GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

LABORATORY MANUAL
ON
ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
The real understanding of the principles, which includes all laboratory techniques and procedures, is
possible only if a student plans his / her work carefully in advance, and works purposefully during
each laboratory period.
Before You Start
For efficient working in the laboratory the following points must be borne in mind.
1. It is important that you study the experiment of the day carefully. Understand the theoretical
principles involved and check the equipments and chemicals required for performing the
experiment (as mention in the lab manual).
2. Careful planning in advance will enable you to work fast and efficiently.
3. When possible write the outline of the procedure, weighing and titration data and write the
balance equations for the reactions involved.
4. While performing the experiment record all the observations and data in a logical manner.
5. Be aware of what you are doing at all the times and why are you doing it. Do not hesitate to
ask questions to your teacher.
Precautions and Housekeeping
1. A laboratory apron / coat must be worn at all times during the laboratory period.
2. Protect your eyes by using special safety spectacles / glasses at all times during the laboratory
period.
3. Do not perform unauthorized experiments. Running, the throwing of objects, horseplay has
no place in the laboratory.
4. Do not eat or drink in the laboratory or use laboratory equipment for storing or holding food
stuff or soft-drinks.
5. Many chemicals are corrosive or toxic even if in dilute solutions. Avoid touching / skin
contact of the chemical. Wash off any contamination with large volumes of water.
6. Avoid unnecessary inhalation of volatile solvents.
7. Do not taste chemicals.
8. Read the label carefully before removing a chemical from its container.
9. If any of your glass equipment is cracked or broken, do not use it.
10. Do not use mouth suction in filling the pipettes with chemical reagents. Use a suction bulb/ or
another burette.


11. Do not use open flame near the flammable solvent, as it can causes fire hazard.
12. Laboratory note book should be maintained by each student and data should be recorded
properly. The same data should be entered in the journals at the end.
13. J ournals or loose sheets will be signed after producing laboratory note book.
14. Do not pour chemicals back into stock bottles.
15. Do not throw broken glass pieces, paper etc. in a basin, throw them in a wastebasket.
16. Keep acid, base and other reagent bottles at their proper location. Keep lids/caps back on
reagent containers/bottles.
17. Before leaving the laboratory, ensure that any gas line which you have used is shut tightly.
Also clean the glass apparatus which you have used and keep your working area in order.
Safety in the Laboratory
Even with best precautions, sometimes an accident may occur. Since it is very difficult to predict
when accident will occur. If this happens, here is what you should do:
FIRE:
For large fire get yourself and others well away from the burning area. Notify your instructor
immediately. To help prevent spread of the fire, remove any containers of flammable solvent from
the immediate area and turn off any burners, if this is possible. For the most effective use of the fire
extinguisher, directs its nozzle towards the base of the flame.
BURNING CLOTHING:
If your clothing is on fire, do not run; rapid movement will only fan the fires. Roll on the floor to
smother the fire and to help keep the flames away from your head. Your neighbors can help to
extinguish the flames by using fire blankets, laboratory coats or other items that are immediately
available. Never use a fire extinguisher. Do not hesitate to help your neighbor if he / she is involved
in such an emergency, since a few second delay may result in serious injury.
SMALL BURNS:
Immediately plunge the burned area into cold water, preferably with ice in it. After 4 to 5 minutes
contact with cold water, gently dry and apply standard burn ointment.
SEVERE BURNS:
Do not apply any ointment but seek professional medical treatment at once.




CHEMICAL BURNS:
General chemicals:
Immediately wash off with plenty of water any corrosive or toxic material that contacts the skin.
Acids:
Wash with plenty of water, then with very dilute sodium bicarbonate solution, and finally with water
to remove the acid.
Bases:
Wash with plenty of water, then with very dilute acetic acid solution, and finally with water to
remove the acid.
Bromine:
Bromine on the skin will cause serious burns that heal slowly and become infected easily. These
burns should be first washed with soap and water. Then apply glycerin and rub it gently into skin.
After few minutes, rinse with water and apply standard burn ointment.
CHEMICALS IN EYES:
Wash the eye with plenty of water to remove most of foreign matter. Then report to the instructor
immediately. Remember that quickness is absolutely essential. If you wait, the damage may be
beyond repair.
CUTS:
Minor cuts must be washed with plenty of water and be treated by physician. Do not continue to work
even with a slight cut because foreign matter in the may cause a serious infection. If bleeding is
severe apply direct pressure around the wound and report to the instructor.
All injuries must be reported to the instructor and treated by a qualified physician.







Desk Equipment / Glassware
100 ml beaker, 250 ml beaker, 10 and 25 ml graduated cylinders, 35 mm short stem funnel, 250 ml
volumetric flask, 50 mm watch glass, spatula, glass stirring rod, tripod stand, pipe clay triangle, pair
of tongs, crucible, desiccators, titration flask, round bottom flask, burette, pipette.
Plastic test tube stand, test tubes, test tube clamp, Buchner funnel, evaporating dish, Thieles tube,
360
0
C thermometer.
Know Your Glassware
1. Watch glass: It is used for accurately weighing chemicals which you are using for preparation
of standard solutions.
2. Volumetric flasks: They are used for diluting the sample or solution to a particular volume.
While diluting the solution, the final dilution must be done with the help of pipette.
3. Flat bottom flasks: They are usually used to store the solutions.
4. Beakers with spout are usually used.
5. Short stem funnel is used for filtrations purpose.
6. Buchner funnel is made up of porcelain and has a perforated porcelain plate to support a
filter paper. Buchner funnel is used in conjunction with a filter flask. It is fitted into flask by
means of a rubber stopper.











List of experiment
1. Estimation of temporary and permanent hardness of a given sample of water by Na
2
EDTA
method.
2. To determine the alkalinity of given sample of water.
3. Determination of max and concentration of given solution of CuSO
4
-NH
3
complex by
colorimetry.
4. To investigate the conductometric titration of a mixture of strong and weak acid against strong
base.
5. Determine the pKa value of a given weak acid by pH metry titration with strong base.
6. Preparation of Phenol formaldehyde resin.
7. To determine the molecular weight of a high polymer by viscosity method
8. Determine the moisture and ash content in a given coal sample.
9. To perform electroplating nickel on copper metal.
10. To determine the electrochemical equivalent of copper.













EXPERIMENT NO: 1
AIM:
Estimation of temporary and permanent hardness of a given sample of water by Na
2
EDTA method.

THEORY :
Water which does not produce lather with soap solution readily, but forms a white precipitate, is
called hard water. This is due to presence of dissolved salts of Ca
+2
and Mg
+2
in water.
2 C
17
H
35
COONa + CaCl
2
(C
17
H
35
COO)
2
Ca + 2 NaCl
sodium stearate calcium stearate`
(soap) (Insoluble white ppt.)

On the other hand, water which lather easily on shaking with soap solution is called soft water. Such
water does not contain dissolved salts of Ca
+2
and Mg
+2
in it. The relation between the type of water
sample and degree of hardness is given below.
Water sample Hardness in terms of CaCO
3
(ppm)
Soft 0-75
Moderately hard 75-150
Hard 150-300
Very hard Above 300
Depending on the nature of calcium and magnesium salts, there are two types of hardness:
i) Temporary or carbonate hardness
ii) Permanent or non carbonate hardness
Temporary hardness is mainly due to presence of bicarbonates of Ca
+2
& Mg
+2
in water. This
hardness can be removed just by boiling the water. Bicarbonates get decomposed on heating to form
insoluble carbonates & hydroxides, which can be removed by filtration.
Ca(HCO
3
)
2
CaCO
3
+H
2
O +CO
2

Mg(HCO
3
)
2
Mg(OH)
2
+ 2 CO
2

Permanent hardness is due to presence of sulphate, chlorides, carbonate etc of Ca
+2
and Mg
+2
in
water. Unlike temporary hardness, permanent hardness cannot be removed by heating. Thus total
hardness is the sum of temporary & permanent hardness.
To determine the total hardness of water, disodium salt of EDTA is used as it forms stable 1:1
complex with divalent metal ions like calcium, magnesium and zinc in alkaline medium.



Na
2
EDTA is represented as Na
2
H
2
Y, it ionizes in water as
Na
2
H
2
Y H
2
Y
-2
+2 Na
+

This H
2
Y
-2
acts as strong chelating agent. In alkaline buffer of pH 10 it forms stable complex with
divalent metal ions.

Metal EDTA complex
In most compleximetric titration, Eriochrome black T is used as an indicator. This indicator forms a
less stable, wine-red colored complex with divalent metal ion (less stable w.r.t. M
+2
-EDTA complex )
which dissociate on titration with EDTA solution and forms a more stable M
+2
-EDTA complex and
indicator set free which gives blue colour to the solution.
M
+2
+ HIn
-2
M
+2
In
-2
+ H
+

Metal indicator complex
Wine-red (less-stable)
M
+2
In
-2
+ H
2
Y
-2
M
+2
Y
-2
+ HIn
-2
+ H
+

Metal EDTA
complex (Colourless) Blue
(more stable)







PROCEDURE:
PART A : STANDARDIZATION OF EDTA
- Fill the burette no. 1 with given Na
2
EDTA solution.
- Fill the burette no. 2 with 0.01 M ZnSO
2
solution.
- Take 15 ml 0.01 M ZnSO
4
solution from burette no. 2 in a 100 ml conical flask. Call this
volume as V
1
ml.
- Add to it 5 ml buffer solution (pH =10) and few crystal of Eriochrome black - T indicator.
- Titrate the solution against Na
2
EDTA till the color changes from wine red to blue. Record this
reading as X
1
ml.
- To the same conical flask add 5 ml 0.01 M ZnSO
4
from burette no. 2
- Continue the titration till color changes from wine red to blue. Record this burette reading as X
2

ml.
- To the same conical flask add 5 ml 0.01 M ZnSO
4
from burette no. 2 and continue the titration
till wine red color changes to blue. Record this reading as X
3
ml.
- Take mean of the burette reading i.e. X
1
+X
2
+X
3
/ 3 and record it as a X ml. By using this
reading find exact molarity of Na
2
EDTA
PART B : ESTIMATION OF TOTAL HARDNESS
- Fill the burette no. 1 with given M
2
M Na
2
EDTA solution.
- Fill the burette no. 2 with given hard water sample.
- Take 15 ml hard water sample from burette no. 2 in a 100 ml conical flask. Call this volume
as V
2
ml.
- Add to it 5 ml buffer solution (pH =10) and few crystal of Eriochrome black - T indicator.
- Titrate the solution against Na
2
EDTA till the color changes from wine red to blue. Record this
reading as Y
1
ml.
- To the same conical flask add 5 ml hard water sample from burette no. 2
- Continue the titration till color changes from wine red to blue. Record this burette reading as
Y
2
ml.


- To the same conical flask add 5 ml hard water sample from burette no. 2 and continue the
titration till wine red color changes to blue. Record this reading as Y
3
ml.
- Take mean of the burette reading i.e. Y
1
+Y
2
+Y
3
/ 3 and record it as a Y ml. By using this
reading calculate total hardness of the given water sample.
PART C : ESTIMATION OF PERMANENT HARDNESS
- Take 100 ml hard water sample in a 250 ml beaker.
- Boil gently for half an hour, allow it to cool.
- Filter the cooled water sample into 100 ml volumetric flask and make the volume 100 ml
using distilled water.
- Titrate this boiled water sample against standard Na
2
EDTA solution as describe in
Part - B
- Record the mean burette reading ( i.e. B
1
+B
2
+B
3
/ 3) as B ml.
- Using this reading, calculate the permanent hardness of the boiled water sample.

PART A : STANDARDIZATION OF EDTA
OBSERVATIONS
Burette no. 1 : Given EDTA solution
Burette no.2 : 0.01 M ZnSO
4

Indicator : Eriochrome Black- T
End point : Wine red to blue
Equation : Zn
+2
+ HIn
-2
Zn
+2
In
-2
+ H
+

Metal indicator complex
Wine-red (less-stable)
Zn
+2
In
-2
+ H
2
Y
-2
Zn
+2
Y
-2
+ HIn
-2
+ H
+

Metal EDTA
complex (Colourless ) Blue
( more stable)








OBSERVATION TABLE :

Sr.No.
Burette reading (ml)
Burette no. 1 (X ml ) Burette no. 2 (V
1
ml)
1 X
1
= ml 15.00 ml
2 X
2
= ml 15.00 +5.0 =20.00 ml
3 X
3
= ml 20.00 +5.0 =25.00 ml

Mean burette reading 1
X =X
1
+X
2
+X
3
/ 3 = ml
Mean burette reading 2
V
1
=15 +20 +25 / 3 =20.00 ml
CALCULATIONS:
ZnSO
4
Vs EDTA
( M
1
x V
1
= M
2
x V
2
)

0.01 x 10 = M
2
x C.B.R.
Exact molarity of EDTA solution is . M
PART B : ESTIMATION OF HARDNESS
OBSERVATIONS
Burette no. 1 : M
2
M Na
2
EDTA solution
Burette no.2 : Hard water sample
Indicator : Eriochrome Black- T
End point : Wine red to blue
Equation : M
+2
+ HIn
-2
M
+2
In
-2
+ H
+

Metal indicator complex
Wine-red (less-stable)
M
+2
In
-2
+ H
2
Y
-2
M
+2
Y
-2
+ HIn
-2
+ H
+

Metal EDTA
complex (Colourless) Blue
(more stable)




OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr.No.
Burette reading (ml)
Burette no. 1 (X ml ) Burette no. 2 (V
2
ml)
1 Y
1
= ml 15.00 ml
2 Y
2
= ml 15.00 +5.0 =20.00 ml
3 Y
3
= ml 20.00 +5.0 =25.00 ml

Mean burette reading 1
Y =Y
1
+Y
2
+Y
3
/ 3 = ml
Mean burette reading 2
V
1
=15 +20 +25 / 3 =20.00 ml

CALCULATIONS:
Na
2
EDTA and Ca
+2
and Mg
+2
ions forms 1:1 complex. Therefore, we can write :
1 mole of Na
2
EDTA =1 mole of Ca
+2
/ Mg
+2
=1 mole of CaCO
3

Thus, 1000 ml 1 M Na
2
EDTA = 100 gm of CaCO
3

1 ml 1 M Na
2
EDTA = 100 mg of CaCO
3

Y ml M
2
M Na
2
EDTA = Y x M
2
x 100 mg
= Z
1
mg of CaCO
3

20 ml given water sample contain Z
1
mg of CaCO
3

1000 ml given water sample will contain (50 Z
1
) mg of CaCO
3

Thus, the total hardness of the given water sample is 50 Z
1
mg of CaCO
3
per liter of water i.e. ppm.
PART C : ESTIMATION OF PERMANENT HARDNESS
OBSERVATIONS
Burette no. 1 : M
2
M Na
2
EDTA solution
Burette no.2 : Boiled water sample
Indicator : Eriochrome Black- T
End point : Wine red to blue
Equation : M
+2
+ HIn
-2
M
+2
In
-2
+ H
+

Metal indicator complex
Wine-red (less-stable)
M
+2
In
-2
+ H
2
Y
-2
M
+2
Y
-2
+ HIn
-2
+ H
+

Metal EDTA
complex (Colourless) Blue
(more stable)



OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr.No.
Burette reading (ml)
Burette no. 1 (X ml ) Burette no. 2 (V
3
ml)
1 B
1
= ml 15.00 ml
2 B
2
= ml 15.00 +5.0 =20.00 ml
3 B
3
= ml 20.00 +5.0 =25.00 ml

Mean burette reading 1
B =B
1
+B
2
+B
3
/ 3 = ml
Mean burette reading 2
V
1
=15 +20 +25 / 3 =20.00 ml
CALCULATIONS:
Na
2
EDTA and Ca
+2
and Mg
+2
ions forms 1:1 complex. Therefore, we can write :
1 mole of Na
2
EDTA = 1 mole of Ca
+2
/ Mg
+2
= 1 mole of CaCO
3

Thus,
1000 ml 1 M Na
2
EDTA = 100 gm of CaCO
3

1 ml 1 M Na
2
EDTA = 100 mg of CaCO
3

B ml M
2
M Na
2
EDTA = Y x M
2
x 100 mg
= Z
1
mg of CaCO
3

20 ml given water sample contain Z
2
mg of CaCO
3

1000 ml given water sample will contain (50 Z
2
) mg of CaCO
3

Thus, the total hardness of the given water sample is 50 Z
2
mg of CaCO
3
per liter of
water i.e. ppm.






CALCULATION OF TEMPORARY HARDNESS:
The temporary hardness in water sample is caused by bicarbonates of Ca
+2
and Mg
+2
. The
depletion in hardness of water sample by boiling (due to removal of Ca
+2
and Mg
+2
bicarbonates in
the form of their respective carbonates and hydroxide, which precipitated) can be taken as a measure
of the temporary hardness. Thus,
Temporary hardness =Total hardness Permanent hardness
= mg/l


RESULT:
1. The exact molarity of EDTA (M
2
) =------- M.
2. Total hardness of a given sample of water =------- mg / l
3. Permanent hardness of a given sample of water =------ mg / l
4. Temporary hardness of a given sample of water =------ mg / l











EXPERIMENT NO: 2
AIM:
To determine the alkalinity of given sample of water.
THEORY:
The acidity of water sample is its capacity to neutralize a base where as its alkalinity is a measure of
its capacity to neutralize acids. Natural water may be acidic or alkaline depending upon the source of
water and the extent and nature of pollutants from industry and municipal sanitary disposal.
If highly alkaline water is used in boiler for steam generation, may leads to precipitation of sludge,
deposition of scales, and cause caustic embrittlement. The knowledge of kinds of alkalinity present in
water and their magnitudes is important.
1. In calculating the amount of lime and soda needed for water softening.
2. In maintaining a pH range where acids produced by hydrolysis of salts like MgCl
2
, FeCl
2
etc. and
coagulants [Al
2
(SO
4
)
3,
Fe
2
(SO
4
)
3,
] may be effectively neutralized.
3. In corrosion control, and
4. In internal conditioning of boiler- feed water.
Caustic alkalinity of industrial waste has to be neutralized before discharging them into rivers or other
receiving waters. Water containing in excess of alkaline earth concentrations are not suitable for
irrigation purposes.
The alkalinity of water sample may be determined volumetrically by titrating it with a standard acid
to an arbitrary pH using an indicator, when pH of the sample is about 8.3, titration is first carried out
using phenolphthalein indicator. At the end point, when the color changes from pink to colorless. The
volume of acid (V
1
ml) used up to this point corresponds to the complete neutralization of hydroxides
and conversion of all the carbonate into bicarbonates (Reaction i & ii). The alkalinity measured upto
this point is called Phenolphthalein Alkalinity.
Beyond the phenolphthalein alkalinity end point, titration is continued using methyl orange indicator.
The color changes from yellow to red occurs at a pH of about 4.5 and additional volume of acid (V
2

ml) used corresponds to the complete neutralization of all the bicarbonates whether present originally
or obtained from carbonates (Reaction - iii)
The total volume (V
1
+V
2
) ml used in the two titrations, therefore, corresponds to the neutralization
of hydroxide, carbonate and bicarbonate. Thus, a measure of Total Alkalinity, also called Methyl
orange Alkalinity. Alkalinity is expressed as parts of equivalent CaCO
3
per million parts of water.
i OH

O
ii CO
3

HCO
3

iii HCO
3

O CO

From the measurements of Phenolphthalein Alkalinity and Methyl orange Alkalinity, it is possible to
calculate the magnitudes of various forms of alkalinity. The possible combinations of ions causing
alkalinity in water are:
i) Hydroxide only
ii) Carbonate only
iii) Bicarbonate only
iv) Hydroxide and Carbonate
v) Carbonate and Bicarbonate
The possibility of hydroxide and bicarbonate ions together is ruled out, because they combine
instantaneously to from carbonate.
OH

HCO
3

CO
3

O
Thus, OH

and HCO
3

ions cannot exist together in water. On the basis of same reasoning, all the
three hydroxide, carbonate and bicarbonate ions cannot exist together.
PROCEDURE:
- Fill the burette with 0.1 N acid solution.
- Pipette out 10 ml water sample into a conical flask. Add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator.
- Titrate against 0.1 N acid until the pink colour just disappears. Record the volume of acid
consumed as V
1
ml.
- To the same solution add 2-3 drops of methyl orange indicator and titrate further until the colour
changes from yellow to red. Record the additional volume of acid consumed as V
2
ml.
- Repeat the procedure two times to get constant burette reading.
- This whole procedure is repeated for different samples of water.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION:
Burette : 0.1 N HCl
Pipette : 10 ml water sample
Indicator : 1. Phenolphthalein
2. Methyl orange
End point : 1. Pink to Colorless
2. Yellow to Red
Equations : 1. OH

O
2. CO
3

HCO
3

S. HCO
3

O CO

OBSERVATION TABLE

Water
sample
Pilot reading
Burette reading
V
1
ml V
2
ml
V
1
ml V
2
ml I II III C.B.R. I II III C.B.R.
1
2
3
4
5

CALCULATION :

Alkalinity of water is expressed as parts of equivalent CaCO
3
per million parts of water.
1000ml 1N HCl = 50 gm of CaCO
3
1ml 1N HCl = 50 mg of CaCO
3

V
1
ml 0.1 N HCl = V
1
ml x 0.1 x 50 mg of CaCO
3

= Z
1
mg of CaCO
3
This Z
1
mg of CaCO
3
present in 10 ml water sample
1000ml water sample will contain (Z
1
x 100) mg of CaCO
3

i.e. Phenolphthalein Alkalinity (P) = 100Z
1
mg/l of CaCO
3

Similarly,
V
2
ml 0.1 N HCl = V
2
ml x 0.1 x 50 mg of CaCO
3

= Z
2
mg of CaCO
3

Methyl orange Alkalinity (M) = 100Z
2
mg/l of CaCO
3
From the value of P and M, calculate the type and amount of alkalinity in water by using following
reference table.






Alkalinity OH

(ppm) CO
3

(ppm) HCO
3

(ppm)
P =0 0 0 M
P=1/2M 0 2P 0
P<1/2M 0 2P M-2P
P>1/2M 2P-M 2(M-P) 0
P=M M 0 0


RESULT:
Water Sample OH

(ppm) CO
3

(ppm) HCO
3

(ppm)
1
2
3
4
5















EXPERMIENT NO: 3
AIM:
Determination of max and concentration of given solution of CuSO
4
-NH
3
complex by colorimetry.
THEORY:
Colorimeter deals with measurement of colored intensity. The color of the substance is due to
absorbance of light waves of certain wavelength. If a solution does not absorb light, it is transparent
and colorless. If it absorbs light completely it looks complete black.
The intensities of color solution can be measured by using photoelectric colorimeter. In a colorimeter,
a narrow beam of light (of proper wavelength) passes through a solution towards a sensitive
photocell. Usually colorimeter is provided with arrangement of filter. Consequently it is possible to
select most appropriate wavelength or frequency by using a particular filter.
The current generated in the photocell is proportional to the amount of light transmitted by solution,
which in turn depend upon the depth of color substance. However, the recorder or meter is calibrated
to show not the fraction of light transmitted, but fraction of light absorbed. This will be proportional
to the concentration of the colored substance. Fig.




From these measurements, the concentration of colored solution can be obtained by using B-L law.
B L Law:
When a monochromatic light of intensity I is passed through a solution of concentration C molar and
thickness dx then intensity of transmitted light changes (due to absorption) by dI . Then probability of
absorption of radiation is given by
dI / I = - k C dx
Where k is the proportionality constant and ve sign indicate that the intensity of incident light
decreases as the concentration and path length increases.
On integrating above equation between limits I =I
o
at x =0 and I =I at x =l
OR
ln I/I
0
= - kCl
(here I/I
0
=transmittance of solution)
OR
2.303 log I/I
0 =
- k C l
l I
Io
dx C k I dI
0
/
Narrow
beam of
light
Filter
(appropriate wavelength
or frequency of light)
Test solution
(Colored)
Recorder
or
Meter


OR
log I
0
/ I = k / 2.303 C l
(here log I
0
/ I =absorbance of solution)
A =k / 2.303 C l
Where A =Absorbance
Thus B- L law can be defined as when a beam of monochromatic light is allowed to through a
transparent medium the absorbance of medium is directly proportional to the thickness and
concentration of the medium.
A C l i.e. A =k C l
Here k is the proportionality constant.
When the concentration is expressed in gm/l and thickness in cm, the constant in the above equation
is called as absorptivity and represented by a symbol: a
Thus A =a C l
When the concentration is expressed in mol/l and thickness in cm, the constant in the above equation
is called as molar absorptivity and represented by a symbol:
Thus A = C l
The molar absorptivity coefficient is the absorbance of a solution measured in a cell of one
centimeter thickness and with concentration of one mole per liter. It is a constant independent of
concentration, path length, and intensity of the incident light.
GIVEN:
0.01 M CuSO
4
, unknown CuSO
4
solution.

APPARATUS:
Colorimeter, 100 ml volumetric flask, pipette, measuring cylinder (50 ml) etc.
PROCEDURE:
PART I: Preparation of different conc. of 0.01 M CuSO
4
NH
3
complex solution.

Flask
No
Conc.of
CuSO
4
(M)
0.01M solution taken
for dilution(ml)
Liquor NH
3

added (ml)
Total volume
(50 ml )
1 0.006 30 12.5 50
2 0.005 25 12.5 50
3 0.004 20 12.5 50
4 0.003 15 12.5 50
5 0.002 10 12.5 50
6 0.001 05 12.5 50
7 Unknown Given 12.5 50


BLANK SOLUTION: Take 12.5 ml liquor NH
3
in a 50 ml volumetric flask. Dilute the NH
3
with
distilled water up to the mark and shake well to make it homogeneous.

PART II: Determination of
max

To select proper filter, use 0.006 M CuSO
4
-NH
3
complex solution from the above solution and blank
solution. Try all filters and select the one with which the experimental solution has the maximum
absorbance (O.D.), call the wavelength of this filter as
max
. (For present system
max
is 625 nm.)

OBSERVATON TABLE:

Filter No Wavelength in nm Absorbance (O. D.)
1
2
3
4
5

PART III: To find out Absorbance (O. D.) for known and unknown solution at
max.

- Place the appropriate filter corresponding to
max
value in the filter compartment.
- Take blank solution in the cuvette, clean it from outside and insert it into sample
compartment.
- Adjust meter reading to 00 absorbance with the help of course knobs to 00 %.
- Remove the cuvette, wash it with distilled water. Put the 0.006 M from flask no. 1 in it, clean
it from outside and insert it into sample compartment.
- Read the absorbance of the solution on the meter scale.
- Repeat the procedure for reaming known and unknown solution to record the absorbance.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Flask No Conc. of CuSO
4
Absorbance (O.D.)
1 0.006
2 0.005
3 0.004
4 0.003
5 0.002
6 0.001
7 unknown



GRAPH: From the observation plot the following graph.
a) Optical density vs Wavelength
b) Optical density vs concentration.

By knowing the absorbance of unknown solution, the corresponding concentration can be easily
obtained from graph (b).
RESULT:
1. The
max ------------- nm
.
2. Concentration of unknown CuSO
4
solution -------------mol/lit.

CONCLUSION:
The graph absorbance vs concentration is a straight line passing through origin because for a given
cell the path length (l) is fixed. So at a specific wavelength, the absorbance (A) is directly
proportional to concentration (C).



















EXPERMIENT NO: 4
AIM:
To investigate the conductometric titration of a mixture of strong and weak acid against strong base.
THEORY:
During ionic reactions, the conductance may either increase or decrease depending upon the nature of
electrolyte involved. The substitution of ions of one conductivity by the ions of other conductivity is
the basis of coductometric titrations.
Let us consider the titration of a mixture of strong and weak acid (HCl +CH
3
COOH) with strong
base (NaOH).
Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid which in an aqueous solution dissociates completely while acetic
acid being weak acid dissociate to less extent in an aqueous solution. When a mixture of hydrochloric
acid and acetic acid is titrated with sodium hydroxide, the HCl will be neutralizing first. The partial
neutralization can be explained as follows:
HCl H

+ Cl

CH
3
COOH H

+CH
3
COO

The common ion effect of H

ions suppresses the dissociation of acetic acid i.e. the equilibrium lies
to the left side, keeping it in the undissociated state. This will continue till H

of HCl are completely

neutralized. Then neutralization of acetic acid starts with NaOH. After complete neutralization of
mixture of strong and weak acid, the added NaOH will remain unreacted in the flask and the
concentration of the OH

ions increases with addition of NaOH. This trend of the process is utilized
to know the mixture of HCl and CH
3
COOH by conductometric titration.
In the initial stage of titration, the mixture of acid solution has high conductance due to
presence of highly mobile H

ions of HCl. As titration proceeds, the conductance falls due to

replacement of highly mobile H

ions by less mobile Na

ions, until entire HCl is neutralized, then

conductance rises as the acetic acid is neutralized to form its salt (as the acetate ions have conducting
power), then finally conductance rises more steeply after the equivalence point as the excess NaOH is
added. The excess NaOH contains unreacted highly mobile OH

ions, which causes steep increase in

conductance of the solution.
The plot of conductance vs volume of NaOH will have two breaks because of three intersecting
straight lines. First one corresponds to the equivalence point of strong acid (HCl) component and
second to that of another weak acid (CH
3
COOH) component as shown the figure given below:



APPARATUS:
Conductivity bridge, conductivity cell, magnetic stirrer, burette, measuring cylinder, beaker etc.
CHEMICALS:
0.01N (approximate) HCl, 0.01N (approximate) CH
3
COOH, 0.05 N (exact) NaOH solution,
conductivity water.
PROCEDURE:
- Rinse the conductivity cell with distilled water.
- Take 10 ml of mixture of acid solutions in a 150 ml beaker.
- Add to it, about 25 ml conductivity water and dip the conductivity cell in this solution. Ensure
that the electrodes of conductivity cell is immerse completely into the solution.
- Stir the solution and record its conductance.
- Fill the burette with 0.05 N NaOH solution
- From the burette add 0.2 ml of NaOH solution to the mixture of acid solution and stir the
solution. Record the conductance of the solution.
- In a similar way add 0.2 ml of NaOH solution each time and record the conductance of the
solution after sufficient stirring of the solution every time till the equivalence point exceeds by
about one ml. (Take atleast 16 - 18 readings)


- Plot a graph of conductance against ml of NaOH added. Mark the two breaks in the curve by
intersecting points of the straight portions by extra-polation method. Note the volume of V
1

and V
2
ml of NaOH solution from the graph.
- From the graph find neutralization point and hence find exact normality of HCl and
CH
3
COOH present in the given acid mixture.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. No. ml of 0.05 N NaOH added Conductance (ohm
-1
)
1
2
3
4
5
.
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
.


CALCULATIONS:
(i) V
1
ml 0.05 N NaOH is required to neutralize HCl and (V
2
-V
1
) ml 0.05N NaOH is
required to neutralize CH
3
COOH.
(ii) Find exact normality of HCl in a mixture of acid.
N
A
V
A
(HCl) =N
B
V
B
(NaOH)
N
A
x 10 ml = 0.05 N x V
1
ml
N
A
=
.5

Exact normality of HCl in a mixture of acid (N
A
) =N
(iii) Find exact normality of CH
3
COOH in a mixture of acid.
N
A
V
A
(CH
3
COOH) =N
B
V
B
(NaOH)
N
A
x 10 ml = 0.05 N x (V
2
- V
1
) ml
N
A
=
.5

Exact normality of CH
3
COOH in a mixture of acid (N
A
) =N



RESULT:
1. The volume of 0.05 N NaOH is required to neutralize HCl
in a mixture of acid (V
1
ml) =------- ml.

2. The volume of 0.05N NaOH is required to neutralize CH
3
COOH
in a mixture of acid (V
2
-V
1
) ml =------- ml.

3. Exact normality of HCl in a mixture of acid (N
A
) =------- N

4. Exact normality of CH
3
COOH in a mixture of acid (N
A
) =------- N






















EXPERIMENT NO: 5
AIM:
Determine the pKa value of a given weak acid by pH metry titration with strong base.
THEORY:
Dissociation of weak acid like acetic acid (CH
3
COOH) may be represented as:
CH
3
COOH CH
3
COO
-
+ H
+
and its dissociation constant Ka is given by the
equation:
[CH
3
COO
-
] [H
+
]
CH
3
COOH
At half neutralization point, the concentration of acid and the concentration of its salt in the
solution will be equal. For a weak acid the concentration of undissociated acid can be assumed to be
unchanged by a small fraction which dissociates to provide the H
+
ions. The salt can be regarded as
completely dissociated and hence the concentration of CH
3
COO
-
ions can be assumed to be equal to
the salt formed up to any stage of titration.
Therefore, at half neutralization stage, [CH
3
COOH] =[CH
3
COO
-
], the above equation can be written
as:
[CH
3
COO
-
]
CH
3
COOH

Ka [H
+
]
- log Ka = - log [H
+
]
pKa = pH
Thus the dissociation constant can be calculated either by knowing the [H
+
] or the pH value of
the half neutralized solution of the weak acid.

MEASUREMENT OF pH:
The pH value of acidic or basic solution is conveniently measured by using pH meter. The
electrodes used in pH metry are glass electrode & calomel electrodes. Now a days glass electrode are
available as combination electrodes, which contain the indicator electrode (a thin glass bulb) &
reference electrode (Ag/AgCl) combined in a single unit as shown in the fig.1. Thin glass bulb A &
narrow tube B to which it is attached are filled with HCl & carry a Ag/AgCl electrode C. The
wide tube D is fused to lower end of the tube B & contains saturated KCl solution which is also
saturated with AgCl, it carries an Ag/AgCl electrode E. The assembly is sealed with on insulating
cap.
In acid base titration with addition of base to the acid, concentration of H
+
ions decreases.
This change in concentration of H
+
ion can be studied by measuring pH of the solution. By plotting
graph pH Vs ml of NaOH added by the burette, end point of the acid-base titration can be determined.
Ka =
Ka = [H
+
] x
















PROCEDURE:
PART I: STANDARDIZATION OF P

i) Switch on the instrument & allow instrument to warm up for about 10 minute
ii) Put temperature knob at laboratory temperature & put the selector switch to pH side.
iii) Take standard buffer solution having pH =7 & pH =4 or pH =9.2 in a 100
iv) Dip the combination electrode into the buffer solution having pH =7.Ensure that the bulb
of the electrode is completely dipped into the solution & set the buffer value by rotating
Asymm.pot / calibrate knob.
v) Rinse the electrode with distilled water & carefully wipe with filter paper & dip the
electrode in buffer solution having pH =4 or pH =9.2. Set the buffer value by rotating
slope control.
vi) Repeat the step iv) & v) again, each time electrode are to be washed in distilled
After this adjustment do not disturb the standardization knobs throughout the experiment.

PART II: ACID-BASE TITRATION BY pH METER

i) Take 20 ml 0.1N CH3COOH in a 100ml beaker. Add about 10 ml distilled water & stir the
solution by using magnetic stirrer.
ii) Dip combination electrode into acid solution. Ensure that the bulb of the electrode is
completely dipped into the solution, & record pH of the solution.

STANDARDIZATION OF PH METER
Switch on the instrument & allow instrument to warm up for about 10 minute
Put temperature knob at laboratory temperature & put the selector switch to pH side.
Take standard buffer solution having pH =7 & pH =4 or pH =9.2 in a 100
Dip the combination electrode into the buffer solution having pH =7.Ensure that the bulb
of the electrode is completely dipped into the solution & set the buffer value by rotating
Asymm.pot / calibrate knob.
ith distilled water & carefully wipe with filter paper & dip the
electrode in buffer solution having pH =4 or pH =9.2. Set the buffer value by rotating
Repeat the step iv) & v) again, each time electrode are to be washed in distilled
After this adjustment do not disturb the standardization knobs throughout the experiment.
BASE TITRATION BY pH METER
Take 20 ml 0.1N CH3COOH in a 100ml beaker. Add about 10 ml distilled water & stir the
etic stirrer.
Dip combination electrode into acid solution. Ensure that the bulb of the electrode is
completely dipped into the solution, & record pH of the solution.
Switch on the instrument & allow instrument to warm up for about 10 minute
Put temperature knob at laboratory temperature & put the selector switch to pH side.
Take standard buffer solution having pH =7 & pH =4 or pH =9.2 in a 100 ml beaker.
Dip the combination electrode into the buffer solution having pH =7.Ensure that the bulb
of the electrode is completely dipped into the solution & set the buffer value by rotating
ith distilled water & carefully wipe with filter paper & dip the
electrode in buffer solution having pH =4 or pH =9.2. Set the buffer value by rotating
Repeat the step iv) & v) again, each time electrode are to be washed in distilled water.
After this adjustment do not disturb the standardization knobs throughout the experiment.
Take 20 ml 0.1N CH3COOH in a 100ml beaker. Add about 10 ml distilled water & stir the
Dip combination electrode into acid solution. Ensure that the bulb of the electrode is



iii) Fill the burette with 0.5 N NaOH solution (strong base). Add 0.5ml NaOH into acid
solution. Stir solution & wait for reading to stabilized, & record pH of solution.
iv) In a similar way add 0.5ml NaOH each time & record pH of the solution each time upto
12ml addition of NaOH. i.e. end point exceeds by 2.0 ml.
v) Plot a graph (a) pH/V Vs Mean V
(b) pH Vs ml of NaOH added (V ml).

OBSERVATION TABLE:











CALCULATION:
From the graph (a) note the neutralization point (equivalence point) of the titration as X ml.
Find the half neutralization point as X/2 ml.
At half neutralization point (X/2 ml) find the pH of the solution from plot (b). The pH value at
half neutralization point is the pKa value of the weak acid.

Thus, pKa = - log Ka
Ka = antilog (- pKa)


RESULT:
1. Neutralization point (equivalence point) of the titration (X) =--------- ml
2. pKa value of the acetic acid =----------
3. Dissociation constant (Ka) of the acetic acid =----------


Sr.No. ml of NaOH added (V ml) pH pH V pH/ V
1
2
3
4
5
6
.
.
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
.
.
.
.



EXPERIMENT NO: 6

AIM :

Preparation of Phenol formaldehyde resin.

THEORY:

Phenol formaldehyde (PF) resin is prepared by polycondensation between phenol and
formaldehyde. Polycondensation reaction is catalyzed by acid or base. The initial reaction results in
the formation of o- and p- hydroxy methyl phenol, which reacts to form linear polymer, novolac.
However , if , excess of formaldehyde is taken and reaction is allowed continue, almost all the
available o- and p- position of the phenol molecules, a cross linked three dimensional polymer is
formed, called bakelite. The reaction proceeds as follows:




PROPERTIES:
1) It is rigid, hard, scratch resistant, infusible, water resistant, insoluble
solid.
2) It is resistant to non-oxidizing acids, salts, and many organic solvents,
but are attacked alkalis, because of the presence of free OH group
present in their structure.
3) They possess excellent electrical insulating properties.

USES:
1) For making electric insulator parts like switches, plug, switch boards,
heater handles etc.
2) For making moulding articles like telephone parts, cabinets for radio
OH
+ C H H
O
H
+
O
CH
2
OH
OH
CH
2
OH
CH
2
OH
HOH
2
C
O
H
H
CH
2
OH
PF


and television.
3) For impregnated fabrics, wood, and paper.
4) As hydrogen exchange resin in water softening.
5) For making bearings, used in propeller shafts for paper industry and rolling mills.

PROCEDURE:

Take 5ml glacial acetic acid and 2.5ml of 40% formaldehyde solution by measuring cylinder and
add to a beaker containing 2 ml phenol solution. Add few drops of concentrated HCl and stir
vigorously. A pink colour phenol formaldehyde resin produced.


Cross linked polymer bakelite










OH
CH
2
CH
2
OH
CH
2
O
H
CH
2
OH
O
O
CH
2
CH
2
H
H


EXPERIMENT NO: 7
AIM:
To determine the molecular weight of a high polymer by viscosity method
THEORY:
The molecular weight of high polymers can be determined from the viscosity measurements.
Viscosity measures the resistance of flow offered by fluid layers to each other during the flow. The
coefficient of viscosity () is the force required per unit area of the layer to maintain a unit difference
of velocity between two parallel layers of the liquid one centimeter apart at the given temperature. By
using an Ostwals viscometer relative viscosity (is the ratio of the viscosity of the liquid to that of pure
liquid)
r
= /
o
can be found out. In Ostwals viscometer the liquids are allowed to flow through
capillary tube. Flow of liquids through capillary tube is governed by Poiseuilles equation.
V
P r
4
t
8 l

Where V - volume of the liquid that flows through the tube
P - difference in the pressure at the two ends of the tube
- coefficient of viscosity
r - radius of the tube
l - length of the capillary tube in centimeter
t - time of flow in seconds
For two liquids of the same volume and with the use of same viscometer, the equations can be written
as:

1

P
1
r
4
t
1
8 V l
and
2

P
2
r
4
t
2
8 V l

2

P
1
t
1

P
2
t
2

d
1
t
1

d
2
t
2

As pressure is directly proportional to the density of the liquid . By comparing the viscosities
of pure solvent and the solution of polymer in the same solvent, the molecular weight of high
polymer is given by following expression:

Where M - molecular weight of the polymer
K - constant for the given polymer for the particular solvent and
temperature
- function of the geometry of the molecule of a given polymer
C - concentration of polymer in g/100ml solution
- viscosity of the solution of high polymer

o
- viscosity of pure solvent
As we know,

o
-1
sp
speci ic viscosity

sp

The above equation is applicable for very dilute solution (<1 %).
Plot

sp

vs C or
2.303

log

o
vs C is a straight line which gives [], the intrinsic viscosity when
extrapolated to zero concentration.
=lim
c0

sp
C
and =lim
c0

2.303
C
log

o

By knowing the intrinsic viscosity, the molecular weight of the high polymer can be
determined using the following equation known as Mark - Houwink expression:
KM

However, at a given temperature the values of K and are constant for a particular polymer
and solvent. The values of K and for some polymer, which have been determined at 25
0
C are listed
in the following table.
Sr. No. Polymer Solvent K
1 Cellouse acetate Acetone 1.49x10
-4
0.82
2 Polystyrene Toluene 3.7x10
-4
0.62
3 Polymethyl methacrylate Benzene 0.94x10
-4
0.76
4 Polyvinyl alcohol water 2.0x10
-4
0.76




APPARATUS: Ostwals viscometer, stop watch and 25 ml pipette etc.
CHEMICALS: Pure solvent, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%,0.2% and 0.1% solutions of polymer.
PROCEDURE:
PART I: TO DETERMINE THE TIME OF FLOW FOR A GIVEN PURE SOLVENT
- Take a clean and dry Ostwals viscometer and clamp the wider arm of the viscometer in a
perfectly vertical position to the retort stand.
- Introduced exactly 25 ml of pure solvent into wider arm of the viscometer.
- Attached a rubber tube to the narrow arm of viscometer and suck the solvent by rubber tube
till it rises above the upper mark of narrow arm above bulb B (preferably use a suction bulb).
- Allow the pure solvent to flow down the capillary tube.
- Record the time in seconds required by solvent to flow from upper mark to lower mark on
narrow arm of the viscometer.
- Take three reading and find the mean time in seconds required to flow for the pure solvent.
PART II: TO DETERMINE THE TIME OF FLOW FOR A GIVEN POLYMER
SOLUTION
- Introduced exactly 25 ml of 0.5% solution of polymer into wider arm of the viscometer and
repeat the procedure as described in Part I to find mean time of flow for 0.5% solution of
polymer.
- Similarly repeat the procedure for remaining solutions of polymer and record the time of flow.
(Precaution: Before measuring time for each solution of polymer, clean and dry the
viscometer)






DIAGRAM:








OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr.
No.
Solvent/
polymer solution
Time t (Sec.)
t
t
o

o
-1
sp

sp
C

2.303
C
log

o

1 2 3 Mean
1
2
3
4
5
6
Pure solvent
0.5 %
0.4 %
0.3 %
0.2 %
0.1 %


Graphs:
I) Plot the graph of

sp
C
vs % concentration of polymer solution. Find the intrinsic
viscosity [] by extrapolation to zero concentration.
II) Plot the graph of
.33

vs % concentration of polymer solution. Find the intrinsic

viscosity [] by extrapolation to zero concentration.



From appropriate value of the K, and value of [] from graph, the molecular weight of
high polymer can be calculated using following equation:

i. e. M

K

. log M log

K

log M log

K

Knowing[], K and , find log M and then M.

RESULT:
Molecular weight From graph I From graph I








EXPERIMENT NO: 8
AIM:
Determine the moisture and ash content in a given coal sample.
THEORY:
Coal is a fossil fuel which occurs in layer in the earth crust. It has been formed by the partial decay of
plant material accumulated millions years ago and further altered by the action of heat and pressure.
Coal is highly carbonaceous matter and an important fuel. The process of conversion of wood into
coal can be represented as
WOOD PEAT LIGNITE BITUMINOUE ANTHRACITE
The coal is classified accordingly to the rank which measure of the change it has undergone in the
transition from wood to anthracite. Peat, the youngest phase has the lowest rank and anthracite has a
high rank. The classification according to rank is largely based on the carbon content. The
composition of coal varies widely and hence it is necessary to analyze and interpret the results from
the point of view of commercial classification, price fixation and proper industrial utilization. The
following methods of analysis can be used for the selection of coal.

1. THE PROXIMATE ANALYSIS :
This includes the determination of moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed carbon. This gives
quick and valuable information regarding commercial classification and determination of
suitability for a particular industrial use.
2. THE ULTIMATE ANALYSIS :
This includes the estimation of ash, carbon, hydrogen and sulphur, nitrogen and oxygen. The
ultimate analysis is essential for calculating heat balance in any process for which coal is
employed as a fuel.

SIGNIFICANCE OF PROXIMATE ANALYSIS:
a) MOISTURE:
- Increases the transport cost.
- Reduces the calorific value.
- Considerable amount of heat is wasted in evaporating the moisture during combustion. Hence,
high % of moisture is undesirable.
b) VOLATILE MATTER :
- The volatile matter is not a constituent of coal, but consists of a complex
- mixture of gaseous and liquid products resulting from the thermal
- decomposition of the coal substances.


- The volatile matter content of a coal is related to the length of the flame, smoke forming
tendency and the ignition characteristic.
- High volatile matter coal gives long flames, high smoke and relatively low heating values.
- Coal with low volatile matter content burns with shorter flame. Thus the higher volatile matter
content the larger the combustion space required. Hence the volatile matter content of coal
influences the furnace design.
- High volatile matter content coal is preferable in coal gas manufacturing and in carbonization
plants, particularly when the main objective is the by product recovery.
- For manufacturing metallurgical coke, a coal with low volatile matter content and high fixed
carbon is preferred.
- It is important to note that, volatile matter % gives some idea about coking property of the
coal.
c) ASH :
- Ash is useless and non combustible matter usually consists of silica, alumina, iron oxide and
small quantity of lime, magnesia etc. its composition is of considerable importance in
metallurgical operations. As it affects the slag, metal composition and consequently its prime
consideration in selecting the flux.
- It decreases the heating value of a coal.
- It may forms clinkers during burning, clinkers may block interspace of the grate on which
coal is being burnt.
- It also increases the cost of storage, handling and disposal of ash.
- It also causes early wear of furnace wall and burning apparatus.

d) FIXED CARBON :
- Higher the % of fixed carbon greater is its calorific value and better the quality of coal.
- From fixed % of carbon design of fire box, furnace can be decided.

PROCEDURE FOR PROXIMATE ANALYSIS:
1. MOISTURE :
- Moisture is generally determined by heating a known quantity of air dried coal from 105 to
110 0C for one hour and calculating the loss in weight as percentage.
- Take about 1.0 gm of the air dried coal sample in a previously weighted silica crucible.
- Heat the partially covered silica crucible in an electric oven at a temperature of 105 to 110 0C
for one hour.
- Cool the crucible first in air and then in a desicator. Weight the crucible. The loss in weight
corresponds to the moisture.


2. ASH :
- Weight about 1 gm of the finely powdered air dried coal sample in a previously weight silica
crucible.
- Place the crucible without lid on a pipe clay triangle and heat carefully in muffle furnace at
700 50 0C until all the carbonaceous matter is burnt off; stir the residue and ignite it for 30
minute. Cool first in air and then in a desicator and weight.
- Repeat ignition, cooling and weighing till a constant weight is obtained. Note the constant
weight.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION:

1. MOISTURE :
i) Weight of the empty crucible =W
1
= --------- gm.
ii) Weight of the crucible +Coal sample =W
2
= --------- gm.
iii) Weight of the crucible +Coal sample, after heating =W
3
=--------- gm.

% of moisture = W
2
W
3
/ W
2
W
1
x 100

= -------------- %

2. ASH :
iv) Weight of the empty crucible =W
4
=--------- gm.
v) Weight of the crucible +Coal sample =W
5
=--------- gm.
vi) Weight of the crucible +Coal sample, after heating =W
6
= --------- gm.


% of ash = W
5
W
6
/ W
5
W
4
x 100

= -------------- %


RESULT:
1) Percentage of moisture =------------ %
2) Percentage of ash =------------ %