A REVIEW OF RESEARCH ON

DELETERIOUS

SUBSTANCES

IN

CONCRETE

A66RE6ATES DEC, 1957

NO.

37

"'^^t:^\.

RL. Schuster

PURDUE UNIVERSITY
LAFAYETTE INDIANA

TECHNICAL PAPER
A REVIEW OF RESEARCH ON DELETERIOUS SUBSTANCES IN CONCRETE AGORBGATES

TOs

Ko Bo Woods, Director Joint Hlghwegr Research Project

Decenber Idp 1957

Pile: 5-9-5 Project C-26~42E

FRCSf:

Ho L Michael Assistant Director

Attached Is a report entitled^ "A Review of Research on Deleterious Substances In Concrete AggregateSp** by R. Lo Schuster, Research Assistant on our staffo
This report summarizes the research conducted in the Project Laboratories and in other locations on deleterious substances in concrete aggregates It was made at the request of the Board at its meeting on September 13, 1957 This action was taken as a result of the Hi^wyy DepartmontJa new speciricatlons concerning the amount of cherto

The report io presented as informatlono

Respoctfully submitted,

Harold L- Michael, Assistant Director Joint Highway Research Project

HLM:hgb

ce:

Ao Ko J,. Ro Wo Lc Wo Ho J T* Po F. Go Ao Go Ao Jo Fo

Branham Cooper Dolch Goeta Hallett Havey Hawkins Leonards McLaughlin

R Do MUes Ro Eo Mills Bo Ho Petty Mo Bo Scott Co Eo Vogelgesang Jo Lo Waling Jo Eo Wl}.8oa Ec Jo Toder

TECHNICAL PAPER

A REVIEW OF RESEARCH ON
DELETERIOUS SUBSTANCES IN CONCRETE AGGREGATES

by
Robert L, Schuster, Reseairch Assistant

Joint Highway Research Project Project No, C-26=^42E File No,. 5-9=5

Ptu-duQ University Lafayette^, Indiana

December 18, 1957

EARLY HESEARCH ON DELETERIOUS SUBSTANCES IN CONCRETE AGGREGATES

The presenco of certain rocks

j>

minerals, and other substances

may greatly impair the quality of concrete made with aggregates containing only anall parcoatages of these rnaterialsp
The term "deleterious
cc^zinaon

substances'* or "dele 'serious constituents" has become a

one for

describing this class of materials

<>

Deleterious s'jbstancos are those

^ich

adversely affect the

These substances may be categorize! 1 on the basis of the aature of their hanaful effects (1) o The moat
concrete in which thsy are usedo
harmful class of del3teriou3 ntate^'ials conaists of those
vfliich

tend

to expand disruptively due to induced strains resulting from weather-

ing of the deleterious materials o

class are porous
che:its ,

The most coaaion examples of this

well=indurated clays, and limestones contain^

concli=.

ing expansive clays o

Such materials, when frozen in a saturated

tlon or

J,

in some casss, when nrely exposed to water, increase in

volume with devslopmsnt of svifficisnt pressure to cause deep<=seated

disintegration of the concrete^

In another class of deleterious substances the aggregate

particles do not und-sr^ volisis chainges which tsad to disrupt the

Ntrabers in parentheses refer to the list of citi references which

sppsars ^t tho end of this report

2

Chert may be defined as a dense cryptocrystalline sedimentary rockj, composed of chalcsdoey (microcrystalllne fibrous silica and Eicro= fibrous amorphous silica c?* opal) and cryptocrystalline quarts; (2)^ It has a tough splintery to conchoidal f^cture. It is coaKonly whiter gray, or blue-=.grays, but may be brown^, black, green, blue, piakj, red, or yellowo Flint is a tena widely used both as a syncaisna for chert and as a variety of cherts Tarr (3) states that flint is identical tfith chertp and rsooosti^ids that the ter^s be dropped from geologic usagea Although the tens flint intedates the term chert, pa*esitday usage favors the latter as the proper designation of the materials to which both terms have been applied (2)o

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surrounding mortar.,

Instead they break into numerous smaller pieces

due to the Inherent structural weaknesses of the particles themselveso

Examples of such deleterious substances are clay lumpSj ochers, poorly

indurated shales, and soft sandstoneSo

Depending on the quantity of

these materials used in the concrete, doterioration may be gene-al or

more oftenj may be evidenced primarily by surface pitting or scaling

Other materials

^ich are commonly

classified as deleterious

are organic impurities and lightwei^t pieces, including coal^ lignitOj, and xoodo

Organic impurities generally retard the setting of cement

j,

and reduce concrete strength

particularly at early agcsc

Finely

divided

coalj,

lignite

c,

or wood in sufficient quantity will also rej,

tard hardeningo

However

these materials generally occur as Kaall

quantities of larger pieces which have no significant effect on the

strength of the concrete but may detract from its appearance by
pzx>ducing surface pits.

It has long been recognized that certain types of aggregates

have harmful effects on the concrete in which they are uaedo

It was

not until the 1920 's^, however^ that much research was begun in
this country which attempted to quantify the effects of those materials

which were suspected of being deleterious; ando thus, to determine

the quantities of these materials that could be included in concrete
aggregates.

During the construction season of 1923p Rsagel (A) noticed

a peculiar surface effect on the concsrete pavements constructed in

certain localities in Missouri...

Investigation showed that porliions of

the surface averaging 1 to 1=4/2 inches in diameter were cracking

loose from the pavement and could be pried out or were later displaced

by traffic, leaving
in deptho

a hole with sloping sides

from 1/2 inch to 1 inch

On removal of a large nuiober of those "popoutS;" it was

discovered that the pitice of pavement loosened always contained a

leorge fragnant of chert aggregate at

the bottom while the remainder of

the piece of aggregate was left forming the bottom of tbo hole in

the pavement,

It was evident that the force acting to raise the "pop-

out" occurred in all cases through the aggregate..

The action never

occurred in connection vdth pieces of limestone, of which the greater part of the coarse aggregate in the pavement consistedp but always
just above or through a piece of cherto

Reagel then conducted an investigation which showed that these

"popouts** were due to frost action on the pieces of chart a

He

subjected aggregates t^ich were high in chert content to sinple freezing and thawing tests in the laboratoryo

These tests were conducted

on both the loose aggregate and or concrete beams in which the aggre^
gate containing chert was incorporated., cycles of alternate freezing and thawing..

They consisted of five

The results of these

tests showed that the loose chert was seriously affected by the tests
and often disintegrated coe&pletelyo

The test beams showed a definite

loss of strength; and in cases where large percentages of chert were

included in the aggregate^, they often disintegrated to the point v^ere

they could not support their own vreighto

Reagel noted that the five cycles of freezing and thawing
>i4iich

he used in these tests werie considerably fewer than could ordinarily

be expected in an average winter season in

Kissoxiri.^

Since five

Qjreles of freezing and thavring often produced severe disintegration of

concrete made from the chert aggregate, he concluded that chert should

be limited to the araallest percentage possible in aggregates to be used

in the production of concreteo
In 192Z^5 Withay ($) outlined the various tests which had been

developed by that
gatesc

tivae for

testing the durability of concrete aggre(a) the freezing and

Four types of tests were then in use:

thawing test^

(b) the sodium sulphate soundness test, (c) the aodlxsa

chloride test, and (d) the alkali testo

Each of these methods was

intended to give an accelerated test of the potential durability of the aggregatoo

The tests were conducted on the loose aggregate, not

on concrete speciiaens in which aggregate was incorporatedo

Withey

suggested that these tests should be thorou^ly investigated since they should not differ materially in their effects from those produced by

natural agencies.
test should not be

He notedg for lastancep that the sodiua sulphate

irissd

to approximnte the effects of natural

freezing and

thawinf;-,

In 192dp Scholar (6) stated thatj, "The use of isiaound aggre=.

gate produces unsound concrete, the resistance of the mortar to

disintegration being only sli^tly effective in protecting the

aggregate^"
In ordor to determine which aggregates resulted in non<=

durable concrete^ ha developed a method which tested the resistance

to freezing and thawing of concrete cylinders made from the

aggregates in questiono

Using freezing and thawing tests of concrete, Scholer (7) continued his research on various aggregates which were suspected of containing

substances which were harmful when used in concirstao

In the Kansas

aggregates which he tested , he found that the most common and most

destructive deleterious substances were absorptive chert in gravel

and flinty concretions in limestoneo

Walker and Proudly (8) studied the effects of shale on concrete durability and reviewed other investigations of shale, ocher^
sandstone p and light-=weight particles^
friable
j,

They concluded that softp

and nondurable particles are detrimental when used in

concrete^ and they noted that although Investigations of these

substances in concrete aggregates had yielded valuable information

these investigations had not provided a conclusive basis for fixing

specification limit a o

Most specification limits at that time were

based stsrictly on engineering judgment formed from a consideration of the service records of the aggregates and from a consideration
of the economics of the problem in a given locality.

Runner (9)p in 1937

;o

was one of the first to seriously apply

He

petrography to the study of deleterious substances in aggregatss.

foiind that it

was possible to determine the probable durability of

aggregates by means of studies using the petrograpMc microscope.

He made thin sections of aggregate particles and studied then under
the microscope o

He was able to identify the harmful types on the

basis of porosity J texture^, and mineral compositlono

In 193Bs Litehiser (10) published the results of investigations

of the effects of Ohio aggregates on concrete durability.

Using the

freezing and thawing test developed by Scholer (6) and the sodiua
s\ilfal^e

soundness test, he found that shale^ limonite^ ocher^ hematite

iron pyrites

f,

and some varieties of chert had detri/iental offocta on

tha concrete in vfhich they were usedo

He noted that not all varietiea

of chert were deletei'iouBa but did not suggeet a laeans for telling the

difference between deleterious and non<=<leleteriooo chertSo

In 1939^ Cantrill and Campbell (11) published the results of
a concrete pavement condition surTfey they Viad conducted in Keatuckyo

Analysis of their data showed that serious failures of concrete pave-

ments throughout the western part of Kentucky were due to the use of
ciiert

gravels obtained from the Tormeasee and Ciuaberland Rivers in

Pavanants in whVch these chert

the western part of the statSo

gravels were used often began to disintegrate within one year after

construction
The results of this survey led Cantrill and Campboll to a labora=

tory study of the western Kentucky chertso

They found these cherts

to be extreraely porouSp highly absorptivep and possessed of a low

specific gravity a
The chert gravels passed all the standard laboratory
^ised at

tests for abrasion and 8o\andness which t^ers

that time.

These

weres (a) The Los Angeles Abrasion Test^ (b) the Deval Abrasion testp

and (c) the Sodium Siilphate Soundness Testo

Alsop strength tests

on chert<=gravl coacifete field specimens showed values comparable

to those for specimens mado from Ohio River gravel or crushed lime-

stone witl^ good service records o

However j when the chert aggregate

was incorporated in concrete beams and subjected to AO cycles of freez=

ing and thaidng in water, a definite reduction in flexural strength was
notedo
It was thus concluded that? freezing and thawing was the cause

of the disintegration of these lightwei^t Kentucky cherts when used

in concrete pavement 3
In 1940
j>

Wuarpel and Roxford (12) publiohed the results of

thoir investigation of the poaoibility of separating dTjrable and

non-diirable varieties of chert in concrete coarse aggregate by sane

meano more precise than visual exaniination and more practical

than microscopic analysiSo
In their paper, thej included a symposium
]

of related cooaaonts by other investigatorSo

Included in this sympoeiun

are the following significant consments from the Corps of Qiginsers"

Rock Island Investigation (13)8

lo

"Keating and cooling of chert had absolutely no effectsThis test was initiated to allay some suppositions that chert caused "popouts" in suBjmertime due to heat of the sun followed by a cooling rain or vie veraa," "These results (freezing and thawing of paraffins-coated chart in mortar specimens) indicate that popouts occur only from freezing of vjater absorbed by the chert r This hypothesis is further verified by a coBiparison of the absorption and specific gravity of each type of chert vith its reaction to freezing and thawing o It seesis a general tvOlq that a chert stone with an absorption greater than 3 percent or an apparent specific gravity lass than 2o50 can be classified as harmful material ^(o

Wuerpel and Rexford collected samples of cherty gravel from

ten areas in the southern, central p and eastern portions of the United
States o

Those ware separated into four bulk=.8pacific=-gravity groups

by heavy<liquid flotation using broaofona (specific gravity 2o86)

and mono<-broiao=benaene (specific gravity lo46)o
The groups used had

specific gravities of 2o50 plus, 2o40 to 2o50, 2o30 to 2oA0, and 2c30
minusc

Material in each group was analyzed microscopically and tested

physically for absorptive capacityj, resistance to frost action^, and

resistance to a magnesium sulphate soundness testo

The resxilts of

these tests showed a definite increase in absorption and decrease in

soundness with lower bulk specific gravity of the samplesc

These

trends were pre8nt for all groups lower in bulk specific gravity
vhan 2o50, but were especially noticeable in the pebbles having a

bulk specific gravity of less than 2o/i0o

These result e compared favorably with the results of a

perfonnanct; survey of the exposed concrete structures in the areas

from \4iich the s^ravels had been obtainedc

A group of 100 roughly

conical "popouts," each having a piece of disrupted chert at the

apex^ was collected fvom representative structures.

In every

casoj,

the

piece of chert had an abt:<)rption greater than U percent and a bulk

specific gravity less than ao40o

On the basis of this inv^stigationg Vfuerpel and Rexford

concluded that the flotation
meth<:.d

of specific gravity separation

is the most practical method of sepa.^ating durable from nondurable

chertSc

They recoBUsiended that the flotation test be used as a field

test for the separation of a majority of ^he non-^urable chert in

concrete aggregates
In addition,^

th^

developed a flotation field

kit to be vised for this purposes

In their discussion of the preceding study by Wuerpei and Rex^

fopdp Reagel and Willis (14) considerably contributed to the knowledge

of the durability characteristics of chyrt-

Their research was

conducted on a Missouri chert=rich gravel coarse aggregate with a poor

service record in concrete pavements o
for concrete pavement
i,

This aggregate, as produced

had an average bulk specific gra'ity of 2.51

and, in the stream^wet condition^ 398 percent abso-.oed moisture,-,

^9

By means of a technique similar to thatised by V/uerpol and Rexford

(12) p tha aaturated aggregate was aoparatad into three fractions

of different bulk specific gravitieSp namely, less than 2.4, 2^4 to

2o5s,

and over 2o5o

the:i

These three coarse aggregate gravity fractions

were

incorporated in 3l/2'by /v=-l/2by-=l6=inch beams which p after

a 2Sday curing poriodj, were subjected to consecutive cycles of

freezing in air and thawing in watero

After Ij 3,

5, 7s 9

and 10

cycles^ the dynamic modulus of elasticity and the specimen length

were detsrmined for each of the b earns

The results of these teste showed that, for the particular
aggragat'3 anployedp resistance to the freezing-and-thawing cycle

used was much greater for the concrete containing the aggregate fraction of greatest bulk specific gravity than for that containing aggregate
fraction.! of lower gravityo

The results also indicated that removal of

the low-=i5ravity aggregate fractions (less than 2o50) and use of only
the highest fractions (over 2o50) produced concrete that was more
resistan'^ than that in which the unseparated stream-=run gravel was

usedo
ttie

of the principal points brought out by Reagel^s and Willis

tests

wa.i

that concrete made frcm even the highest gravity fraction

2r,5

(all partiicles over

and an average bulk specific gravity of 2-58)

of this chert^rich aggregate having a poor service record showed

considerably less resistance to freezing and thawing than that of a
non-chen; aggregate with a good service records

-10-

EiVRLY RESEARCH ON DELETERIOUS SUBSTANCES

INCIAHA AGGREGATES

In the early 19AO0Sp tho deleterious substances ia Indiana's

aggregates begart to be exposed to comprehensive stucco

Sweet
anct

In 19A2^

Woods (15) published the resiilts of their thorough

They identified

investigation of chert in Indiana *8 aggregates..

the shert. in samples of aggregate and studied it by means of chemical and cdcroscopic analyses, oineralogical examinationp absorption
testSf, and

freesing and thawing durability tests o

They recognized

the fact that all cherts are not rmsoundp and attempted to find a

means of differentiating between durable and non^durable varieties

Thagrconsj dered unsound aggregates to

be those ^vhich are imable to

resist e^xessively large or peraanent changes in ^roluas vfhen subjected to destructive agencioSp particularly freezing and thavdng^ heating
and cool^ijigp or vretting
ossd

dryingo

The first step in this study was the collection of samples

from quarries and gravel deposits

Approximately four-thousand poxmds

of chert ware secured from the six State Hi^way Districts in Indiana^
and from sources in UlinoiSp Kentuckyp Michigan^ Missouri^ OhiOp

and Tsnn()sss3o

The Iikliana ledge rock samples were obtained froa

29 quarr5.es and highway cutSp end the gravel samples from 31 gravel

deposits in all parts of Indiana

It was decided to test the perfonnance and properties of the

quarry sunples firsts, because the properties of the individual pieces

in each sample ware reasonably unlfonuo

Ledge courts were obtained

i

from quarry faces and identified geologically,

record was made

of the macroscopic character of each sample, in/iuding colore luster,

texturOp and

nat'.iro

of fracturev

Each saraple vis subjected to

performance and identification testSo

Performance wus dctsrjiined by

eaibcddinf, \racuum~saturated chert

cv.''es

pebbles in mortar cubes and subjecting the

to

altemato cycles

of freezing and thawing o

The blocks were frtrjen in water for 21

o o & hours at -10 Fo^ and then were immersed in >r.ter at 75 = 00 F^ for

three hours.
reached

This pt^codtu'e was repeated uitil 40 cycles had been

At intervals the cubes were exam:5asd for signs of cracking-

On the basis of thesa testo^ the cherts we; -a divided into two gioupsj
(a) those which disrupted the cubes 5L to iOO percent of the tisie in

less than

cycles; and (B) those which 'dsziipted the cubes

to

50 percent of

the time in 40 cycles,

Saie of the quarry chert types

whici: proved non->durable in this test were investigated further to

determins the effect of alternations oS taaperaturSo

Idectific atioa tests of the quaiiy cherts consisted of bulk

specific gravity

i)

abaorptionp degree ol aatxirationg dye penetra^.ion

a^ixd

unconfinsd

frees-.ing

thai^ring^

ch>3nic\l analyses^ and microscopic

examination of

t.hin sections^

The most 'useful resiilts were thoae from

The cherts in group A

the specific grsvity and absorption tests.

(those v^ich dinrupted the cubes 51 to IX) percent of the time in

less than 40 cycles) had an average

surface-dryp of 2,40 and a maximunof

bull<

specific gravity, satui^ated

2J().-

Their average absorption

-12^
wa8 5o36 percont. and ths minimum abeorptlon for group A cherts was
3o9I pertjont

Simples in group B (thoo9 cherta which dierupted the cubes

to 50 percent of the time in
itO

cycles) averaged 2,53 in bulk

2^46..

specific gravityp saturated aarface^dryj with a minimum of

Absorption of cherts in a
m&3cimu;a

fchis

group averaged I 88 percent with

of 3o02 percento
saiae

The

general perfonaance test procedure employed on the

quarry cherts was used to determine the durability of the gravel

cherts.

Pieces 3/4 ^"^^ ^ ^

i'^^^'i

size were picked at random from

samples of gravel chert from IndJ.ana and other stateso

These

were evacuated for one hour^ saturatedj, and Inmersed for 24 hours. They were then (aabedded in two-inch mortar cubes p
wsro iaoi3t=cured for
thawing teste
sev<jn

The usortar cubes

days and subjected to the freezing and

The gravel chert specimens that failed in this test

were removed from the broken mortar and subjected to the following
identification testa:
colorp texture, bulk specific gravity by the

flotation procedure,, dys penetratitmp apparent specific gravity,

absorption, degree of saturation, and microscopic analysiSo
noH'^-failing specimens

The

were removed

frcHQ

the freezing and thawing

test at the end of 40 or 160 cycles, broken from the cubes, and then

analysed, using the same identification tests as were used with the fail
urea,
A modification of the flotation method developed

by Ifuerpel

and Roxford (12) for determining the bulk specific gravity of gravel particles was used in separating the chert samples into different

i 5.^

fractions on the basis of their specific gravityo

Carbon tetrachloride,

specific gravity lo56'^ and acetylene tetrabromidep specific gravity

2o97f were? mixed together to give liquids with specific gravities of
2o60p 2o55b 2o50 2o45, 2o40i, 2o35, and 2o30o
A gravel speclmer that

had been broken out of the mortar

cubes was

inmersed in water..

After

it had soaked for 24 hours ^ it was surface^-dried and placed in the

heaviest liquid (2c60)<,

If it sank in this liquid^ it was removed, and

the Specific gravity was recorded as 2e60 pluso

2a 60 liquid p it
%ia.a

If it floated on the This was

If a

ro&oved and placed in the 2o55 liquido

repeated for each pico until it sank in one of the liquids o

piece floated in the lightest liquid (2o30)^ its specific gravity

was recorded as 2o30 minus

In this way it was possible to obtain a correlation Jbetween

the bulk specific gravity, saturated surface-<iry, of a piece of

chert p and its perfoi-mance in the freezing and thawing teste

The

resu3.ts of these studies showed that the average bulk specific gravity,

satxirated surfaoe-drj^, of imsound chert was lower than that of durable

chert o

They indicated that an upper limit of 2=30 detected entirely

2o/i.$,

unsatisfactory matarial;

detected almost all the very harmful types,

and included little durable material o

A limit of 2 o 50 included almost

all the nondurable material and also a somewhat larger amount of

relatively durable particles than did the 2=45 limit Even thou^ S\fet and Woods found in these tests that no sharp line
could be drawn betx^an entirely sound and entirely un-

sound chert on the basis of specific gravity, they were able to set

up the following table as a relative meaexire of the probable perforaance

of Indiana chains in concrete baaed on the bulk, eatitrated 8urfac^dr7,

specific gravity:

Below 2o30 2o30 - 2o45 2o45 2c 55 2o55 - 2o60 Above 2o60

> Ofr

Ifasatiafactory

Poor Fair Good Excellent

It should be noted that in this chart proposed by Sv/eet and

Woods^ the break betvjeen "good" and "bad" cherts was found to occur at
a specific gravity

of 2o45o

This same specific gravity is in use

today by the Indiana Hi^iway Department as the level of separation

betvrerai

durable and nondurable cherts,,

The absorption of a piece of aggregate is ordinarily directly

related to the specific gravity of the piece since, in most cases, the

absorption of a material is dependent upon its porosity

iSg
jji

(16)..

Porosity

turn, directly related to the bulk specific gravity of the

material a

ThereforCj the relative absorpiiion of an aggregate particle of the durability of the particle in the

may be used as an indication

same way as bulk specific gravityo

A simple means for measuring the relative absorptivity of

aggregates was used by Sweet and Woods

They selected pebbles about

i^/2

inches in diameter, partially incnersed them in a one-percent

solution of water-soluble eosine dye for a given period of time, and

then measured the depth of penetration of the dyeo

They found that

the greater the penetration of the dye, the lower the durability of

the cherto

On the basis of these tests, they i3roposed the following

tabla of one-hour dye penetration depths to be uaad for predicting

the relative durability of Indiana gravel cherts:

or more - 0.2A" OolO" -' 0,19" 0004" - 0.09" - Oo04"

0..25"

=.

0o20'

Unsatisfactory Poor Pair

Ctood

ExceUent

RECENT RESEARCH ON DELETERIOUS SUBSTANCES IN INDIANA AGGREGATES

In 1947 Soon (17) carried out a series of tests on coarse

aggregate from eight soxirces of supply commonly used in concrete pave-

ments in Indiana in which he attempted to determine the ralation3hip

of field and laboratory perforsaance of the aggregate samples^
Ha

divided the samples into bitLk specific gravity ranges by means of the heavy^liqvdd flotation proceosg and pieces from each range wore
embedded in t;CM>inch mortar cubes and were subjected to freezing-^and-

thawing

atptionr.

The cubes were placed in pans containing about an

inch of water and frtjzen for 21 hours at zer to ten degrees

Fahrenheit

They wers then immersed in water at 75 to 80 degrees

This procedure was repeated until failure

Fahrenheit for three hourSo

of the cubes or until a given number of cycles was attained

In the

failure of a cubep the usual process was the appearance of cracks

which progresoively became worse with each cycle of freeaing and thawing
until the fractured cube could be pulled apart by hand using a

moderate amount of

force..

On the basis of the results of these tests. Soon conclirfed tht

^16
Indiana aggregates are increasingly durable in the following order;
(a) soft particless, (b) cherts^, (c) limeetones below 2o50 in buDic

specific gravity-p (d) eandstoneSp (o) shales, (f) limestones above 2o50 specific gravitjo
Venters 8nd Lawis (18) furthered the study of the deleterious

constituents of Jiidiana aggregates by separating large samples of

gravels into fractions having different specific gravity ranges,
and testing these gravels for absorptionp degree of saturation;, and

durability as indicated by the freezing and thawing durability

testo

The freezing and thavdng test was conducted on 3=by-=4'-by"'l6-

inch concrete beams in which different aggregate fractions were

usedo

The test consisted of freezing in air at minus 15 F t*

minus 20Fop and thavdng in running tap water at 55 Fc to 60 Fo

One cycle per day was obtained^ with 16 hours freezing and 8 hours thaw=
ingo

Periodic determinations of the dynamic nodwius of elasticity

were made to mea'Sure the deterioration of ench spscimeno The results of these tests showed that the aggregates with low
specific gravities were characterized by high absorptions p high

degrees of saturaticnp

find

poor durability in concrete subjected to

freezing and thawingo

The deleterious substances in the low<6p9cific

gravity fractions ccnsisted mainly of cherts and sandstones with lesser

aatount of igneous^ calcareous sedimentary, and metamoirphic rockSc

The

poor frQQa"thaw duraMlity of concrete made with the low<-specific

gravity aggregates was of groat importance because Venters and Lewis

found that tho&e gravels in this study which had low specific gravities

-17alao had poor field records

As a result cf their investigation ^ Venters and Lovris suggested

that increased durability of concrete prot'iiced in actual construction

could be obtained

by-

the use of field heav5v^Bedla'-8eparation processes.

2oij0

They stated that separation at

spscific sT-avity would improre

.>jid

the durability of peer aggregates considerably

separation

at 2 o 50 would result in aggregate with good durability r

Walker and McLau^lin (19) experiniented furth.r with combinations

of Indiana aggregates o

They

xiaed

heavy-liquid separative to obtain

from gravels varioua fractions with different mininun specific

gra^dtieSr,

They then used these fractions^ alone or in combi'otloa

fok*

with good=quality crushed stone p in concrete vhich was tested

durability in freozf ng and tha\-dngo

The grayels which were studied all had high chert contits, contained f ran 10 to 70 percent chert j

Tht.:

Although the specific gravity

sep^iration removed other low-specific gravity materials also^ most of

the material reaovod was cherto

Walker and McLaxighlin found that removal of the low<speclfic

gravity fractions fitna the gravel aggregates resulted in a concrete of

higher durability than that made from the originalj unseparated

aggregateo
Alaoj,

concrete made with crushed atone-gravel combinations-

where the gravel usod had poor service reoords, was made more darahle with
the heavy-liquid seperationc

They also foiind that the durability

of concrete made wi'ih gravel aggregates alone compared favorably

with the field performance of the aggregates, thus indicating the

valldlty of the reoulta of tho freezing and thawing test aa a relatlre

Indication of the durability of concrete

INDIANA HIGlT/rAI DEPj\RTMKNT SPECIFICATIONS GOVERNING DELETERIOUS SUBSTANCES

On the baais of the research previously describedp other research,

and actual experience idth Indiana's aggregates in aervice, the
Indiana Highway Departaiait's 1957 standard apecificatlons for dsleterious

materials in coareo aggregates (20) have been tabulated as shown in

Table
I-,

The chert requiremant in these specifications reflects the

,

statement that not all varieties of chert are deleterious

Thia

requirement^ which is based on the specific gravity of the chert, is a

direct result of the research correlating specific gravity of chert

with its durability when included in concrete aggregate*

~19

TABLE I
REQUIREMEflTS FOR DELETERIOUS MATERIALS IN UTOIAKA-S COARSE AGGREGATES*

Afl[fgpeite Clai88

Deleterious Material (percent by weight )p not more than:

A
0.2
1,0

Clay

lusips

0,2
IcO
1>0

Ochejp

ShellA
1

Oo7
4r.O

Soft or non-=<iurable paarticles

A,0
7.0

lOcO^

Sum of all the above p not rcore than

ChQsrt,

5=0

(loss than 2^45 bulk specific gravity)

3oO^

3.0^

M^

1
Particles vrhich ai^e atracturally woak^ such as soft sandstone, shale, limonite concretions, coal, weathered schistj, uir conantad gravelo The sum of all the above soft emd nondurable particles shall not exceed koO percent^
2

Does not include clay lumps

Bulk spscific gra\rity ohall be deteraiined in the saturated stjface->dry

conditiono

Taken from reference 200

-20-

REFERENCES CITED

lo

Bloemp Dr, L^ "Soundnass and Deleterious Subatanceej " ASTH Special Technical Publication, NOo 169;, Significance of Teata and Properties of Concrete and Concrete Aggregates, ppo 3A6~352, 1956o
,

2q

Pettljohn, Po J, "Sedimentary Rocks," Harper, New York, 1957.

Tarr^ W^ A,, "Texminology of the Chemical Siliceous Sediments p" Report of the Comm ittee on Sedimentation. 1937-193^0 Rational Research Council, pp<.827, 1938o

3^

h^

Reagelp Fo Vop "Chert Uoflt for Coarse Aggregate In Concrete," Engineering NewB^Reoord Volo93f pp. 332-334, 1924
Vfithey, M. 0,, "Soundness Tests for Coarse Aggregates p" ProceedlngSo

5o

Highway Research Board, Volo

6,

Us>

ppo 109117i, 192A

Scholer, Co Ho, "Srane Accelerated Freezing and Thawing Tests on Concrete," Proceedings ^ American Society for Testing Materials, Volo 2a, Part 2^ ppo 472-486, 1928^
Scholer, Co Ho, "Durability of Concrete," Proceedings Hi^way Research Board, Volo 10, ppo 132=163, 1930,

7r.

do

Walker, So, and Proudley, Co Eo^ "Shale in Concrete Aggregates," Proceedings, Highway Research Board, Voln 12, Part 1, ppo 273=303, 1932,
Runner, D<- Go, "The Value of Petrography in Datenaining the Quality of Rocks," Public Roads Vol-. 18, ppo 69-74, 77p 1937-

9o

lOo

Litehiser, Ro Ro, "Effect of Deleterious Materials in Concrete," Rock Products Vol. 41^ NOn 9p PPo 39=40, September 1938..
Cantrlll, Co, aid Caaq^bell, L^, "Selection of Aggregates for Concrete Pavement Based on Service Records," Pixtceedings American Society for Testing Materials, Vol, 39 ppo 937-945 p Discussion pp. 946949p 1939o
,-

11

r.

l2o

Wuerpals, C,

"The Soundness of Chert as E., , and Raxford, Ec. Po^ Measured by Bulk Specific Gravity and Absorption^," Proceedings American Society for Testing Materials, Volo 40c ppo 1021-1043, Discussion, pp 1044-1054i) 1940c

13^

Treatise on Chert o" U, S, Hay, 1937.

'"A

Engineer Office o Rock Island, UllnolB;

-2114o
Reagel,^ F, Vc^ aad Willis p T F^^, "Diacusalon on tho Soxindneas of Chert,/' ProceadlngSfl American Society for Testing Materials." Vol. 40p ppo 10i!v7-1051j 19AOo

15o

Sweet H Soj ani WoodSg Ko 3.,, "A Study of Chert as a Dele'ierious Constituent in Aggregat<?B," Engineering Bulletin of Purdue Univerelty, Volo 26;, No. 5p Septaaber, 1942o
J,

16.

Le*n.ej,

Do Wvp and Dolch^ Wo

hoi.

"Porosity and Absorption," Slgoifi^

^'5^l2^^^t!l.^i^^.^^^R'^}^^^s^^il_^^^^^^ and Concrete Aggregata

Merlcan Society for Testing

Publication No. 169,
17o
pp,

Materiais;, Special Technical

303-313, 1956o

Soon^ ^o Cos, "Concrete Aggregate Studyp" A thesis suhcaittcd in partial fulfillment of the requiremonts for the degree of Master of Science in Civil Engineering Purdue University 1947:

18o

Ventersj So and Lewis^ D> Wo^ "Deleterious Constituents of Indijma Gravels^'* Highway Resoarch Board Bulletin No, 94p pp. 1 to lOy

1954 (Engineering Reprint of the Joint Hi^iway Rasearoh Project

Noo 106)

19

Wa3.kerp Ro

D-, and McLan^lln^ J. Fog "Effeet of Heavy Media Separation on Durability of Concrete Made witli Indiana Gravels," Highway Raaearch Board Bulletin Noo 143..^ Wo 14=-26p 1956 ^Engineering Reprint of the Joint Highway Research Pnsjeet Noo 126)0

20 o

State Kighwa;/ De-partment of Indiana,-, Standard Spseificationa for and Bridge Constru ction and Maintenancen ..p? 583? 1957

ADDITIONAL REFER^\CSS
2I0

Alleap Co VI OS "Influence ^f Mineral Aggregates on the Sti^ength and Durability of Concrete ;," Svaposixaa on Mineral Aggregates ^ American Society for Testing Materials j Special Technical Publication No, 83* PPo 15.^'-159s 1948^
Axon, Eo Oo, WilliSp To Foj, and Reagelp Fo V,, "Effaet of Air= Entrapping Portland Consnt on the Resistance to Freezing and Thavrlng of Concrete Containing Inferior Coarse Aggregate," P^cjjedings. American Society for Testing Materials^ Yol:> 43p 981-=-994p Discussion, ppo 1^1. 9951000s 1943.
friegBo Ho Fo '^The Stability of Chert," Rock Products Ho. 9r PPo 50-53 April 27j 1929.
'iango

22o

23o

Vol.

32;>

24a

"Deleterious Substances," Raport on Significance of Tests of C oncrete And Concrete AggregataS j American Society for Testing MaterialSs Specisd Technicp.l Publication Noo 22^ First Bditlonj, pp, 96-102^ 1935; Second Edition, ppe 138-144i> 1943.
F. C,n

-2225o

Langp Fn Coj "Deleterious Subatancaa in Concrete Aggregates," Bulletin^ National Sand and Gravel Association, May^, 193lo
Leggj Po Ei, Jros> "Freoza-Thaif Durability of Michigan Concrete Coarre Aggregates," Highway Research Board, Bulletin 1A3> pp. 1-13* 1956 c
Lewie^, Do Woj "Effect of Coarse Aggregate on Concrete Paveamt Perfcrmancffl in Indiana," Kigjbwaj Research Abstracts pp, 15-239

26

27o

Juni I95I0

28o

LewiSj, Do Wo and Woods, K;, B,s "Research as Related to the Devolopnant of Aggregate Specifications," PrpceedJngSt. 35th Annuel Purdue Road Schoolp E^ension Series Nb<, 69, Vol o 33 ppo 155-173i) September, 1949o

j,

llo<.5,

29=

Vrr;e. "The Significance of Scdiua Sulfate and Freezing and Thawing Tests of Mineral Aggregates;," Proceedings, Hi^iwpy Heseprch Boardp ?olo 11, pp, 312'334, 1931o

MCanmg

30,

MielenZp Ro Co^ '.'Petipographic Examination, " Si^Tiifica nce of Ig9l^g--,f^ P^QPoHA o^ Conerete and Conerete^A^gre/g ateSn" American Society for Testing Materials, Soecial Technical Publication No. 1693 ppc 253-'273p 1956.
Mielenz, R, C
Proct^edtn^s.

37. ^

pp,
32r>

"Petro graphic Examination of Concrete Aggregate," ^ American Society for Testing Materials^ Volo 54, 1183=1217, 195^0

Reagel, P, V, "Freezing and Thawing Tests of Concrete," Proceedings Highv-ay Research Board, Vol*, 20,, ppc 587~59S, 19W)
"^Rhoados, Roger, and

33o

Melenz, R, C*, "PotrograjpttMc and JlneraJLogtc Charnetsrlstics of Aggregates," SsrmposiuE on Mineral Aggre^nteSj American Society for Testing >!aterials Special Technical Publication No. 83p PP= 20-Aa, 1943,
Rhoades, Roger and Mielens, R, C, "Petrography of Concrete Aggrogato,'.' Proceeding Sn American Concrete Institute, Volo 42, 581-600, 1946. ppo
^^

34o

35"

S*eetj> Ho S^s, "Chert as a Dalaterious Constitutent in Indiana Aggregates," Preeeedings,. Highvray Research Board, Vol. 20, pp^ 599=620, 1940..

36

Sweet, Hv S, , "Concrete Durability as Affected by Coarse Aggre=gates a" ^e?de (Sulanitted to Purdue l^xiversity in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy) 1943o

-2337o

Sweoto H S, "P^^sical and Chemical Teats of Mineral Aggregates and Their SignificancOp" S^^ffiOBJiaR. op ,MlneraX Aggyegatee . Aairic*n society for Testing MatoriaXSj Special Technical Publication Noo 83p ppo 49-7^4, 1943

3do

Sweet p Ho So "Rneearch on Concrete Durability as Affected by Coarea AggregatS;." Proeeediriga., American Society for Testing Materials Vol. 4Sy ppo 9d(i-10l6ri948

39o

and WoodSj Ko B, "Evaluation of Aggregate Performance in Pavement Conc:^te," Journal American Concrete Institute;, ?lo 19p PPo 1033-1040, June, 1948.
Sweetj, Ho S:.,

40o

Sweuson, Eo Gop ;ind Cha3.yp 7,p "Basis for Classifying Deleterious Characteristics of Concrete Aggregate Materials^" Proceedings American Concrete? Institute, Voln 52^ 1956; Joiumal American OoneretQ Institute^ Vol 27, NOc 9 pp 987-i-002 Kay, 1956o
,,

4ic

TinnsEj,

'"^'eight^ Density, Absorptionj and Svurface Moisture;* of '^eats and Prooert iea of Concrate and Concrete Ag/yye gates. American Society for Testing Materials, Soecial Technical Publication NOo 169s pp, 297-302, 1956

Ao

G..

Sigjni fi Qance

42v

Walker, S,p "Freezing and Thavdng Tests of Concrete Made with Different Aggregates," Proceedings American Ccmcrete Institute^ 7olo 40p PPo 573,. 1944.

43o

Walker p So, "Production of Sand and Gravel," Journal American Concrete InstitufcCj pp 165-173^ October, 1954; Proceedings
i,

Volo 51pEp. 65, 1954.

hUo
Wallcerj- S^^ ?md. Bleeaup D>

L., "Effset of Heavy-Media Processing on Quality of Gravel," Circular KO:. 55 National Sand and Gravel

Association, 1953.
45o

Walker^ So, and aioeap D,, L,, "The Problem of Deleterious Particles in Aggregates," Circular No 35. National Ssnd and Gravel Asaoeiatlon, 195Dv
White, Lo Vo and Peytonj, R^ L.^i 'XSondition of Concrete Paveasnts in Ssnsas as Affected Coarse Aggregate," ProceadingSp Highway Research Board;, Volo 25|, ppo 129-146, 1945^
Withey, Mo Oo* "Progress Report, CoBmittse on Durability of Concrete," Proceedings, Highway Research Beard, Vol 24, p?o 174-202, 1944.

460

47o

kS.

WoodSj K.. B. , "Aggregates rnd Their Influence on the Durability of Concrete p" Crushed Stone Journal Vole 25^ Noo 1^ pp 21p March, 1990

^2U-

U9o

WoodSj,,

"Correlation of Coarao Aggregate with Perfomanee Concrete/' Clrgu.lar No, 49 o National Santl Cement of Portland April;, 1952o Asoocintion^ and Gravel
Kc Bo,

50.

Woods, Ko B,;, a*aot, Ho So, and Shelburne, T, Bo, "Pavement BlowProoeedinge, \ip8 Correlated with Source of Coarse Aggrg.ite," Highway Research Boardj Vole 25p ppo 147-l6d, 1945Wuerpelj, C Eoj ''Dotccting Unaound Chert in AggregateSp" Engineering Mews.Records Vol,, 124p PP* 652-654, 1940o

51.

25

APPENDIX

A Review of the Idteratxire on the Effect of Air

Entrainioeni^ on the Durability of Concrete Made fjpom Aggipegates Containing Chert

It has been shown that entrained air occiira as minute, di a connected

air bubbles uniformly dlf^tributed through the concretes

These air bubbles,

when Incorporated in paving concrete, produce a material which is re>

markably resistant to the scaling which may be associated with the removal of snow and ice by the use of chemiealso

In the middle 1940 's it wan theorized that air entralnnent could
also be used to iir^rove the durability of those concrete which are

susceptible to freezing and thawing failure because they contain unsound

coarse aggregates o

Considerable research was begun at that time in an

attempt to verify this hypotheaiso

In 1943, Axon, Willis, and &agel (1) fabricated air=ntrained

concrete test beams trom four different Missouri coarse aggregates:

two crushed limestones, and two chert^rich ariver graveLso

The two

limestone aggregates had good service records; one of the chert-rich

gravels ted a
f^siir

service record while the other had produced only

concretes with poor duiabilityo

Each of these coarse aggregates was

One of

used, in a saturated condition, in three separate batches c

these batches was cade with plain portland eeatent and contained about 1 percent aire
"Bie

other two batches contained a blend of plain e^wct

and cement groood vith

Od

percmxt vinsol resin to give entrained air

contents of 4 and 7 percent for the respective batehes.^fter curing.

26

the beams from these batches were subjected to

thtt

frerizing and thawiog

test, and their flsxural strengths were neamiredo

Results for both limestone concretes containing entrained air

showed a definite Improvenent in durability a a measured bj the freeslog

and thawing teste

However, for concrete made with the chert-rich

aggregate with a fair service record, the use of entrained air resulted

in only a slight increase in durabilityo

In the ease of the chert-ridi

aggregate with a poor durability record, the use of entrained air

resulted in no appreciable improvement in durabilityo

Axon, Willis,

and Reagel concluded that there is only a sli^t chance that airentrainraent will appreciably reduce the rate of disintegration resulting

tram freezing and thawing of concrete containing unsound aggregateso

In his discussion of the previously cited paper, Wuerpel (2)

briefly presented the results of similar studies %fhieh he had conducted

for the Sto Lawrence Waterway Projecto

In these studies a very inferior

gravel was compared with aggregate of good qualityo

Plain portland

cements and vinsol-resin^-treated cements were used with these aggregates,

and it was found that the durability of the air=ntrained concrete

specimens containing ths good agf^regates was very much better than that

of the plain concrete specimens containing similar aggregates,

taut

there was a relatively insignificant improvement in the durability of

the c<mcrete with the inferior-quality gravelo

In 1944, Idndsay (3) investigated the relative durability of

air>ntrained portland eement concrete and regular poHl&nd ciOMn^
concrete made with ehert'^rioh aggregates o

The aggregates used were in durability re

stream-saturated gravelso

XAttle or no

laGPapoveaent

suited from the use of the airentrained Portland eement a

27

In the same year, Reagel (U) published the remilts of furthftr

experiasBts of this typeo
The tests conducted by Reagel were similar
As in these

to those used by Axon, Willis, and Reagel (1) in 1943

earlier tests, he investigated the effects of air entralnment on conerete made from two satiirated chert-^rich gravels and two crushed

limestone aggregates as measured by resistance to laboratory freezing and thawingo

His results showed that entrained air Improved the dura-

bility of concrete containing either mediocre or good limestone

aggregates, but caused no appreciable improvement in the durability

of eongrete containing ehertrlh aggregateso

In 1947, Bugg (5) investigated the effects of air entralnment on coni^rete containing Indiana aggregatesn
He used the
ssiae

techniques

as previous investigators ecceept that some batches were made using

aggregates which vrere vaeuura saturated while for other batches the
aggregates were merely imniersed in tap water at room temperature for

24 hours o

Bxigg

worked with four different aggregates; two crushed

One of the limestone aggregates

Hmest'snes and two chert^rieh gravelso

had a good field perfoxmance record while the other had only a fair
records

One of the chert^rich gravels contained only 9 percent chert

The other chert-sdch gravel

and had a fair field perforsnance jrecordo

contained 43 percent chert and had a very poor field performance reeordo
Concrete beams made from these aggregates and fron either re-

gular or air-entrained portland cement were subjected to the freesing

and thawing testo

From the rasults of this study Bugg concluded that

tinder the conditions of the freezing and thawing test and with the materials

used, airentrained concrete showed slight to considerably greater

2d

diurabllity in every condition investigated than did regular cement

concrete o

However, it should be noted that the greatest imprtireinent

was shown by the immersed aggregateso

Later studies by Sweet (6) have

shown that 24 hour immersion does not approximate the high defpree of

saturation that many river gravels have at the tine of their production
for aggregatCc
Sweet also found that freezing and thawing of laboratoxy

fabricated concrete beams produced results that were in accord with the
field performance of the materials
u;f?ed

when the aggregate wa incorporated

in the concrete in a moisture condition corresponding to this field

saturation..

At lower degrees of saturation, aggregates with poor ser-

vice recordts wsre

testso

Mghly resistant to

the laboratory freezing and thawing

Sweet" 3 refsearch indicates, therefore, that the results of the

tests v^lch Bugg @ondueted on the eoncf^te laade from the inmsrsed aggregates may not be truly Indicative of the situation existing in the pave-

For the saturated aggregates Bugg^s iresults were actually similar

to thos3 obtained in earlier studies by other investigators o
He found

that air entrainment in^jroved the durability of cwicrete made from the

limestone aggregates and from the chert^rich aggregate with a fair performance recordo
The is^jrovement shown by the saturated aggregate

containing 43 percent chert, however, was not appreciable except where

percentages of antsained air were used which
wcjre

large enou^ to ser-

iously affect the strength of the concrete

In 1946, Blackburn (?) published the results of a study of the

freeze and thaw durability of seven Indiana aggregates used in concrete

with varying

aj.r contents..

The purpose of this stui^ was to dstermlne

the effect of air entrainment aa the durability of SMicrete aade with

29

oertaln aggregates which wore chosen on the banis of their ab-rptive

and laerfonoance characteristics as being fairly representatiTfj of those

available in Indianao
meantt

TWo aggregates ufied by Bugg (5) were

.ised

as a

of correlating the two studieso

The aggregates were incorporated

in concrete test beams which were subjected to freezing and thawing as

in the preceding teatso

The air contents of the rarious ccmcrete

fz*cza

batches used for making thee beams varied

Ool to 109 pareento

He found

Blackburn's results closely paralleled those of Buggo

that air entr&lament iozprored the resistance to freezing and thawing of concrete made from all aggregates iiMch hnd only been immersed for 24

hours and thus were not fully saturatedo

Also, those aggregates which

had been vacuim saturated but had fair to good field perfoncance records
also showed sonsidsrable improvement o

Only the vacuum saturated aggre-

gate with a poor servise record failed to respond markedly to the use

of entrained airo
eherto

This aggregate was a river gravel containing 9 percent

With an air content of Ool pereent, concrete made frcs this

gravel was highly saturated and

mor^r failure

resultedo

Air content

as high as 10o9 percent failed to laake this aggregate durable in eonereta

when it was va@uuRi saturatedo

The consens^us of the resxilts of the several studies reviewed is

this paper seens to be that although entrained air does ijqsrove the
dxirability of oonc^rete made from aggregates with fair t good field

perfosmance To&orCs, it has little, if any, effect on the durability

of ebert<=-rieh aggregates with poor field performance resordso

30

REFERENCES CITED

le

Axon, Eo Oo, Wilis, To Po, and Reagel, Po Vo, "Effect of Airentrapping Portland Cement on the Resitstance to Ft>eezing and Thavring of Concrete Containing Inferior Coarse Aggregate," Proeeedingj . Amsrican Society for Testing Materials, Voln 43, pp, 981-994, 1943o

2e

Wuerpel, Co Eo, Diseussion on "Effect of Air-entrapping Portland Ceiosnt on the Resistance to Freezing and Thawing of Concrete Containing Inferior Coarse Aggregate," Proeeedings . Amertcan Society for Testing Materials, Vol, 43, Po 995, 1943o
Lindsay, Go L. , "Hanufactiire and Use of Air-entraining Portland Cemsnt,** Journal ^ American Concrete Institute, Volo 15, Noo 6, ppo 529='536, June 19^4

3o

4o

Reagsl, Fo Vo, "Air^entraining Agents Not a Cure-all," Jotimal . Ameriean Concrete Institute, Volo 15, Koo 6, ppo 563''567, June 1944o
Bugg, So Lo, "Effect of Air Entrainment oh the Durability Characteristics of Concrete Aggregates," Proeeedings . Highway Research Board, Volo 27, ppo 156=170, 1947o

5o

60

Sweet, Ho So, Discussion on " 'Creese and Thaw Durability cf AirEntirained Concrete Using Indiana Aggregates," Proceedingn . Hi^way Research Board, Volo 28, ppo 187-194, 19UBo
Jo Bo , "FV^eze and Thav Durability of Air=&xtreined Con^ Crete Using Indiana Aggregates," Proeeedings . Hi^way Research Board, Volo 28, ppo i7l=187o

7o

Blackbum,