a distance of 72,000 k m, a r e n o t o f t e n u s e d w i t h t h i s t y p e o f o r b i t . 2 . H i g h e l l i p t i c a l o r b i t i ng s a t e l l i t e ( H E O ) : An HEO satellite is a specialized orbit in which a satellite c o n t i n u o us l y s w i n gs v e r y c l o s e t o t he e a r t h , l o o p s o u t in t o s p a c e , a n d t h e n r e p e a t s i t s s w i n g b y t h e e a r t h . I t i s a n e l l i p t i c a l o rb i t a p p ro x i ma t e l y 1 8 ,0 0 0 t o 3 5 , 0 0 0 k m a b o v e t h e e a r t h s s u r fa c e , n o t n e c e s s a ri l y a b o v e t h e e q u a t o r . H E O s a r e d e si g n e d t o g i v e b e t t e r c o v e r a g e t o c o u n t ri e s w i t h h ig h e r n or t h e rn o r s o u t h e rn l a t i t u d e s . Sy st e ms c a n b e d e s i g n e d so t h a t t h e a p o g e e i s a r r a n g e d t o p r o v i d e c o n t i n u o us c o v e r a g e i n a p a r t i c u l a r a r e a . By d e fi n i t i o n , a n a p o g e e i s th e h i g h e s t a l t i t u d e p o in t o f t h e o rb i t , th a t i s , t h e p o i n t i n t h e o rb i t w h e r e t h e s a t e l l i t e i s f a r t h e st f r o m t h e e a rt h .
3 . M i d d l e - e a r t h o r b i t i ng s a te l l i t e ( M E O ) A n M EO i s a c i r c u l a r o rb i t , o r b i t i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 ,0 0 0 t o 1 8 ,0 0 0 k m a b o ve t h e e a r t h s s u r fa c e , a g a i n n o t n e c e s s a ri l y a b o v e t h e e q u a t o r . A n M EO s a t e l l i t e i s a c o mp r o mi s e b e t w e e n t h e l o w e r o r b i t s Electronics and Communication Department, LNCT Indore 15
FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING a n d t h e g e o sy n c h r o n o u s o rb i t s . M EO sy s t e m d e s i g n i n v o l v e s m o r e delays and higher power levels than satellites in the lower orbits. H o w e v e r , i t r e q u i r e s f e w e r s a t e l l i te s t o a c h i e v e t h e s a me c o v e r a g e .
4 . L o w - e a r t h - o r bi t in g s a t e l l i t e ( L E O ) L E O s a t e l l i t e s o r b i t t h e e a r t h i n g r i d s t h a t s t r e t c h a p p r o x i ma t e l y 1 6 0 t o 1 ,6 0 0 k m a b o v e th e e a r t h s su r f a c e . T h e s e s a t e l l i t e s a r e s ma l l , a r e e a s y t o l a u n c h , a n d l e n d t h e ms e l v e s t o m a s s p r o d u c t io n t e c h n i q u e s . A n e t w o r k o f L E O s a t el l i t e s t y p i c a l l y h a s t h e c a p a c i t y to c a r ry v a s t a mo u n t s o f f a c s i mi l e , e le c t r o n i c ma i l , b a t c h fi l e , a n d b r o a d c a s t d a t a a t g r e a t sp e e d a n d c o m mu n i c a t e t o e n d u se r s t h r o u g h t e r r e s t ri a l l in k s o n g r o u n d - b a se d st a t i o n s . W it h a d v a n c e s i n t e c h n o l o g y , i t w i l l n o t b e l o n g u n t i l u t i l i t y c o m p a n i e s a r e a c c e ss in g r e si d e n t i a l me t e r re a d i n g s t h r o u g h a n L E O s y s t e m o r t r a n s p o r t a g e n c i e s a n d p o l i c e a r e a c c e s si n g v e h i c l e p l a t e s , mo n i t o r i n g t r a ff i c fl o w , a n d me a s u ri n g t r u c k w e i g h t s t h r o u g h a n L EO sy st e m.
Communication Satellite Frequency Bands Allocation

Band
VHF UHF
F r e q ue n c y ( G H z) 0 .0 3 - 0 . 3 0 .3 - 1 .0
range Services Messaging M i l i t a ry , navigation mo b i l e Mo b i l e , audio broadcast radiolocation Mo b i l e n a v i g a t i o n Fixed M i l i t a ry M i l i t a ry F i x e d v i d e o b ro a d c a s t Fixed F i x e d , a u d io b ro a d c a st , Inter Satellite
L S C X Ku K Ka mm waves
12 24 48 812 812 1218 1827 >40
T a b l e 1 S a t e ll i t e fr e q u e n c y b a n d s a l l o c a t i o n R e c e i v i n g a n d t r a n smi t t i n g d e v i c e : L N A ( Lo w N o i s e A mp l i fi e r ) o r L N B ( Lo w N o i s e B l o c k ) LNA - amplifies RF signal from the antenna and feeds it into f r e q u e n c y c o n v e r t e r ( ty p i c a l l y I F o f 7 0 / 1 4 0 M H z ) L N B - a mp l i fi e s R F s i g n a l f r o m t h e a n t e n n a a n d c o n v e r t s i t t o a n L - b a n d si g n a l ( 9 5 0 - 2 1 0 0 M H z )
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FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING L N A i s m o r e p r e c i se a n d s t a b l e b u t m o r e e x p e n s i v e t h a n L N B ( L O stability). T r a n s mi t p o w e r a mp l i fi e r s p r o v i d e a mp l i fi c a t i o n o f s i g n a l s t o b e t r a n s mi t t e d t o t h e s a t e l l i t e T r a n s c e i v e r t a k e s 7 0 / 1 4 0 M H z s i g n a l a n d a mp l i fi e s i t t o e i t h e r C o r K u -b a n d fi n a l fr e q u e n c y . B l o c k U p- C o n v e r t e r t a k e s L - b a n d si g n a l a n d a mp l i f i e s i t t o e i t h e r C o r K u -b a n d f i n a l f r e q u e n c y .
3.3 Earthing arrangement in broadcast station

3.3.1 Definition:
An Electrical connectio n to the general mass o f earth to provide safe pa ssage to fault current to enable to operate p rotective devices and provide safety to personnel. Or The term Earthing means connecting the neutral point of a sup ply sy ste m or Non -current carrying parts of electrical apparatus to the general mass o f earth in such a manner that at all times an immediate discha rge o f electrical energy takes place wi thout dange r.
3.3.2 Objective of Earthing:

To ensu re that no pa rt of equipments, other than live part s, assu me dangerous potential. To allow su ffi cient cu rrent to fl o w sa fely for proper operation of protective devices. To suppre ss dangerou s potential gradients on the ea rth su rface thi s ma y cau se incorrect operation of contro l & protective devices and also may cause shock or injury to personnel. Provide stability of voltage, prevent excessive voltage peak s durin g disturbances and protect again st lightning surges.
3.3.3 Types of Earthing:Neutral Earthing:
It deals with the ea rthing of system neutral to ensure system secu rity and protection .
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FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING E q u i pm e n t E a r t h in g :
It deal s with ea rthing of non-c urrent ca rrying parts of equipment to ensure sa fety to personnel and protection against lightning.
3.3.4 Danger posed to human being by electric current:

The currents, and the dangers posed to the human being, are dependent o n the volta ge as we ll as o n the electrical resi stance of the human body (the inner body re si stance plus the skin resi stances). The critical electrical voltage s with which we are involved in our professi onal and private lives are normally 220 volts, and up to 440 volts in the case of th ree-phase current. The intensit y of the inne r body resi stance is critically dependent on the path of the current in the body. An Average values fo r the inner body resi stance along various paths taken by t he current a rea s follows: Hand hand 1200 ohms Hand feet 900 ohms Hands feet 600 ohms
T h u s , i f t h e v o l t a g e w i t h w h i c h a h um a n b e i n g c o m e s i n t o c o n t a c t a n d t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e h u ma n b o d y a r e k n o w n , t h e i n t e ns i t y o f t h e current can be easily calculated. Further, if the current intensity can b e c a l c u l a t e d , t h e n t h e d e g r e e o f d a n g e r p o se d t o t h e h u ma n b e in g can be assessed too.
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F i g .3 .4 - F lo w o f c u r r e n t t hr o ug h h um a n bo dy i n a p r o p e r earthing The electrical resistivity of the earth i.e. resistance of the earth to th e fl o w o f c u r r e n t i s d e fi n e d a s s o i l r e s i s t iv i t y Ea r t h r e s i st i v i t y v a r i e s fr o m a fe w o h m- m e t e r s a l on g so m e s e a c o a s t s t o ma n y th o u s a n d s of o h m- me t e r s in rocky, mo u n t a i n o u s c o u n t ry . T h e o r e ti c a l l y , t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o r e m o t e e a r t h o f a n e a r t h e l e c t r o d e c a n b e c a lc u l a t e d . T h i s c a l c u l a t i o n i s b a s e d o n th e g e n e r a l r e s i s t a n c e f o r mu l a : R = (r x L) / A Where: R = r e s is t a n c e t o r e mo t e e a r t h (O h ms ) r = s o i l r e s i s t i v i t y ( O h ms - c m) L = l e n g t h o f c o n d u c t i n g p a t h ( c m) A = c r o s s- s e c t i o n a l a r e a o f p a t h ( c m) T h e a ssu mp t i o n in t h e g e n e r a l f o r mu l a i s t h a t t h e r e s i s t i v i ty o f t h e s o i l i s c o n s t a n t t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o n si d e r e d a r e a , o r a v e r a g e d fo r t h e lo c a l so i l. S o t h e t a r g e t o f p r o v i d in g g o o d e a r t h i n g s y s t e m i s t o p r o v i d e l e a s t r e s i st a n c e p a t h b y e a rt h e l e c t r o d e o f l e a st e a r t h resistance in a least resistivity soil.
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CHAPTER 4 MATERIALS AND METHODS
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4.1 Am transmitters:
T h e r e a r e v a r i o u s M W A M t r a n s mi t t e r s a l l o v e r t h e In d ia . Th e S W t r a n s mi t t e r s a r e v e r y f e w a n d u s e d f o r mo s t l y i n t e r n a t i o n a l b r o a d c a s t i n g p u r p o s e b u t so o n w i l l v a n i sh . Th e t r a n s mi s s i o n b a n d s used for are as follows:
4.1.1 AM transmission bands:

L o n g w a v e 2 0 0 - 4 00 k H z M e d i u m w a v e 5 3 1 -1 6 0 2 k H z S h o r t - w a v e 3 .2 - 2 6 .1 M H Z
4.1.2 Sub systems of a transmitter:

1 . R a d i o f r e q u e n c y s e le c t i o n 2 . A u d i o fr e q u e n c y s e c t i o n 3 . C o n t r o l a n d i n s t r u me n t a t io n 4. Cooling and ventilation 5 . P o w e r s u p p ly s y s t e m 6 . H T su p p l y P o w e r a mp l i fi e r s : N o r ma l l y C l a s s C o r C l a s s D h ig h e ff i c i e n t A mp li f i e rs i n b o t h M W / SW E m p l o y s H i g h l e v e l p l a t e m o d u l a ti o n Water or air cooled B e a m p o w e r t e tr o d e s o f C e r a m i c / G l a s s t u b e Directly heated cathode S c r e e n i s a l so mo d u l a t e d A u d i o c i rc u i t s i n t u b e T X s : It Consists of High Pass Filters P r e a mp l i fi e r s Pre- correctors for non linearity compensation A F D ri v e rs M o d u l a t or s - N o r ma l l y p u s h p u l l C l a s s B Feed back and compensation circuits S W t r a n s mi t t e r s : M a j o r d i ff e r e n c e s a r e O u t p u t i s b a la n c e d h e n c e b a l u n i s u se d R F a m p l i fi e r s a r e w id e b a n d ( 3 to 2 6 MH z ) F i n a l st a g e s a r e t u n a b l e i n s h o r t ti m e Uses motor controlled variable capacitors and inductors V V C r e p l a c e s c o n ve n t i o n a l d i s c c a p a c i t o r s Variable oscillator frequency Co o l in g a n d v e n t i l a t i o n : H i g h p o w e r t r a n s m i t t e rs a r e c o o l e d b y a i r / w a t e r D i s t i l l e d w a t e r o f lo w c o n d uc t i v i t y i s u s e d f o r H T s t a g e s
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FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING H y p e r v a p o u r - t ro n a n d c o n d e n s e d v a p o r c o o li n g t e c h n i q u e Low pressure and High pressure fans Heat exchangers for cooling hot water O u t p u t i mp e d a n c e : M W T r a n s mi t t e r s 50 ohm (RF cable) 6 0 o h m ( Q u a s i c o -a x i a l ) 120 ohm Balanced 300 Ohm
F i g . 4 .1 A M T r a ns m i t t e r
4.2 FM Transmitter
4.2.1 Introduction:
T h e F M t ra n s mi s s i o n h a s b e e n d e v e l o p i n g d a y by d a y w i t h t h e e v o l u t i o n o f v a l u e a d d e d se r v i c e s a n d d i g i t a l r a d i o b r o a d c a s ti n g . R D S a n d S C A s y s t e m s a r e e x a mp l e s o f i t . A I R N e w D e l h i u se s a so l i d s t a t e 1 0 k W V H F F M t r a n sm i t t e r m a n u f a c tu r e d b y B E L ( B h a ra t E l e c t r o n i c s L t d . ) fo r mo n o a n d st e r e o . Th e v a l u e a d d e d s e rv i c e s l i k e r a d i o t ra f f i c ( RD S ) a n d S u b s i d ia r y c o mm u n i c a t i o n s a u t h o r i t y ( S C A ) a r e n o w a o p t i o n w i t h t h e F M t r a n s mi s s i o n t o m e e t th e n e e d s o f a b r o a d sp e c t r u m o f a u d i e n c e s a n d t h e e m e r g e n c e o f n e w mu l t i me d i a f o r ms . F o l l o w i n g i s t h e l i st o f B E L s F M t r a n s m i t t e r s i n s t a l l a t io n i n I n d i a Electronics and Communication Department, LNCT Indore 22
F i g . 4 . 2 C o m m e r c i a l 3 5 k W F M r a d i o t r a ns m i t t e r
4.2.2 History and development in India:

T h e f ir st F M b r o a d c a st i n g i n I n d i a w a s i n th e y e a r 1 9 7 7 a t M a d r a s . In t h e m i d - n in e t i e s, w h e n I n d i a f i r s t e x p e ri me n t e d w it h p r i v a t e F M b r o a d c a s t s , t h e s m a l l t o u r i st d e s t i n a t i o n o f G o a w a s t h e f i ft h p l a c e in t h i s c o u n t r y o f o n e b i l l i o n w h e r e p r i v a t e p l a y e r s g o t F M s l o t s . T h e o t h e r f o u r c e n t r e s w e r e t h e b i g me t r o c i t i e s : D e l h i , K o l k a t a , Mu mb a i a n d C h e n n a i . T h e s e w e r e f o l l o w e d b y s t a t io n s i n B a n g a l o r e , H y d e r a b a d , J a i p u r a n d Lu c k n o w . Ti me s F M ( n o w R a d i o M i r c h i ) b e g a n o p e ra t i o n s i n 1 9 9 3 i n A h me d a b a d . U n t i l 1 9 9 3 , A l l In d i a Ra d i o o r A I R , a g o v e r n me n t u n d e rt a k i n g , w a s t h e o n l y r a d i o b r o a d c a s t e r i n I n di a . Th e g o v e r n me n t t h e n t o o k t h e i n i t i a t i v e t o p r i v a t i z e t h e r a d i o b r o a d c a s t i n g s e c t o r . I t s o l d a i r t i me b l o c k s o n i t s F M c h a n n e l s i n I n d o r e , H y d er a b a d , M u m b a i , D e l h i , K o l k a t a , V i z a g a n d G o a t o p ri v a t e o p e r a t o r s , w h o d e v e l o p e d th e i r o w n p r o g r a m c o n t e n t . T h e T i me s G ro u p o p e ra t e d i t s b r a n d , T i m e s F M , t i l l Ju n e 1 9 9 8 . A f t e r t h a t, t h e g o v e r n me n t d e c id e d n o t t o r e n e w c o n t r a c t s g i v e n t o p r i v a t e o p e r a t o r s . In 2 0 0 0 , t h e g o v e r n me n t a n n o u n c e d t h e a u c t i o n o f 1 0 8 F M fr e q u e n c i e s a c r o s s I n d i a R a d i o C i t y B a n g a l o r e i s In d i a 's fi r s t p r i v a t e F M r a d i o s t a t i o n a n d was started on July 3, 2001. It launched with presenters such as Ro h i t B a r k e r , D a ri u s S u n a w a l a , J o n z i e K u r i a n a n d S u r e sh V e n k a t .
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F i g . 4 .3 Sc h e m a t i c o f A I R R A U c e n t r e t r a n sm i t te r
4.2.3 Broadcast band:T h r o u g h ou t th e w o r l d , t h e b ro a d c a st b a n d f a l l s w i t h i n t he V H F p a r t o f t h e ra d i o sp e c t r u m. U s u a l l y 8 7 .5 t o 1 0 8 .0 MH z i s u s e d , o r so me portion thereof, with few exceptions: In t h e fo r me r Soviet r e p u b l i c s, a n d s o me fo r me r E a s t e r n B l o c c o u n t ri e s , t h e o ld e r 6 5 7 4 M H z b a n d i s a l so u se d . A s si g n e d frequencies are at intervals of 30 kHz. This band, sometimes r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e O IR T b a n d , i s sl o w ly b e i n g p h a se d o u t i n ma n y c o u n t r i e s. I n th o s e c o u n t r i e s t h e 8 7 .5 1 0 8 .0 M H z b a n d i s r e fe r r e d t o a s t h e C C I R b a n d . I n J a p a n , th e b a n d 7 6 9 0 MH z i s u se d . T h e f r e q u e n c y o f a n F M b ro a d c a s t s t a t i o n ( mo r e s t r i c t l y i t s a s s i g n e d n o mi n a l c e n tr e f r e q u e n c y ) i s u s u a l l y a n e x a c t mu l t i p l e o f 1 0 0 k H z (0 .1 M H z ) . In mo s t o f t h e A m e r i c a s a n d t h e Ca r i b b e a n , o n l y o d d mu l t i p l e s a r e u s e d ( th u s a d j a c e n t st a t i o n s a re se p a r a t e d b y n o l e s s th a n 2 0 0 k H z ) . I n so me p a rt s o f Eu r o p e , G re e n l a n d a n d A f r i c a , o n l y Electronics and Communication Department, LNCT Indore 24
FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING e v e n mu l t ip l e s a r e u s e d . I n I t a l y , mu l t i p l e s o f 5 0 k H z ( 0 . 0 5 M H z ) a r e u s e d . T h e r e a r e o t h e r u n u su a l a n d o b s o l e t e s t a n d a r d s i n so me c o u n t r i e s, i n c l u d i n g 0 .0 0 1 , 0 .0 1 , 0 .0 3 , 0 .0 7 4 , 0 .5 , a n d 0 .3 M H z 4 .2 .4 Mo d u l a t io n C ha r a c te r i st i c s: F r e q u e n c y mo d u l a t i o n ( F M ) i s a fo r m o f R F mo d u l a t i o n w h i c h c o n v e y s i n fo r ma t i o n o v e r a c a r r i e r w a v e b y v a r y i n g i t s f r e q u e n c y ( c o n t r a s t t h i s w i t h a m p l i t u d e mo d u l a t io n ( A M ) , i n w h i c h t h e a mp l i t u d e o f t h e c a rr i e r i s v a r i e d w h i l e i t s fr e q u e n c y r e ma i n s c o n st a n t ) . I n a n a l o g a u d i o a p p l i c a t i o n s , t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s f r e q u e n c y o f t h e c a r r i e r i s d i re c t l y p ro p o r t i o n a l t o t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s v a l u e o f th e in p u t s i g n a l . Th i s fo r m o f m o d u la t i o n i s c o m mo n ly u s e d i n t h e F M b r o a d c a st b a n d .
4.2.5 Frequency Modulation:

T h e t y p e o f mo d u l a t i o n i n w h i c h t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s fr e q u e n c y o f t h e c a r r i e r i s v a r i e d a c c o r d i n g t o a mp l i t u d e o f m o d u l a t i n g s i g n a l i s c a l l e d fr e q u e n c y mo d u l a t i o n . F r e q u e n c y mo d u l a t i o n i s w i d e l y u s e d i n V H F c o m m u n i c a t i o n s y s t e m s e . g . F M b ro a d c a s t i n g , t r a n s m i s s io n o f s o u n d s i g n a l i n T V , S a t e l l i t e C o mmu n i c a t i o n e t c .
F i g . 4 .4 Fr e q u e n c y M o d u l a ti o n
4.2.6 Pre-em phasis a nd de -em phasi s:

R a n d o m n o i se h a s a t ri a n g u l a r sp e c t r a l d i s t ri b u t io n i n a n F M s y s t e m, w i t h t h e e f f e c t t h a t n o i s e o c c u r s p r e d o mi n a n t l y a t t h e h i g h e s t fre q u e n c i e s w i t h in t h e b a s e b a n d . Th i s c a n b e o ff s e t , t o a Electronics and Communication Department, LNCT Indore 25
FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING l i mi t e d extent, by boosting the high frequencies b e f o r e t r a n s mi s s i o n a n d r e d u c i n g t h e m b y a c o r r e sp o n d in g a mo u n t in t h e r e c e i v e r . R e d u c in g t h e h i g h f r e q u e n c ie s i n t h e re c e i v e r a l so r e d u c e s t h e h i g h - fr e q u e n c y n o i se . Th e s e p ro c e s s e s o f b o o s t i n g a n d th e n reducing certain fr e q ue n c i e s are k n ow n as pree mp h a si s a n d d e - e mp h a s i s , r e sp e c t i v e l y . T h e a mo u n t o f p r e - e m p h a s i s a n d d e - e m p h a s i s u s e d i s d e fi n e d b y th e t i me c o n s t a n t o f a s i mp l e R C f i l t e r c i r c u i t . I n m o s t o f t h e w o r l d a 5 0 s t i me c o n s t a n t i s u s e d . In N o r t h A me r i c a , 7 5 s i s u s e d . Th is a p p l i e s t o b o t h m o n o a n d s t e r e o t r a n s m i s s i o n s. F o r s t e r e o , p re e mp h a s i s i s a p p l i e d t o t h e l e f t a n d r i g h t c h a n n e l s b e f o r e mu l t i p l e x i n g . T h e a m o u n t o f p r e - e mp h a s i s t h a t c a n b e a p p l i e d i s l i m i t e d b y t h e fa c t th a t ma n y fo rm s o f c o n t e m p o r a ry m u s i c c o n t a i n mo r e h i g h f r e q u e n c y e n e rg y t h a n t h e m u s i c a l s t y l e s w h i c h p re v a i l e d a t t h e b i r t h o f F M b r o a d c a s t i n g . Th e y c a n n o t b e p r e - e mp h a s i z e d a s mu c h b e c a u s e i t w o u l d c a u se e x c e s si v e d e v i a t i o n o f t h e F M c a r ri e r . Sy st e ms mo r e mo d e r n t h a n F M b r o a d c a s t in g t e n d t o u s e e i t h e r programme-dependent variable p r e - e mp h a s i s ; e.g., dbx in th e B T SC T V so u n d sy st e m o r n o n e a t a l l .
4.2.7 FM stereo The Halstea d system was re jec te d due t o l ac k o f hi g h frequency stereo separa tion a nd reduction in the main cha nnel sig nal -to-noise ratio.
F i g . 4 .5 FM s te r e o f r e q ue n c y b a n ds
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FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING I t i s i mp o r t a n t t h a t s t e r e o b r o a d c a s t s s h o u l d b e c o mp a t i b l e w i t h m o n o r e c e i v e r s . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e l e f t ( L ) a n d r i g h t ( R) c h a n n e l s a r e a l g e b r a i c a l l y e n c o d e d in t o su m ( L +R ) a nd d i ff e r e n c e ( L R ) s i g n a l s . A mo n o r e c e i v e r w i l l u s e j u s t t h e L +R s i g n a l so t h e l i s te n e r will hear both channels in the single loudspeaker. A stereo receiver w i l l a d d t h e d i f f e r e n c e s ig n a l t o t h e s u m s i g n a l t o r e c o v e r t h e l e f t c h a n n e l , a n d su b t ra c t t h e d if f e r e n c e s i g n a l f r o m t h e s u m t o r e c o v e r the right channel.
4.2.8 Bandwidth in FM:

In F M , t h e B W i s b a s e d o n t h e n u mb e r o f s ig n i fi c a n t si d e b a n d s , w h i c h d e p e n d s u p o n mo d u la t i o n i n de x m f . I n p r a c t i c e , t h e n u m b e r o f si g n i f i c a n t s id e b a n d s i s d e t e r mi n e d b y a c c e p t a b l e d i st o r ti o n . These contain about 98% of the radiated power. By way of best a p p ro x i ma t i o n , t h e C a r s o n s R u l e (r u l e o f t h u mb ) g iv e s a s i mp l e f o r m u l a f o r b a n d w id t h a s BW = = 2(1+mf)fm 2(f + fm)
Guard band
fc-100 kHz fc-90 kHz
fc
fc+90 kHz fc+100 kHz
F i g . 4 .6 B W o f FM s i g n a l F o r mo d u l a t i o n i n d e x o f 5 a n d m a x i m u m mo d u l a t i n g fr e q u e n c y o f 15 kHz, we have:
BW = 180 kHz A g u a rd b a n d o f 2 0 k H z (1 0 k H z on e a c h s i d e ) i s p ro v id e d t o p r e v e n t a d j a c e n t c h a n n e l i n t e r f e re n c e . Thus the maximum p e r mi s si b l e B W i n F M b r o a d c a st i n g i s 2 0 0 k H z . Fo r n a r ro w b a n d F M ( m f < 0 . 5 ) , t h e B W i s t h e s a me a s i n A M i . e . 2 f m . W h e n t h e mo d u l a t i o n i n d e x i s v e r y l a r g e ( sa y > 2 0) , t h e n t h e B W b e c o m e s 2 f i . e . 1 5 0 k H z . Fo r e x a mp l e , i f f m = 1 0 0 H z a n d f = 7 5 k H z .
then m f f fm 75000 100 750
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In th i s c a s e t h e B W w i l l b e 1 5 0 k H z , b u t fo r f m = 1 5 k H z , B W w i l l be 180 kHz.
4.2.9 Noise Considerations in FM:

F M o ff e rs t h e a d v a n t a g e o f a mu c h b e t t e r n o i s e p e r fo r ma n c e a s c o mp a r e d t o A M , t h e re a so n s f o r w h i c h a re a n a l y z e d h e r e . T h e ma i n p a r a me t e r o f i n t e r e s t a t t h e i n p u t t o t h e F M d e t e c t o r i s t h e carrier-to-noise ratio (C/N). Since both the carrier and the noise a r e a mp li f i e d e q u a l l y by t h e v a r i o u s s t a g e s o f t h e r e c e i v e r fr o m antenna input to the detector input, this gain can be ignored and the in p u t to t h e d e t e c to r c a n b e r e p r e s e n t e d b y th e v o l t a g e s o u rc e E s , which is the carrier RMS voltage. Also the thermal noise is spread over the IF bandwidth at the input to the output. T h e ( L+ R ) Ma i n c h a n n e l s i g n a l i s t r a n s m i t t e d a s b a s e b a n d a u d io i n th e ra n g e o f 3 0 H z t o 1 5 k H z . Th e ( L R ) Su b - c h a n n e l s i g n a l i s mo d u l a t e d onto a 3 8 k H z d o u b l e - s id e b a n d su p p re s se d c a r r i e r ( D S B S C ) s i g n a l o c c u py i n g t h e b a s e b a n d r a n g e o f 2 3 t o 53 kHz. A 19 kHz pilot to n e , at exactly half the 3 8 k H z su b carrier frequency and with a precise phase relationship to it, as d e f i n e d b y t h e f o rmu l a b e l o w , i s a l so g e n e r a t e d . Th i s i s t r a n s mi t t e d a t 8 1 0 % o f o v e r a l l mo d u l a t i o n l e v e l a n d u s e d b y t h e r e c e i v e r t o r e g e n e r a t e t h e 3 8 k H z su b - c a rr i e r w i t h t h e c o r r e c t p h a se . Th e fi n a l m u l t i p l e x s i g n a l f r o m t h e s t e re o g e n e r a t o r c o n t a i n s t h e M a i n C h a n n e l ( L + R ) , t h e p i l o t t o n e , a n d t h e s u b - c h a n n e l ( L R ) . Th i s c o mp o s i t e s ig n a l , a l o n g w i t h a n y o th e r s u b- c a r r i e r s , m o d u l a t e s t h e F M t r a n s m i tt e r .
4.2.10 Distance covered by FM Stereo Transmitter:

T h e r a n g e o f a n FM mo n o t r a n s m i s s i o n i s r e l a t e d t o t h e t ra n s m i t t e r R F p o w e r , t h e g a i n a n d r a d i o a n t e nn a h e i g h t . T h e FC C ( U S A ) p u b li s h e s c u r v e s t h a t a i d in c a l c ul a t i o n o f t h i s ma x i mu m d i st a n c e a s a fu n c t i o n o f si g n a l s t r e n g t h a t t h e r e c e i v i n g l o c a t i o n . For FM stereo, the maximum distance covered is significantly r e d u c e d . T h i s i s d u e t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f th e 3 8 k H z su b c a r ri e r mo d u l a t i o n . V i g o r o u s a u d i o p ro c e s si n g i mp ro v e s t h e c o v e ra g e a r e a of an FM stereo station.
Consum er use o f F M tr ansmi tter s:

In so me c o u n t r i e s, s m a l l - s c a l e t r a n s mi t t e rs a re a v a i l a b l e t h a t c a n t r a n s m i t a s i g n a l f r o m a n a u d i o d e v i c e ( u s u a l l y a n M P3 p l a y e r o r Electronics and Communication Department, LNCT Indore 28
FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING s i mi l a r ) t o a s t a n d a rd F M r a d i o r e c e i v e r ; su c h d e v i c e s r a n g e fr o m s ma l l u n i t s b u i l t t o c a r ry a u d i o t o a c a r r a d i o w i th n o a u d i o - i n c a p a b i l i t y ( o f t e n fo r me r l y p r o v i d e d b y s p e c i a l a d a p t e r s f o r a u d i o c a s se t t e d e c k s , w h i c h a r e b e c o mi n g less c o m mo n o n c a r r a d i o d e si g n s) u p to f u l l - si z e d , n e a r -p ro f e ss i o n a l- g ra d e b r o a d c a s t in g sy s t e ms t h a t c a n be u s e d t o t ra n s m i t a u d i o th r o u g h o u t a p ro p e r t y . Mo s t s u c h u n i ts t r a n s mi t i n fu l l s t e r e o ; t h o u g h so me mo d e l s d e si g n e d f o r b e g in n e r h o b b y i st s ma y n o t . S i m i la r t r a n sm i t t e r s a r e o f t e n i n c l u d e d i n s a t e l l i t e r a d i o r e c e i v e r s a n d s o me t o y s.
F i g . 4 .7 FM T r a n s m i t te r
F i g . 4 .8 FM R e c e i v e r
4.3 Microphone
A mi c r o p h o n e ( c o l l o q u i a l l y c a l l e d a M i c o r mi k e ) i s a n a c o u s t i c t o e l e c t r i c t r a n s d u c e r o r s e n so r t h a t c o n v e r t s s o u n d i n t o a n e l e c t r i c a l s i g n a l . I n 1 8 7 6 E mi l e B e r l i n e r i n v e n t e d t h e fi r st mi c r o p h o n e u s e d a s a t e l e p h o n e v o i c e t r a n s mi t t e r . M i c ro p h o n e s a r e u se d i n ma n y Electronics and Communication Department, LNCT Indore 29
FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING a p p l i c a t io n s su c h as telephones, tape r e c o rd e r s , k a ra o k e sy st e ms , h e a r in g a i d s , mo t i o n p i c t u r e p r o d u c t i o n , l i v e a n d r e c o r d e d a u d i o e n g i n e e ri n g , F R S r a d i o s , m e g a p h o n e s , i n r a d i o a n d t e l e v i si o n b r o a d c a s ti n g a n d i n c o mp u t e r s fo r r e c o r d in g v o i c e , s p e e c h r e c o g n i t i o n , V o I P , a n d fo r n o n - a c o u s t i c p u rp o s e s s u c h a s u l t r a so n i c c h e c k i n g o r k n o c k se n so r s . M o s t m i c r o p h o n e s t o d a y u s e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n ( d y n a mi c mi c r o p h o n e ) , c a p a c it a n c e c h a n g e ( c o n d e n s e r mi c r o p h on e ) , piezoelectric generation, or light modulation to produce an electrical voltage signal from mechanical vibration. T h e s e n si t i v e t r a n sd u c e r e l e me n t o f a mi c r o p h o n e i s c a l l e d i t s e l e m e n t o r c a p su l e . A c o mp l e t e mi c ro p h o n e a l s o i n c l u d e s a h o u s in g , so m e means o f b r i n g i n g t h e si g n a l f ro m t h e e l e me n t t o o t h e r e q u i p me n t , a n d o ft e n a n e l e c t r o n i c c i r c u i t t o a d a p t t h e o u t p u t o f t h e c a p s u l e t o t h e e q u i p me n t b e i n g d r i v e n . A w i r e l e s s mi c r o p h o n e c o n t a i n s a r a d i o t ra n s mi t t e r . 4 .3 .1 F i v e i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f M i c r o p h o n e : 1. F r e q u e n c y r e sp o n se 2. D i r e c t i v i ty 3. S e n s it i v i t y 4. D i s t o r t i o n 5. P l a c in g o f mi c r o p h o n e
1 . F r e q ue n c y R e s po n s e : F r e q u e n c y re sp o n s e r e fe r s t o th e w a y a mi c ro p h o n e r e sp o n d s t o different frequencies. It is a characteristic of all microphones that so m e f r e q u e n c i e s a r e g re a t e r a n d o t h e r s a r e a t t e n u a t e d ( r e d u c e d ) . I t d e p e n d s u p o n : - D i r e c ti o n o f a r r i v a l o f s o u n d a n d d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n th e so u r c e a n d t h e m i c r o p h o n e . 2 . D i r e c t i v i ty : M i c r o p h on e h a s d i re c t i o n a l c h a ra c t e r i st i c s . O m n i d i re c t i o n a l :- Pi c k u p e q u a l l y a t a l l a n g l e s . Bidirectional:-Pick up equally from front and rear. U n i d i r e c t i o n a l : - mi c ro p h o n e w h i c h p i c k u p ma x i mu m r o m f r o n t . 3 . S e n si t i v i t y : The ability to pick up weak sound and to deliver more electrical S i g n a l d e t e r mi n e s t h e s e n s i t i v i ty . 4 . D i st o r t i o n : T h e i n a b i l i t y t o ma i n t a i n l i n e a r i t y , r e s u l t i n g in t h e a d d i t i o n o f u n w a n t e d H A R M O N IC s , m c a l l e d H a r mo n i c D i s t o r t i o n . Th e in a b i l it y t o p a s s t h e c o m p l e t e a u d i o s p e c t r u m e q u a l l y , c a l l e d F r e q u e n c y D i s t o r t i o n . T h e in a b i l i t y to h a n d l e T R A N SI E N T s , c a l l e d T r a n s i e n t D i s t o r t i o n . T h e i n a b i l i ty t o p a s s a l l s i g n a l s i n t h e s a me a mo u n t o f t i me , c a l l e d P h a s e D i s t o r t io n . 5 . P l a c e m e n t o f Mi c r o p h o n e :
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FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING a) As far as possible, microphone should be placed with its zero a x i s f a c i n g t h e s o u r c e o f s o u n d t o a v o i d o ff a x i s c o l o r a t i o n . b ) P h a s in g o f mi c r op h o n e : - W h e n e v e r t w o o r m o r e mi c r o p h o n e i s u s e d w i t h t h e i r o u tp u t s mi x e d t o g e t h e r , i t sh o u l d b e e n s ur e d t h a t t h e i r o u t pu t s a r e i n p h a s e . c ) W o r k i n g d i st a n c e : -mi c r o p h o n e sh o u l d b e p l a c e d 3 0 - 4 5 c m fr o m t h e so u r c e o f s o u n d so a s t o a v o i d p r o x i mi t y e ff e c t . d) T a l k i n g v e ry c l o s e t o a mi c ro p h o n e ma y c a u s e so u n d l ik e P .
Hence it sho uld be avoided.
4.3.2 Microphone Classifications:

1. Acoustical Classification 2. Electrical Classification 3 . P o l a r p a t t e rn - w i se C l a s si f i c a t io n 1 . A c o u st i c a l C l a s si fi c a ti o n : Pressure-operated Microphone T h e y a re d e p e n d i n g o n t h e o u t p u t v o l t a g e fr o m a mi c ro p h o n e a n d t h e so u n d p r e s s u r e o n i t . S o u n d P re s su re i s a p p l i e d o n o n e si d e o f t h e d i a p h r a g m. Electrical output Sound Pressure. T h e o r e t i c a l l y O mn i D i r e c t i o n a l . S e n s it i v i t y a t H F d e c r e a s e s . E x a m p l e s : - M o v i n g C o i l , C a r b o n , c r y st a l a n d C o n d e n s e r Microphones. 2 . P r e s s u r e g ra d i e n t ( V e l o c i t y ) O p e r a t e d M i c r o p h o n e s: B o t h s i d e s o f d ia p h r a g m a r e e x p o se d t o t h e so u n d p re s su r e . E l e c t r i c a l O u t p u t i n st a n t a n e o u s d i f f e r e n c e i n p r e s s u r e o n t w o s id e s o f d i a p h r a g m 3 . C o mb in e d -o p e r a t i o n Mi c r o p h o n e s : T h e p r i n c i p l e o f p r e s su r e - o p e r a t e d mi c r o p h o n e s a n d p r e ssu r e g r a d i e n t o p e ra t e d mi c r o p h o n e s a r e c o mb i n e d t o g e t ma x i mu m s e n s i t i v i t y i n o n e d i r e c t i o n a n d mi n i mu m s e n s i t i v i t y i n t h e o p p o si t e d i re c t i o n . U n i d i r e c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i st i c s 2 . E l e c t r ic a l C l a ss i f i c a ti o n: Electro dynamic Moving coil Microphone A magnet is moved near a coil of wire an electrical current is generated. U si n g t h i s e l e c t ro ma g n e t p ri n c i p l e , t h e d y n a mi c mi c ro p h o n e u s e s a w i re c o i l a n d ma g n e t t o c r e a t e t h e a u d i o s i g n a l . The diaphragm is attached to the coil. U s e d i n l i v e p e r fo r ma n c e w h e r e ro u g h h a n d l i n g i s c o m mo n . E x a mp l e s- A K G D -2 0 2 , D -2 2 2 , D - 9 0 0 , D - 7 7 0 , D - 1 9 0 E , S M5 8 , S M 5 7 , SM 4 8 e t c .
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F i g . 4 .9 E l e c t r o Mi c r o p h o n e
R i b b o n Mi c r o p h o n e : I t u s e s a t h i n a l u mi n u m, D u r a l u m i n u m o r N a n o f i lm ri b b o n placed between the poles of a magnet to generate voltages by e l e c t r o ma g n e t i c i n d u c ti o n . V e ry se n si t i v e t o s h o c k a n d l a r g e s o u n d v o l u me s . Very delicate V e r y l o w i mp e d a n c e a n d h e n c e u se s i n - b u i l t t r a n s f o r me r . Bidirectional
F i g . 4 .1 0 R i b b o n M i c r o p ho n e C o n d e n se r Mi c r o p h o n e : I t i s a mo d i f i e d fo r m o f c o n d e n s e r mi c ro p h o n e . It does not use external power supply. U s e s a sp e c i a l t y p e o f c a p a c i t o r w h i c h h a s a p e r ma n e n t v o l t a g e b u i l t i n d u r i n g ma n u fa c t u r e . T h e p r i n c i p l e o f o p e r a t i o n i s t h a t so u n d w a v e s i m p i n g i n g o n t h e d i a p h r a gm c a u s e th e c a p a c i t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e d i a p h r a g m a n d t h e back plate to change, this in turn induces voltage variance on the back plate. T h e o u t p u t i s i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e d i a p h ra g m s u r fa c e a r e a .
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F i g . 4 .1 1 C o n d e n se r Mi c r o ph o n e
Electret Microphone: I t i s a mo d i f i e d fo r m o f c o n d e n s e r mi c ro p h o n e . It does not use external power supply. U s e s a sp e c i a l t y p e o f c a p a c i t o r w h i c h h a s a p e r ma n e n t v o l t a g e built in during ma n u fa c t u r e . P r e - a mp l if i e r r e q u ir e s p o w e r su p p l y . T h e p r i n c i p l e o f o p e r a t i o n i s t h a t so u n d w a v e s i m p i n g i n g o n t h e d i a p h r a gm c a u s e th e c a p a c i t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e d i a p h r a g m a n d t h e back plate to change, this in turn induces voltage variance on the back plate. T h e o u t p u t i s i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e d i a p h ra g m s u r fa c e a r e a . L i g h t a n d s ma l l i n s i z e . E x c e l l e n t q u a l i ty / p r i c e r a t i o .
F i g . 4 .1 2 E l e c t r e t m i c r o p h o n e
G u n M i c ro p h o n e : H i g h l y u n i d ir e c t i o n a l Lo n g a n d ro d sh a p e d . G o o d fo r r e c o r d i n g s i n g l e v o i c e i n n o i sy l o c a t i on s . G o o d fo r r e c o r d i n g so u n d e ff e c t fr o m a fa r d i st a n c e . A l so u s e d f o r p i c k i n g u p v o ic e f r o m lo n g d i s t a n c e Electronics and Communication Department, LNCT Indore 33
F ig . 4 .1 3 G u n M i c r o p h o n e
L a p e l M i c ro p h o n e : T h e mi c ro p h o n e i s v e r y sma l l a n d l i g h t - w e i g h t a n d i s s u sp e n d e d a ro u n d t he n e c k k e e p i n g t h e mi k e j u s t b e l o w t h e c h i n .
F i g . 4 .1 4 L a p e l M i c r o p h o n e
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FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING C o n t a c t M i c ro p h o n e : A c o n t a c t mi c r o p h o n e k n o w n a s a p i c k u p o r a p i e z o , i s a fo r m o f mi c ro p h o n e d e s i g n e d to se n s e a u d i o v i b r a t i o n s t h r o u g h s o l i d objects. S i z e i s s ma l l . U n l i k e n o r ma l a i r mi c ro p h o n e s , c o n t a c t mi c s a r e a l mo st c o mp l e t e ly i n s e n s i t iv e to air v i b r a t i o n s b u t t ra n sd u c e o n l y s t r u c t u r e - b o r n e so u n d . O ft e n u s e d a s a c o u s t i c l e a k a g e p r o b e s , t h e y a l s o e n j o y w i d e u s a g e b y n o i s e mu s i c a rt i st s e x p e ri m e n t i n g w it h so u n d . P l a i n contact microphones are passive and high-impedance and this can c a u se t h e m t o so u n d 't i n n y ' u n l e s s u s e d w i t h a ma t c h i n g p r e a mp . T h e mo s t c o m mo n l y a v a i l a b l e c o n t a c t mi c ro p h o n e e l e me n t i s ma d e o f a t h i n p i e z o e l e c t r i c c e r a mi c ro u n d g l u e d t o a t h i n b ra s s or alloy metal disc. This center disc is positive while the brass d i sc i s n e g a t i v e . I f t h i s s i l v e r d i s c i s c r a c k e d o r s c o r c h e d , t h e p i e z o w i l l n o l o n g e r f u n c t io n a t fu l l s e n s i t i v it y . A t t a c h e d w i t h t h e s o u n d s o u r c e i t s e l f. P i c k u p v i b r a t i o n p u l si n g t h r o u g h s o l i d . A t t a c h t o a p o i n t s o t h a t it s h o u l d n o t c o m e i n t h e v i e w o f c a me r a . H F r e s p on s e i s g o o d b u t L F r e s p o n s e i s b a d .
Fig . 4.15 Contac t Micr opho ne

Bo u n d a ry M i c ro p ho n e : A s ma l l c a p su l e mi c r o p h o n e u su a l l y a n e l e c t r e t , i s h o u se d i n a flat receptacle. T h e d i r e c t i v i ty i s h e mi s p h e ri c a l a t a l l f r e q u e n c i e s . M o r e d y n a mi c r a n g e a n d c la r i t y Electronics and Communication Department, LNCT Indore 35
F ig . 4 .1 6 B o u n da r y M ic r o p h o n e
Laser Microphone: A laser microphone is a su r v e i l l a n c e d e v i c e that uses a l a s e r b e a m t o d e t e c t so u n d v i b r a t i o n s in a d i s t a n t o b j e c t . T h i s t e c h n o l o gy c a n b e u s e d t o e a v e sd ro p w i th m i n i ma l c h a n c e o f exposure. T h e o b j e c t i s ty p ic a l ly i n s i d e a ro o m w h e re a c o n v e r s a t i o n i s t a k i n g p l a c e , a n d c a n b e a n y t h i n g t h a t c a n v i b r a t e ( f o r e x a mp l e , a p i c t u r e o n a w a l l ) i n r e sp o n s e to t h e p r e s su re w a v e s c r e a t e d b y n o i se s p r e s e n t i n t h e ro o m . T h e o b j e c t p re f e r a b l y h a s a s mo o th su r fa c e . Th e l a s e r b e a m i s d i re c t e d in t o t h e r o o m t h ro u g h a w i n d o w , r e f l e c t s o ff th e o b j e c t and returns to a receiver that converts the beam to an audio s ig n a l . T h e b e a m ma y a l s o b e b o u n c e d o ff t h e w i n d o w i t s e l f . Th e mi n u t e d i ff e r e n c e s i n t h e d i st a n c e tr a v e l l e d b y t h e l i g h t a s i t r e f l e c t s f r o m t h e v i b r a t i n g o b j e c t a r e d e t e c t e d i n t e r f e r o me t r i c a l l y . T h e i n t e r fe r o me t e r c o n v e r t s t h e v ar i a t i o n s t o i n t e n s i ty v a r i a t i o n s , a n d e l e c t r o n i c s a r e u s e d t o c o n v e r t t h e s e v a r i a t i o n s t o s i g n a ls that can be converted back to sound. H o w e v e r , c o u n t e r me a s u r e s e x i st i n t h e fo r m o f s p e c i a l i z e d l i g h t s e n s o r s t h a t c a n d e t e c t t h e l i g h t fr o m t h e b e a m. R i p p l e d g l a s s c a n b e u se d a s a d e f e n c e , a s i t p ro v i d e s a p o o r su r fa c e f o r a l a s e r mi c r o p h o n e
36
F i g . 4 .1 7 - L a s e r M i c r o p h o n e Wireless Microphone: T h e s e a r e o rd i n a r y mi c r o p h o n e s w it h a n FM t r a n s mi t t e r . P ro v id e s c o mp l e t e fr e e d o m o f mo v e m e n t . O mn id i r e c t io n a l . I n te r f e r e n c e fr o m o u t si d e so u r c e . S u i t a b l e fo r p l a c e s w h e r e l y i n g o f m i c r o p h o n e c a b l e i s n o t p o s si b l e .
37
F i g . 4 .1 8 W i r e l e s s M i c r o p ho n e
4.3.4 Applications of microphones:

Telep hone s Tape Recorders Ka rao ke Sy ste m Hea rin g Aids
38
CHAPTER 5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
39
5.1 Advantages:

T h i s i s o n l y m e a n s w h i c h c a n p ro v id e m u l t i a c c e s s t w o w a y c o m mu n i c a t i o n . A IR i s h a v i n g a w h o l e c o u n t ry N e t w o rk a n d s tu d i o c h a i n s T h e c o st o f t r a n s mi t t i n g in f o r ma t i o n th r o u g h s a t e l l i t e is i n d e p e n d e n t o f d i st a n c e i n v o l v e d . S a t e ll i t e c a n b e u se d fo r tw o w a y c om m u n i c a t i o n o r b ro a d c a s t p u rp o s e w i t h t h e c o v e re d a r e a . G o o d c u l t u r a l e v e n t p r o g r a ms a r e b e i n g b ro a d c a st i n g S a t e ll i t e s a r e c a p a b l e o f h a n d li n g v e r y h i g h b a n d w i d t h . 0 I t i s p o s si b l e t o p r o v i d e l a rg e c o v e r a g e u s i n g s a t e l l i t e . Fo r e x a mp l e g e o st a t i o n a r y s a t e l l i t e c a n c o v e r a b o u t 4 2 % o f e a r t h s u r f a c e using global beam. A IR i s u s i n g Mo d e r n T e c h n o l o g i e s B r o a d c a st c o v e r a g e o f 9 0 . 8 1 % a r e a i n c o u n t r y a n d st i l l g ro w in g all over T e c h n i c a l E x p e rt i s e A IR i s p r o v e d t o b e u s e fu l i n t r a g i c d i s a s te r s l i k e e a r t h q u a k e s , flood etc.
5.2 Limitations:
S o me in st r u me n t s a r e v e ry o u t d a t e d i n t h e c e n t e rs . P o p u l a ri t y A I R i s d e c re a s i n g d ay b y d a y b e c a u se o f mo d e rn western culture songs and Bollywood events. T h o u g h it i s g ro w in g v e r y f a s t b u t i t i s n o t c o v e r i n g fu l l c o u n t ry at a glance. P ro g ra m d r o p o u t b e c a u s e o f n e t w o r k l i n k in g fa i l u re s . P o s s i b i l i t i e s o f d i s t o r t io n i n c o m mu n i c a t io n . R e p e t it i o n s a r e mo n o t o n o u s . S h o r t a d v e rt i s in g l i fe . N o d u r a b i l i t y o f me s s a g e . Less no. of audience than that of television.
40
CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
41
FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING T h e t e c h n o lo g y c u r r e n t l y i n u s e a t P r a sa r B h a r a t i h a s i m p r o v e d significantly. At this stage there has been advancement in signal r e c e p t i o n q u a l i t y a s sy s t e ms h a v e c h a n g e d fr o m a n a l o g t o d ig i t a l w i t h t h e a d v a n c e m e n t i n d i ff e r e n t a u d i o a n d v i d e o c o mp r e ss io n t e c h n i q u e s . F o r D o o r d a r s h a n , D T H ( D i r e c t t o H o me S e r v i c e ) s a t e l li t e s e rv i c e s h a v e b e c o me mo r e u se r fr i e n d l y a n d a l so e v o l u t io n o f S D TV i n t o H D T V h a v e ma d e i t a p o p u l a r p r o d u c t a m o n g t h e p e o p l e o f I n d i a . I t i s a l so a c c e s s i b l e f r o m r e mo t e a r e a s w it h m o r e channel and better reception. In AIR also, there have been a lot of a d v a n c e m e n t s b e i n g m a d e s u c h a s t r a n s mi s s i o n o f m o r e v a l u e a d d e d s e rv i c e s s u c h a s R D S , S C A , e t c . Th e s e v a l u e a d d e d s e r v i c e s h a v e a d d e d a d i f f e r e n t t a s t e i n l i s t e n i n g r a d i o . A ls o , p r e s e n t l y t h e P r a s a r B h a r a ti i s a l l g o i n g t o b r o a d c a s t t he c o m mo n w e a l t h g a me s t o b e h e l d i n N e w D e l h i in H D T V . S l o w l y b u t s t e a d i l y , t h e A I R f a mi l y o f Prasar Bharati is growing day by day and working for the next g e n e r a t i o n b r o a d c a s ti n g t e c hn i q u e i n In d i a . O v e r a l l t h e e n t i r e o n e mo n t h i n te r n s h i p p r o g r a m g a v e me a n e x p e r i e n c e o f p ro d u c t i o n o f R a d i o N e w s . F ro m t h e fi e l d w h e r e t h e news and corresponding signals generates to how it reaches to the l i s t e n e r s , w a s a k e y fa c t o r I l e a r n e d i n t h o s e d a y s. I t w a s a g o o d t i me t o l e a r n w h e n t h e g u i d e s w e r e w i t h u s . O u r i n t e r n s h i p w a s to t a l l y r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e s o me se c t i o n s o n l y , h a d I g i v e n a c h a n c e about the various machines and devices in AIR given me more in s i g h t . A l l w e r e c o o p e r a t i v e i n t h e i r d e a l i n g s ; I l i k e d t h e w ay th e y m a i n t a i n e d o u r a t t e n d a n c e r e g i s t e r . I t a k e t h i s c h a n c e t o t h a n k my in st i t u t e ( L N C T ) f o r a r r a n g i n g a n d p ro v i d i n g a r a r e o p p o r t u n i t y t o h a v e m y o n e m o n t h i n d u s t r i a l t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m i n A l l I n d i a R a di o , In d o r e . Th e o n e mo n t h p ro g r a m h a s g iv e n me a s e l f c o n fi d e n c e t o c ri t i c a l u n d e rs t a n d i n g o f c o m mu n i c a t i o n a n d b r o a d c a st i n g . I t w i l l d e f i n i t e l y h e l p me t o g o a h e a d w it h t h e T e c h n i c a l s k il l s t o r e a c h t h e goals of my life.
42
SCOPE OF FUTURE WORK
43
T h e c u r ri c u l u m , sy l l a b u s , a n d t e x tb o o k s o f t e n i g n o r e ma n y p r o f e ss i o n a l a s w e l l a s p e d a g o g i c a l a sp e c t s . T h i s i n d u s t r i a l t r a i n in g o f f e r s t h e p o t e n t i a l t o r e d e s i g n t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l ma t e r i a l fo r a l l c o mp u t i n g c o u r s e s . S y s t e ma t i c p r o j e c t s c a n b e i n i t i a t e d i n t h i s direction
T h e e x p e r i e n c e w a s d i s c u s se d i n c o n d u c t i n g i n d u s tr i a l t ra i n i n g o n F M T r a n smi s s i o n fo r e n g i n e e ri n g s t u d y . Mo r e w o rk n e e d s t o d o n e i n d e s i g n i n g i n s t r u m e n t s a n d m e t h o d s t h a t i mp l e m e n t mo r e e ff e c t i v e l y . W e i n t e n d t o u s e o u r f r a me w o r k t o d e s i g n ma n y s u c h w o rk sh o p s t o mo t i v a t e t h e e n g i n e e rs t o u s e a s p e c t s o f t e c h n i c a l k n o w l e d g e i n o u r profession. P r o p o s e d fr a me w o r k o f p e d a g o g i c e n g a g e me n t in s o f t w a r e d e v e l o p me n t E d u c a t i o n w i l l h e l p th e c o m m u n i t y o f s o f t w a r e d e v e l o p me n t e d u c a t o r s a n d r e s e a r c h e r s t o c r e a t e a v a r i e t y o f in t e r v e n t i o n s t h a t w i l l h e l p in e x t e n d i n g t h e B r o a d c a s t in g sy s t e ms .
44
REFERENCES
45
Bo o k s r e f e r r e d : S a t e l l it e c o m mu n i c a t i o n b y T i mo t t h y P r a t t , 3 r d e d i t i o n , W i l l e y I n d i a O p t i c al F i b e r Co m m u n i c a t i o n , G e r d K e i s e r , 4 t h e d i t i o n , T a t a McGrawHillEducation. Journalsreferred: M o n t g o m e r y , H e n r y 1 95 9 A m p l i f i c a t i o n a n d H i g h F i d el i t y i n t h e G r e e k T h ea t e r . T h e C l a s s i c J ou r n a l V o l . 2 . H u u r d e m a n , A n t o n ( 20 0 3 ) . T he W or ld w i d e H i s to r y o f T e l e co m mu n i c a t i on s . J o h n Wi l e y & S o ns v o l . 1 . A r t i c l e r e f e r r e d u s in g W o r l d W id e W e b : V a r io u s a r t i c l e s f r o m h t t p : / / e n . w i k i p e d i a . o r g / w i k i / M i c ro p h o n e h t t p : / / w w w . s l i d e s h a r e . n e t / a r z o o s a h n i / e l e c t r o n i c - c o m mu n i c a t i o n - ms nupur-srivastav
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Industrial Training Report - Pritesh Gupta

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Industrial Training Report On FM Transmission and Broadcasting

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering June 2013

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Pritesh Gupta 0820EC101071

TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I Contents Introduction to all India Radio

Description about the Industrial Training

Materials and Methods

FM TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION

Electronics and Communication Department, LNCT Indore

FM TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION

Electronics and Communication Department, LNCT Indore

FM TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION

List of symbols used

Electronics and Communication Department, LNCT Indore

FM TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION

List of Units used

Electronics and Communication Department, LNCT Indore

FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING

Electronics and Communication Department, LNCT Indore

FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING

1.1 Introduction to All India Radio

Electronics and Communication Department, LNCT Indore

FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING

1.1.2 STUDIO & LABS INTRO:

Electronics and Communication Department, LNCT Indore

FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING

CHAPTER 2 DESCRIPTION ABOUT THE INDUSTRIAL TRAINING

Electronics and Communication Department, LNCT Indore

FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING

2.2 Studio Centre:

2.2.1 Studio floor/ Action area:

2.2.2 Production control room:

Electronics and Communication Department, LNCT Indore

FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING

Electronics and Communication Department, LNCT Indore

FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING

2.2.4 Other facilities:

2.3 Studio Acoustic 2.3.1 Introduction

Electronics and Communication Department, LNCT Indore

FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING

2.4 Acoustic Treatment

2.4.1 Propagation of Sound Waves

2.4.2 Reverberation Time(R/T)

2.4.3 Factor Covering Reverberation Time

Electronics and Communication Department, LNCT Indore

2.4.4 Effects of Reverberation on Program:

2.4.5 Acoustic absorbers:

Electronics and Communication Department, LNCT Indore

FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING

2.4.6 Design of Room Acoustic:

Electronics and Communication Department, LNCT Indore

FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY ADOPTED

Electronics and Communication Department, LNCT Indore

FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING

3.1 Optical Fiber Communication:

3.1.2 Composition of optical fiber:

Electronics and Communication Department, LNCT Indore

FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING

3.3.3 Operation in optical fiber system:

3.3.4 Types of optical fiber:

Electronics and Communication Department, LNCT Indore

FM TRANSMISSION AND BROADCASTING