School Psychology

Review

2000, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp. 217-230

Addressing Sexual Orientation and Professional Ethics in the Training Of School Psychologists in School and University Settings
Michael W. Bahr
Indiana State University

BarbaraBrish
Lincoln Park Public Schools

JamesM. Croteau
Western Michigan University This article discussestraining in the field of school psychology in relation,to the needsof lesbian,gay,bisexual,transgender, andquestioning(sexualminority) youth. using the NASP Principles for Professional Ethics (NASP, 1997),we explain how ethicalprinciples areusedto advocatefor sexualminority youth. We then discussapproaches for conducting training in public schools and university programs. The final section describesspecific strategiesthat school psychologists may implement to create sexual minority affirmative environments.We concludethat the field of schoolpsychology is poisedto make significant contributions in meeting the educationalandpsychological needsof sexualminority youth as this new millennium begins.
Abstract:

In 1993, the American Psychological Association(APA) andthe National Association of SchoolPsychologists(NASP) adopteda joint resolutiondenouncing widespread discrimination against lesbian, gay, and bisexual persons and promoting a broad agenda that affirmed the dignity and rights of individuals in sexual minority groups and advocatedfor their educational andpsychological well-being(APANASP, 1993;reapprovedby NASP, 1998). In doing so, these organizations immediately leveled the playing field regarding the perceived status of lesbian,gay, and bisexual youth. As this miniseries demonstrates, however, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and questioning (sexual minority) youth continue to face a plethora of educationaland psychologicalchallenges. Sexualorientation representsone of many salientdimensionsof cultural diversity. Despite the increasing diversity of our schools and

society, the field of school psychology has focused less upon the needsof sexualminority youth relative to other distinct cultural groups. Undoubtedly, one of the explanationsfor slow progressin this areais the lack of understanding about sexual orientation and a reluctance to combatpersistingstereotypes andstigmas.In this article, we address how schoolpsychologistscan facilitate understanding of sexualminority youth via training on the topic of sexual orientation. We address four training issues. First, we provide an analysis of the professions ethical code focusing,in particular,upontheNASP Principles of Professional Ethics (NASP, 1997)in relation to its advocacyfor sexualminority youth. In the second and third sections of this article, we discusshow school psychologists can conduct training in school and university settings, respectively.In the final section,we offer specific suggestionsfor how school psychologists can

The authors extendtheir appreciationto Shirley A. Thomasfor her assistance in the preparationof

this article.
Address all correspondenceconcerning this article to Michael W. Bahr, PhD, Department of Educational and School Psychology, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, IN 47809. E-mail: epbahr@befac.indstate.edu.
Copyright 2000 by the National Association of School Psychologists,ISSN 0279-6015

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contribute to creating diverse and inclusive environmentsthat affirm sexualminority youth. Throughout this article, the term training pertains to post-degree, ongoing professional development when applied to school settings. Training in a university setting appliesto participationin a graduatecourseor graduate program, and, in most cases, this pertains to graduate studentsadmitted to such programs although it may apply to post-degreecoursework taken for professionaldevelopment.Trainer refers to an individual who educatesothers on the topic of sexual orientation, regardless of whether this occurs in school or university settings. Application of Ethical Principles Promoting the Welfare and Rights of Sexual Minority Youth This sectiondescribes how trainersmay rely on ethical principles to justify sexualorientation as a legitimate training issue. We provide a rationalefor usingethicsasa basisfor presenting information on sexual orientation, and we then discussthree salient principles. A Rationale for the Use of Ethics The conduct of school psychologists is governed by the professions ethical codes, including the A/ASP Principles@ Professional Ethics (NASP, 1997), the American Psychological Associations Ethical Principles for Psychologists and Code of Conduct (1992), and
the Code of Ethics for the International School Psychology Association (Oakland, Goldman, &

By virtue of joining WASP], each . . . memberagreesto abideby the Ethics, acting in a mannerthat showsrespectfor humandignity and assuringa high quality of professionalservice (p. 1). Application of the NASP ethicalprinciples providesexplicit andimplicit guidancefor school psychologists in working with sexual minority youth. Consequently,trainers should rely upon andbe preparedto explain principlesthat school psychologists may usein working throughethical questions or dilemmas associatedwith sexual orientation. Correct application of ethical principles assistsschoolpsychologiststo behave in a competent,ethicalfashion,therebyrendering appropriateservicesto sexualminority youth. Application of NASP Ethical Principles This section discusses three principles that trainerswill find especially helpful for developing a rationale for presentingsexualminority issues and resolving questions surrounding sexual orientation. Professional relationships and responsibilities. Are school psychologists obliged to know about the developmentof sexualorientation? Must school psychologists understand individual differences pertaining to sexual orientation?What obligationsdo schoolpsychologists have for promoting positive stances regardingvariations in sexualorientation? These questionspertain to the principle of professionalrelationshipsand responsibilitiesto all school constituents (e.g., students, families, teachers, and administrators). This principle explicitly mandatesthat [slchool psychologists respect all persons and are sensitive to . . . [individual differences including] sexual orientation (NASP, 1997,p. 4). Moreover, this principle charges school psychologists to be committed to the application of their professionalexpertisefor the.purpose of promoting improvementin the quality of life for students,their families, and the school community (p. 4), and this directive is pursued in ways that protect the dignity and rights of those involved (p. 4). Furthermore, [slchool psychologists do not harass or demean others on personal characteristics (p. 5). The NASP ethics acknowledgethe responsibility for school psychologists to advocate appropriately for cultural diversity within their local community.TheNASP ethicsrecognize that

Bischoff, 1991). Thoughpertaining to particular constituencies within the field of psychology, theseethical codesaddressbroad principles that are generally similar. For the purpose of this discussion, we will useprinciplesfrom the NASP ethical code to illustrate their application to the subjectof sexualorientation, althoughprinciples from other codesare equally applicable. Use of ethicalprinciplescanbe aparticularly effective method of presenting potentially challengingor even volatile information such as sexual orientation in an objective fashion. Application of ethicalprinciplesalsogives sexual orientationanequalstatusrelativeto otheraspects of diversity suchasphysical, mental, emotional, political, economic, social, cultural, ethnic, and racial characteristics,gender and religion (NASP, 1997,p. 4).

Training Considerationsfor SexualOrientation school psychologists, as citizens, accept the sameresponsibilitiesand duties as any member of society ( p. 9). However, becauseof their professionalstatus,school psychologistsdo not engage in or condonepracticesthat discriminate againstclients basedon . . . sexualorientation ( P. 9) Thus, the principle of professionalrelationships and responsibilities presents multiple imperatives to the profession. School psychologistsmustunderstand the development of sexual orientation,ensuresafelearningenvironments for youth of all sexualorientations,and behavein a manner that reflects respect to sexual minority youth.

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problems or conflicts may interfere with professionaleffectiveness (p. 3). Second, competence dictates that school psychologistsmust continually seekadditional training with the welfare of children, families, the school community, and their trainees or supervisees in mind (p. 3) andthat they engage in continuing professional development . . . regardingdevelopments in research, training, and professional practices that benefit children, families,andschools(p. 3). Although it is ethical to refer a client to another specialistbecauseof lack of knowledge about sexual orientation, competencedictates that school psychologists assumethe burden of educatingthemselvesin a way that enables them to address adequately Professional competency. Schoolpsychol- similar problemsin the future. ogists may question why it is necessary or Professional practices. The basicprinciple important to be knowledgeable about sexual orientation. The principle of competencestates guiding NASP ethics regarding professional that [slchool psychologists recognize the practices is that school psychologistsconsider strengths and limitations of their training and the students or clients to be their primary for their rights experience,engagingonly in practicesfor which responsibility,acting asadvocates they are qualified (p. 3). As the professions and welfare (p. 11). More specifically, school knowledgebaseon cultural diversity grows, it is psychologiststake into accountthe rights of each reasonable to expectschoolpsychologists to work individual (p. 11). Schoolpsychologistsmust communicateto competentlywith a broadrangeof diversegroups, schooladministratorsand staff their concernsfor including those represented by individual differences pertaining to sexual orientation. student rights and welfare, and these concerns Consequently,trainers may rely on the principle should be the top priority in determining of competenceas a basis for including informa- services (p. 11). These considerations assist tion about sexual orientation as one aspect of school psychologists in thinking proactively aboutalleviatingthe stigmatoward diversesexual cultural diversity. The principle of competenceprovides two orientations and advocating appropriately for guides for school psychologists working with sexualminority youth. Schoolpsychologistsmay rely heavily upon sexualminority youth. First, it is not uncommon in applyingassessment for school psychologists to have little or no NASP ethicsfor guidance training on sexual orientation; consequently, techniquesanddevelopinginterventions.School school psychologistsmay be unknowledgeable psychologists must consider questions about or unskilled when assistinga studentor a parent sexualorientation when conductingeducational assessments. NASP ethicsstate with this issue.Lack of knowledge or skills on andpsychological any psychological or educational issue should that psychologists will maintain the highest when conductingassessment, including prompt psychologiststo engagein self-reflection standards and assess their level of competencerelative to due consideration. . . to individual integrity and that issue.Predicatedon the dual assumptions of individual differences (p. 11). Furthermore, advocatingfor clients aswell as doing no harm, school psychologists are compelled to select competence requires school psychologists to assessmentand treatment procedures that are recognize their limitations and enlist the sensitive to individual differences including assistanceof other specialists. . . in providing sexual orientation. As the knowledge base on services(p. 3) to suchclients. If personalbeliefs sexualorientation expandsin specialty areasof and valuessignificantly limit the ability to work psychology and in other professions (e.g., with a client on issuesof sexualorientation, then medicine), the NASP ethics remind school from allied competencedictates that school psychologists psychologiststo rely upon assistance refrain from any activity in which their personal disciplines in integrating assessment and

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SchoolPsychologyReview, 2000, Vol. 29, No. 2 guiding psychologists who work with sexual minorities. Training in School Settings Discrimination and stereotypesbasedupon sexual orientation are not uncommon within a school setting. Homophobia--the fear or hatred of same-sexcloseness-and heterosexisethe assumption that everyone is, or should be,

intervention data and in developing recommendations. Summary. The ethical codes from NASP, APA, and the International School Psychology Association offer similar imperatives and constraints for schoolpsychologists working with sexualminority youth and their families. Using the NASP codeof ethicsasa foundation,Table 1 summarizes applications of ethical principles

Table 1 SelectedNASP Ethical Principles Applied to the Needs of SexualMinority Youth

Professional Relationships and Responsibilities

Cl 0 0

School psychologists respect all personsand are sensitive to individual differences including sexual orientation. School psychologists affirm cultural diversity, including sexualorientation,within their local and professionalcommunities.

on School psychologists do not engagein or condonepractices that discriminate against clients based their sexual orientation.
Professional Competency

a cl

School psychologists must work competently with individuals from diverse groups, including those from sexual minorities. School psychologists monitor their own beliefs and values relatedto sexual orientation, and they do not permit personallimitations to interferewith their responsibility to provide effective psychologicalservices to sexual minority youth and their families. Schoolpsychologistsmust continually seektraining on contemporarydevelopmentsin research, training, and professionalpractices, including those on sexual orientation, that benefit clients and schools. Professional Practices

0 0 0

School psychologists must communicate to school administration and staff their concern for student rights and welfare, including the needsof sexual minority youth. School psychologists select assessment and treatmentproceduresthat are sensitive to, and maintain the dignity of, individual differences pertaining to sexual orientation. School psychologists seeknew knowledge on sexual orientation generated by allied disciplines for the purposeof selecting and implementing appropriateassessment and treatmentprocedures.

Note. Although these applications are derived from the NASP PrincipZes of Professional Ethics (1997), the ethical codesof APA and International School Psychology Association encompasssimilar principles.

Training Considerationsfor SexualOrientation heterosexual-are reflected through overt and subtle behaviors as well as through curricular materials. Confronting these issues,however, is a complicated matter given the volatility of sexual orientation for most schools and other societal organizations (Henning-Stout, James, & Macintosh,2000). As discussed elsewherein this mini-series (Jordan, 2000; Tharinger & Wells, 2000), adolescents grappling with identity developmentare more likely to attempt suicide and become involved in substance abuse. Additionally, the prejudices against sexual minority youth will often lead to harassment, ostracism,and even violence (Haldeman,2000; Hollander, 2000). Many psychologists now practicing in schoolshave not had an opportunity to explore and understand the pressures facing sexual minority youth or have they had the opportunity to considertheir own feelings and valuesabout the issue. Consistent with ethical principles promoting self-reflection (professionalrelationshipsandresponsibilities),increasing knowledge (competency), and developingnew skills when working with diverse clients (professional practices),an important way to provide training to practicing school psychologists and other educatorsis to increasetheir understandingand skills via professionaldevelopment in the form ofa workshop. Developing School-BasedWorkshops Trainersmust considerseveralfactors when developing and implementing school-based workshops. For practicing school psychologists to addresssexual orientation effectively and to intervene appropriately on behalf of a student, they must do severalthings. Schoolpsychologists must perceivethereis a problem,understand their own perceptionsand valuesabout the issue,and developanunderstanding of thejudgmentsbeing madeby various schooland community constituents.Schoolpsychologistsmust recognizetheir ethical responsibility to provide services for sexualminority youth, achievea level of comfort with the subjectof sexualorientation,anddevelop a vocabulary to discussissuesclearly. Thus, to address the needs of sexual minority youth, trainersmust designmultifacetedworkshopsthat do not rely solely upon a lecture format and, where possible,provide activities for enhancing skills as well as knowledge. Due to the highly chargednatureof this topic

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for many, trainers shouldkeepin mind that some people may attend a workshop on sexual orientation only once. Consequently,a schoolbasedworkshopmustbe powerful because it may be the one and only time that trainers will have the attentionof someparticipants.Although some participantsmay attendbecause they arecurious, an impactful presentation may enhance their understanding and compassion in significant ways. Researchfrom workshops about sexual orientationwith serviceprovidersin mentalhealth settingsatteststo suchchanges(Rudolph, 1989; Schneider& Tremble, 1986). Unlike many other controversial topics promoting intellectual disagreement, sexual orientation is emotionally charged.For a schoolbased workshop to increase awareness and address studentneedssuccessfully,trainersmust patiently permit participants to engage in meaningfulself-reflectionrather than attempting to convince them in one quick sessionof the validity of individual differences pertaining to sexual orientation. Though an interactive presentationis preferable,it is most appropriate to allow participantsto listen attentively, engage in discussionvoluntarily, and silently reflect on the material. Goals, Objectives, and Instructional Strategies The goal of a school-based workshop should be twofold. First, it shouldincreaseawareness of the psychological andeducational needsof sexual minority youth. Second,it should enhancethe ability of psychologistsand educatorsto ensure that thesestudentsreceivethe sameeducational opportunitiesasthoseof the entire studentbody. The objectives of any workshop should include introductoryactivitiesthat build the comfort level of participants,developmentof groundrules that ensurethe psychologicalsafety of participants, presentation of factual information, identification of problems facing sexual minority youth, and distribution of resources that enableparticipants to begin (or continue) intervening with sexual minority youth. Trainers should promote discussion that includes the presentation of factual information and an opportunity for answering questions.The discussionshouldpermit participantsto voice their concernsaboutcontentwhich may conflict with personal values and beliefs. Trainersmay seizetheseopportunitiesto model ethical behavior-patience, inclusive thinking,

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and tolerance-while assisting partici-pants as they work through personal and difficult questions.In doing so, trainers not only provide knowledge but also skill development via purposeful modeling of professionalbehavior. Although the content of school-based workshops can vary, these goals and objectives areparticularly useful in organizingmaterial and are consistentwith similar presentationsin other settings (Blumenfeld, 1992b; Rudolph, 1989; Schneider& Tremble, 1986). Table 2 containsa templatethat trainersmay useto developschoolbasedworkshops. The format of thesepresentations shouldbe multifaceted. Didactic lecture is useful at some points in the presentation, especially for materialsuchasfactualinformation on problems faced by sexual minority youth. Other sectionsof the presentation,however, may include audiotape or videotape presentations, individualcasestudiesdiscussed in small groups, and role plays on topics such as a counseling session with a youth who comes out to a psychologist, teacher, counselor, or other educator.Theseactivities move beyond knowledge acquisition and permit skill enhancement and application of ethical considerations(e.g., maintaining confidentiality). In addition to the resourcesnoted in Table 2, we strongly encouragethe use of resources developedby Asprodites (1998a, 1998b, 1998c) andavailable in handouts via the NASP handbook entitled Helping Children at Home and School (Canter& Carroll, 1998).Asproditessmaterials, including referencesin print media and videotapes, addressa range of salient school-based issues on sexual orientation such as (a) gay, lesbian, and bisexual parents (1998b), (b) definitional issueson gay families and strategies for responding to their uniqueneeds(1998a),and (c) interventions targeted for staff development and school-wide policy that are ultimately designed to meetthe broadergoal of creatingsafe, supportive school environments(1998c). A final comment on confidentiality merits discussionin the context of training. Although the principle of confidentiality was not proposed as part of an ethical basis for psychologiststo advocatefor sexualminorities, confidentiality is critical in clinical work with sexual minority youth andtheir parentsandfamilies.Thevolatility of sexualorientation and its subsequent stigmas are factors that often militate against sexual minority youth seekingassistance from psychologists or educators. As professionals become

aware of the positive impact that safe and affirmative relationships provide to sexual minority youth, confidentiality hasa seminalrole in assistingtheseindividualsin accessing support throughcounseling relationships with schoolstaff or an eventualreferral to a community resource. Thus, training must emphasize the importanceof confidentiality and its appropriate application with sexualminority youth. Workshop Length In general,how long shoulda workshop be? Longer sessions (i.e., half-day or full-day) afford opportunitiesto increase the amountof information presented and number of experiential activities used. Another advantage of longer sessionsis that extended time periods permit trainers to facilitate the movement of some participants from less informed stances (e.g., homophobic or heterosexistthinking, anger or other emotionally charged reactions) to more informed and tolerant perspectives. Longer sessions also increase the opportunity for participantsto processinformation in a safeplace and gradually take ownershipof the knowledge. As this awarenessof sexual orientation grows, the likelihood of understanding the complex needsof sexualminority youth increases. Although longer, or multiple, sessionsare preferable, our experiencehas been that even short workshops, such as the 2-hour session outlined in Table 2, can provide important information about the educationaland psychological needsof sexualminority youth and pave the way for further discussion andfollow-up with participants days or weeks after their initial exposureto this information. Training in University Settings There is a small body of survey research (e.g., Allison, Crawford, Echemendia,-Robinson, & Knepp, 1994; Buhrke, 1989a; Phillips & Fischer, 1998; Pilkington & Cantor, 1996) that has examined training on the topic of sexual orientation among graduatesand students in a variety of counselingandpsychologyspecialties. Two of these studies focused on training experiences in professional psychologyincluding schoolpsychology,thoughthereportingof results limits the information that can specifically be linked to school psychology. Allison and colleagues (1994) droppedthe schoolpsychology

Training Considerationsfor SexualOrientation Table 2 Outline for a 2-Hour Workshop on Sexual Orientation and the Needs of Sexual Minority Youth
I. Introduction A. Introduce presentersand establishsenseof expertiseon topic B. Identify presentationgoals and objectives Conduct a low risk, enjoyable ice breaker activity permitting group introductions c.

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II.

Ground Rules A. Acknowledge that sexual orientation is a challenging issue for many Tell participants that this presentationwill attempt to createa safeenvironment for participantsto B. explore their personaland professional views c. State that a professional and objective approachwill guide the workshop; issuesof sex, religion, and politics are not the focus D. Express desire for interactive participation, but reflective nonparticipation is appropriate Factual Information A. Provide ethical basesand definitions 1. Use NASP Ethics (1997) as foundation for identifying cultural characteristicsincluding sexual orientation 2. Use NASP Ethics (1997) as a basis for advocacy of sexual minority youth 3. Dispel myths on being sexual minority (Blumenfeld, 1992a) B. Problems confronting sexual minority youth 1. Presentthe negativeimpact of homophobiaandheterosexism(Elia, 1994;Greene& Her&, 1994) 2. Discuss realities of harassmentand discrimination (Robinson, 1994) 3. Identify physical and mental health concernssuch as isolation, depression,homelessness, AIDS, substanceabuse,and suicide (Bull, 1994;Reynolds & Koski, 1994) Problem Identification A. Discuss difficulties associatedwith developmentalissuesof a sexualminority individual (Garnets & Kimmel, 1991; Hetrick & Martin, 1988) B. Identify school behaviors that discriminate against or harassmentsexual minority youth (SavinWilliams, 1990, 1994) c. Identify bias through curriculum materials and instructional strategies(McLaren, 1994; Uribe 82 Harbeck, 1992) Interventions and Resources A. Permit participants to discusstheir reactionsto material presentedto this point B. Allow participants to identify ways that hostility against sexual minority youth can be reduced; that safe and affirmative environmentscan be established(Blumenfeld, 1994) c. Provide resourcesthat can enhanceschool safety for sexual minority youth (Uribe & Harbeck, 1992) D. Identify community resources for sexual minority youth; include national organizations if appropriate(Gay & Lesbian National Hotline, 1999;National Gay & Lesbian Task Force, 1999; Parents& Friends of Lesbiansand Gays, 1999) E. Provide resourcesfor parentsand families (Dew, 1994; Savin-Williams, 1989) Wrap Up and Conclusions A. Final questions/comments B. Express thanks for participation

III.

IV.

V.

VI.

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SchoolPsychologyReview, 2000, Vol. 29, No. 2 PilkingtonandCantor (1996)on heterosexist bias in professional psychologytraining programs.Of the 64 graduate students sampled who were membersof APAs Division 44 (Society for the PsychologicalStudyof LesbianandGay Issues), 53% reportedbiasedpassages in texts and other written course materials with such bias often remaining unchallenged.Fifty-eight percent of the samplereportedinstructorsmaking offensive remarks that pathologized, stereotyped, or ridiculed this population or suggestedcures for homosexuality.One-half of the studentsreported heterosexist bias or discrimination directed at them by faculty and administration during their practica and internships and in the context of teaching assistantships. For example, one respondentreported trying to develop coming out support groups in a practicum, but the site director wasunsupportiveandcalledthe training director to expresshis disapprovalof sex parties at the site. In summarizing such evidence, Pilkington and Cantor (1996) concluded that despitemany positive signs, lesbian, gay, and bisexual issues continue to be neglected or inappropriately addressedin graduate training programs in professionalpsychology (p. 611). A numberof authors(Bieschke, Eberz,Bard, & Croteau, 1998;Buhrke, 1989a,1989b,1989~; Buhrke & Deuce, 1991; Iasenza,1989; Lark & Croteau, 1998; Murphy, 1991; Norton, 1982; Whitman, 1995)have focusedupon suggestions for improving graduate training on sexual orientation in psychology and counseling programs.Iasenza(1989) organizedsuggestions for graduatetraining into three major areas.The fast involves creatingaffirmative environments in training programs, a subject discussedin the next major sectionof this article. The other areas address integration of sexual orientation into coursework and practicum and internship, and these are discussed in the following two subsections. Integrating SexualOrientation into Course Work A few authors have provided considerable attention to the infusion of sexual minority content into courses that are standard in counselingand psychology programs (Buhrke, 1989b;Buhrke & Deuce, 1991; Norton, 1982). Theseauthorsdiscussed ideasfor specificcontent on sexualorientationwithin a numberof general coursecontentareassuchasassessment, theories,

respondentsinformation from their report due to the smallnumberof suchparticipants,asserting that schoolpsychologypractice may not involve the same clinical services as counseling and clinical practice. Pilkington and Cantor (1996) includedschoolpsychologyrespondents in their findings, but their study does not report results separatelyfor school versus counseling versus clinical programs. In general, students and graduatespossessed relatively positive attitudes toward lesbian, gay, and bisexual people and generallypositiveattitudeswere displayed in their programs. However, the data on actual preparation to work with lesbian,gay, andbisexualissues and clients were much lesspositive. Thesestudies revealed that the topic of sexual orientation is included in few graduatecourses with respondentsreporting coveragein usually oneor two courses(e.g., Buhrke, 1989a;Phillips & Fischer, 1998). When syllabi for graduate courseswere examinedin one study (Pilkington & Cantor, 1996), less than 25% of the syllabi showed evidence of course content related to sexual orientation. Within those syllabi containing material on sexual orientation, sexual minority affirmative information was even less frequent. The topic most often coveredin syllabi concernedhomosexuality and pathology (e.g., assessment of homosexuality, conversion therapy, and ego-dsytonichomosexuality). In terms of exposure to sexual minority issues in practica and supervision, Buhrke (1989a) studied female counselingpsychology students only. These female students reported havingan average of 2.35 sexualminority clients, but almost one-half had not seenlesbian,gay, or bisexual clients. Allison and colleagues(1994) reportedresults from a sampleof both male and female students in counseling and clinical psychologyand found that 69% had seenat least one gay man, 59% at leastone lesbian,and 39% at leastonebisexualperson.Disturbing, however, was that the modal number of sexual minority clients seenwas zero! Research(Allison et al., 1994;Buhrke, 1989a,1989b;Phillips & Fischer, 1998)indicatesthat studentshave little exposure to lesbian,gay, or bisexualfaculty or supervisors, and little supervisionby those with expertisein lesbian,gay, or bisexual issues.Studentsreport they are unpreparedto work with lesbian, gay, andbisexualclients (Allison et al., 1994;Phillips & Fischer, 1998). The most disturbing findings among these studiesare, perhaps,the descriptive fmdings of

Training Considerationsfor SexualOrientation group work, professionalissues,careerdevelopment, andresearch.Though somewhatdated,we believe these ideas are still beneficial in stimulating curricular infusion, especially for faculty less familiar with affirmative psychological literature on sexualorientation. This literature, however, has grown considerably in quantity, scope,and depth sincethe publication of these articles. The best way to generate ideas for curricular infusion is to examinethe affirmative literature relevantto the coursecontentarea.As recentlyasfive yearsago, basicbibliographicsearch strategies may not have yielded adequateresources.By contrast, simply pairingkeywords like assessment or consultation with the terms gay, lesbian, or homophobia in databases will yield resources that cover sexualminority youth issuesin much greater depth. Theseare excellentresourcesfor course planning and required/recommended reading material. Because new and updated affirmative literature is emergingrapidly, faculty are encouraged to conduct such searches frequentlyto aid in effective curriculum infusion. Several resources are worth special consideration in assemblingmaterials to help with curriculum infusion. First, as part of APAs bibliography series,AndersonandAdley (1996) produced a large and fairly well-indexed compilation of sexualminority related abstracts from the psychological literature from 1985 to 1996.Further, the Public Interest Directorate of APA, andAPAs Division 44, the Societyfor the Psychological Study of Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Issues, make available a number of useful publicationsandresources.Thesesources can be explored on-line at www.apa.org by following the appropriate links for the Public Interest Directorate and Division 44. In addition to thesebibliographic resources, threeotherresources areworth noting. DAugelli and Patterson (1995) have edited a comprehensivetext on sexualorientation with a strong developmental focus, covering the scope of researchand theory in affirmative psychology. Perez, DeBord, and Bieschke (1998) produced an editedtext with chaptersconsideringa variety of issuesrelated to professional practices. It is an excellentandcomprehensive resource. Finally, Division 44 of APA beganproducing an annual publication in 1994 containing up-to-date research,theory, andpractice material on sexual orientation (Greene, 1997; Greene & Herek, 1994;Herek, 1998;Herek & Greene,1995).We

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recommendthis publication, which was cited in Mobley (1998) as a required training resource, especiallyfor new and cutting edgematerial in sexualminority affirmative psychology. We agreewith Murphy (1991) that education on sexual orientation is best accomplishedby integrating such content into all aspects of training. Integration of sexual minority youth content into the standard courses in school psychologyprogramsis essentialso that it is not compartmentalized andmarginalizedby addressing it only in special courses or seminars. Nevertheless, we also would argue that a specializedacademiccourse in sexualminority issues is an important addition to overall curriculum infusion andallows the development of indepthexpertisein the area.Whitman (1995) provided a brief discussionof one such course offered in an abbreviatedformat in a counselor educationprogram. Many coursesarenow being taught in psychology and counseling departments. APA periodically surveys psychology departments on activities related to sexual orientation and publishes findings that are availableby contactingAPA. From this resource, schoolpsychologyfaculty interested in designing sexualminority coursescan discoverwhere and by whom similar courses are taught. Faculty alreadyteachingsuchcoursesare accustomed to requests for assistanceand will often provide syllabi, coursematerial, and generalguidance. Integrating Sexual Orientation into Practicum and Internship In addition to the inclusion of material in academic courses, Iasenza (1989) noted how crucial it is for students to obtain practical experience with addressing individualdifferences on sexualorientation during graduateeducation. Little information on such practices appearsin the literature. There are two more extensive sources,however; one focusedupon internships in counseling psychology (Buhrke & Deuce, 199l), andone focusesupon clinical supervision (Buhrke, 1989~). These resources provide informationrelevantto practicaltraining in school psychology. Basedupon these discussionsand our own experiences, we identify primary areas to attend to in practicum training on sexual minority youth issues. In addition to academiccourses,exposure to work with variations in sexual orientation should occur in practica. Given the ethical

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SchoolPsychologyReview, 2000, Vol. 29, No. 2 practices for sexualminority youth. As with all beginningprofessionalpractice andsupervision, concreteinformation andguidance will beneeded by graduatestudents. Buhrke andDeuces(1991) discussionof internship training in counseling psychology is a useful resource for school psychologists in understanding the range of content on sexualminority youth that can arise in clinical settings.Their discussioncovers such topics as conceptualizationand diagnosiswith lesbianand gay clients, supervisionand ethical issues in lesbian and gay clinical work, and developing content related to lesbian and gay issues in practicum training seminars. This information can stimulate school psychology faculty to think critically aboutaffirmative stances and the type of guidance they will provide in practicum settings. Working Toward Creation of Diverse, Inclusive, and Safe Training Environments Prompted by ethical considerations regardingthe necessity for respectof humandignity and individual differences, we conclude discussion of training issuesby offering specific suggestions about how trainers can foster environments that aresexual minority affirmative. We draw upon the work of previous researchers (Buhrke & Deuce, 1991; Croteau, Bieschke, Phillips, Lark, Fischer, & Eberz, 1998; Slater, 1988) who have focused upon developing safe environmentsprimarily around sexualminority issues. Before offering these suggestions, however, we wish to emphasize that creating (or maintaining) safe environmentis always a work in process. Although not everysuggestion offered may be immediately feasiblefor either a school or university setting,eachconstitutesa small step in the processof building sexual minority safe andaffirmative environments. More importantly, thoughthe following suggestions address specific ways that trainers may develop affirmative environments,they alsocontributeto the broader process of building diverse and inclusive environmentsin which many humandifferences may be appreciatedand explored. Individual Behavior Previously,we offered curricularsuggestions for increasing knowledge of sexual minority issues. Without concomitant modeling of affirmative sexualminority attitudes,knowledge

imperative discussed previously, trainers should ask, Are the concernsof sexual minority youth addressed in practica? Are considerations of heterosexistand homophobic bias addressedin assessment and treatment with individual cases or in a consultative fashion on casespertaining to concerns for class-or school-wideclimate?Our experience is that little inclusion of these considerations is typical. If these issues and concernsare seldom or never part of practica, studentsfail to developa sensitivity to concerns about variations in sexual orientation, and they do not acquireessential appliedskills for working with sexualminority youth. Further, andperhaps more harmful, failure to be inclusive of concerns for sexual minority youth in practica communicatesthat these issuesare marginal to the practiceof schoolpsychologyor are too difficult and politically sensitiveto be addressed openly. This, in turn, may negativelyimpact the dynamics betweentrainee and supervisorby inadvertently perpetuating existing biases. Due to the widespread, pervasive, and insidious nature of homophobiaand heterosexism,it is crucial for practicum supervisors to challenge themselves and their trainees in considering their own personalbiasesandignoranceconcerningsexual minority issues. Given the reluctance, or even opposition, schoolsexperiencein addressingsexualorientation, how can training programs incorporate experience and content into practica? One approach is for university programs to partner with community organizations (e.g., Affirmations, Triangle Foundation) that work directly with sexual minority youth and their families. Practicum students could participate in leading groups for sexual minority youth or parents of questioning youth, providing individual counseling, or conducting community presentations on the needs of sexual minority youth or on homophobia. For programswith university-based clinics, a referral with a sexualminority youth, or parents of a questioning youth, creates opportunities to provide case staffings for all practicum studentsdespitethat only one student may haveworked with the client or family. Such casestaffingsraisethe collectiveknowledgebase of all studentsand, more importantly, promote greater awareness and sensitivity to sexual minority issues. The final considerationinvolves providing basic information about sexual orientation to trainees as they first engage in affirmative

Training Considerationsfor SexualOrientation aloneis lesseffective. Suchaffirmative behavior is groundedin ethicalbehavior.At the most basic level, trainers should not reinforce humor, comments, or stereotypes that devalue and degradeindividualswho are sexualminority. On a more assertive level, trainers may simply display material that affirms sexual minority youth. This may include displaying books or pamphletson sexualminority issuesin an office or posting symbols (e.g., the pink triangle) or rnformation fliers related to sexual minority concerns or organizations. Given the sensitive nature of sexual orientation, seemingly less intrusive interventions as these may be bold statementsin traditionally unsafesettings. In addition to these interventions, trainers should seize opportunities to explore potential questions or problems associatedwith homophobiathat occur in professionalactivities from formal training presentations to informal conversations.In addition to challengingovertly homophobic statements and attitudes, trainers shouldrecognizesexualminority considerations in their work on a variety of school issuessuch as casework with sexual minority students or developmentof district policies on diversity and on university issues suchasthe infusion of sexual minority topics in coursesor the recruitment and retentionof out faculty or students in a program. One way to promote affirmative sexual minority environments is to promote inclusive behaviorin general.Trainerspromote sensitivity to sexualminority issues by behavinginclusively. Historically, schoolpsychologists havepossessed a unique awarenessto individual differences pertaining to disability. Mindful of ethical imperatives related to behaving inclusively, trainersshouldinvite their studentsor colleagues to think abouthow psychologicalservicesimpact youth in terms of not only disability but alsorace, ethnic&y,gender,family of origin, religion, and sexual orientation. Inclusive mindsets around broad individual differences and the struggles encountered by underrepresented groupscontribute to leveling the field of understandingand acceptance of sexualminority issues.

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acknowledgingany orientation besidesheterosexuality, we also believe the presenceof such vocal and consistent advocates is critical in developing affirmative and safe environments. Organizations that actively recruit andhire out professionals obviously invest in affirmative stances.In addition to the positive message this sends to sexual minority youth, it allows the possibility of emergentmentoring relationships betweensexualminority youth andprofessionals (for example,seeLark & Croteau, 1998). Due to obvioussocietallimitations,however, schools and universities may be reluctant to recruit individuals who are lesbian, gay, or bisexual. In this situation, trainers may help organizations explore how to develop opportunities for these professionalsto have contact with sexualminority youth. Possiblesolutionsin schoolsmay include inservice presentationsto staff or outreachto community resources(e.g., Gay and LesbianYouth Hotline; Gay, Lesbian, Straight Educators Network), some of which includeGay/StraightAlliances. Universities can invite gay, lesbian,andbisexualprofessionalsas guestlecturersor hire them asadjunctprofessors to teach and supervise in school psychology programs.Theseprofessionalsshouldby sought for assistance on sexualminority issuesas well as topics pertaining to their own expertise. Finally, and irrespective of setting, strides can be madeby havingheterosexual professionals be out advocateswho promote sexual minority issuesand affirmative environments.

System-Wide Considerations

Trainers should be aware of system-wide opportunities for creating affirmative environments. Most schooldistricts andschoolpsychology training programs havemission statements. Theseprovide rich opportunities for minimally recognizing the value of cultural diversity and optimally embracingvaluesthat promote diverse andinclusiveenvironments that valueandrespect all individual differences. Another proactive, system-wide intervention is providing ongoing professionaldevelopmentvia inservicetraining Personnel in schools and continual content coverage in university courses on issues impacting sexual One very potent way to help create and minority youth. promote safe environments is to have openly lesbian,gay, or bisexual individuals working in Conclusion the environment. Although we concede that consequences in somesettingscanbe severefor As the new millennium begins. we are

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encouragedby school psychologys increasing emphasis on understandingthe cultural diversity of children, adolescents,and their families (for example,seeGopaul-McNicol, 1992; Sheppard & Dawson, 1998; Wilson & Reschly, 1995). From an ethical perspective, it is important for schoolpsychology,in its questfor promoting safe and inclusive educational environments, to expand its understandingof sexual orientation and the unique challenges faced by sexual minority youth andto associate sexualorientation with other common characteristics of multicultural diversity (i.e., race, ethnic@, gender, religion, soci al and economic status, and disability).This mini-seriesprovidesan important step in that direction. As a new millennium begins,however, the explosionof knowledge on sexual orientation and on ways to create affirmative training environments ensuresthat schoolpsychologyhasa full andexciting agenda for meeting the needsof sexualminority youth and their families. References
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Michael W. Bahr, PhD, is a graduateof Indiana University. Currently, he is Associate Professorand Chairpersonof the Department of Educational and School Psychology at Indiana StateUniversity. Dr. Bahrs professionalinterestsinclude multicultural issues,andhis research hasfocusedon issuespertaining to disability, race,and sexual orientation. Dr. Bahr works extensively with families from diversecultural backgrounds.He is a member of the NASP Committee on Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Issues. Barbara Brish, PsySp,NCSP, is a graduateof the University of Detroit. Currently, sheis SpecialServices Director for the Lincoln Park Public Schools,Lincoln Park, Michigan, and sheis Co-Chairpersonof the NASP Committee on Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Issues. Ms. Brishs professional interests include mediation and diversity issueswith an emphasison race and sexual orientation. Ms. Brish has worked extensively with children and families from middle class,blue-collar communities, and she frequently presentson the topics of multicultural diversity and sexualdiversity to professionaland nonprofessional groups. James M. Croteau receivedhis PhD in CounselingPsychology from SouthernIllinois University. He is Associate Professorin the Department of CounselorEducation and CounselingPsychology at Western Michigan University. Lesbian, gay, and bisexual concernshave been a focus of his research,especially in regardto careerdevelopment,professionaltraining, andthe field of studentaffairs. More recently, Dr. Croteauhas initiated scholarly work concerning White professionalsand their racial awareness.