The Lagrangian State Function

Introduction
A state function is any scalar function of the state variables of a system (and possibly time), whose value at any instant of time is completely determined by the values of the state variables at that instant, and time itself
The complete dependence of the state function upon the variables is of prime importance A state function, like the state itself, is independent of the path taken to reach a particular state If the state variables are chosen as physical system variables, a state function defined in terms of these variables may then be closely associated with the physical realities of the system o This close association between the state function and the physical system is particularly true for the state function known as the Lagrangian

The State Function of Lagrange & ) of a system is defined as the difference between the The Lagrangian L(q, q & ) and the potential energy V(q) kinetic energy T(q, q & ) T(q, q & ) - V(q ) where q and q & are the generalized coordinates and velocities L(q, q of the system in which the energy terms are expressed > The use of the term generalized coordinates is common in classical mechanics, as is & the notation q and q o These generalized coordinates are closely related to the state variables, as we shall see & i , are associated with the i th energy storage o A generalized coordinate q i and a velocity q element of the system & ) and V(q) Comment on functional dependency of T(q, q > Since kinetic energy (by its nature) is related to energy storage due to motion, it is not surprising & ) depends on q & that T(q, q > Similarly, since potential energy is associated with energy storage due to position, the dependence of V(q ) on q is not surprising > The need to express the dependency of T on q may not be that obvious o In many problems, kinetic energy is not only a function of velocity, but of position as well Consider the system to the right where T is determined not & , but also by position r & and only by the velocities r

 To give the simplest interpretation to the concept of generalized coordinates & ), consider the special and energy state functions such as the Lagrangian L(q, q case where T and V each contain only a single term, as in the simple spring mass combination & 2 and V = 1 kx 2 > Here T = 1 mx 2 2 > In this example, q is indeed a position coordinate (x) & is an actual velocity (x &) and q o For simplicity, x is measured from the equilibrium position In this mass - spring problem, kinetic energy is determined from &) the integral of the momentum (mx & ) = m & d & = 1 mx &2 T(q, q 2
0 & x

> Similarly, the potential energy of the spring is given by : V(q ) = kd = 1 kx 2 2

0 x

Here, kx is the potential force (i.e., the force necessary to maintain the spring at position x)

 These two integrals are a statement that the energy stored is equal to the energy input > Since neither the spring (assumed ideal) nor the mass is able to dissipate energy, this is a simple statement of fact o The kinetic energy stored in the motion of the mass is equal to the work that must have been done on the mass for it to have the & velocity x o The potential energy stored in the spring on the other hand, is equal to the work done on the spring to stretch it by an amount x

Electrical and Mechanical Systems We are naturally interested in electrical and mechanical systems, as well as combinations of the two (i.e., electromechanical systems) > By way of analogy, consider the following four second - order differential equations which describe the mechanical and electrical systems depicted on the right
A. Mechanical translational & + kx = force m& x B. Mechanical rotational & + K = torque J& C. Electrical series & + 1 q = voltage L& q C D. Electrical parallel & + 1 = current C& L where q = charge = flux linkage

Simple electrical and mechanical circuits : A. Mechanical translational B. Mechanical rotational & C. Electrical series i = q D. Electrical parallel V = d /dt

 In these circuits the generalized coordinates are : x, , q and > Note that each generalized coordinate occupies the same location in its particular equation - - it is in fact the dependent variable of the particular equation > By relating the different coefficients and variables by their positions in these four equations , it is possible to write kinetic and potential energy terms associated with each of the four physical systems

A. Mechanical translational & + kx = force m& x B. Mechanical rotational & + K = torque J& C. Electrical series & + 1 q = voltage L& q C D. Electrical parallel & + 1 = current C& L where q = charge = flux linkage

& 2, o For example, if the kinetic energy in the mechanical translational system is 1 mx 2 &2 then in the series electrical circuit the kinetic energy would be 1 Lq 2 o Similarly, in the parallel electrical circuit with flux as a general coordinate, the
2 potential energy is 1 , and it is 1 kx 2 in the mechanical translational system 2 L 2 o These four analogies are summarized in the table seen in the next slide

Type of system Mechanical Translation Mechanical rotational

Generalized coordinate

Generalized velocity

& q
& x

& , q) T(q

Kinetic Energy

Potential Energy

Generalized Momentum

V(q)

Potential Force

Generalized Force

f
Force

F
Force Torque

Position

Velocity Angular velocity

x
Angular Position

1 mx & 2 1 kx 2 2 2 & 2 1 K 2 1 J 2 2 1 Lq &2 2

&2 1 C 2

Momentum

& mx
Momentum

kx
Torque

Electrical series Electrical parallel Charge

&
Current

& J
Flux linkage

K
Voltage

& q

Flux linkage

Voltage

&

1 2 q 2C 1 2 2L

& Lq
Charge

Voltage Current

C
Current

& C

& are generalized velocities, & and V = It is interesting to note that the common electrical variables i = q

rather than generalized coordinates > If i and V are used as basic coordinates to describe the electrical circuits above, the resulting equations are no longer differential equations, but integrodifferential equations The energy expressions may also be dertermined by analogy through the use of integral definitions
&) > In the translational case (the basis for the analogy), the integrand is the momentum of the mass (mx

in the case of the integral equation used in computing kinetic energy, and the potential force (kx) in the case of potential energy

Generalized Formulation

& , q ) is defined, In this formulation, a generalized momentum vector p(q as well as a generalized force potential vector f (q)
& q

& , q ) p T ( & , q )d & T(q

0 q

V(q ) f ( )d
T 0

> Here we assume that the total energies may consist of several terms, each of which may be a function of more than one variable & , q ) in a o It is advantageous to consider the general vector formulation for T(q simplified (expanded) form as :
& q

& , q ) = p i (q & , q)d &i T(q

0 i =1

where n is the number of generalized coordinates

o We note that the upper limit of integration is a vector quantity This does not imply that T is a vector quantity, but rather that the r.h.s. of the equation is to be evaluated as a line integral, from the origin to an arbitrary & in the generalized velocity space point q

State Function A state function is any scalar function of the state variables and possibly time, whose value at any instant of time is determined by the values of the state variables at that instant and time itself & , q) is a state function, the value of the line integral must be independent > Since T(q of the path of integration (a basic property of a state function) & would be to > Thus, in evaluating the line integral , the simplest path from 0 to q & 1with the remaining & i ' s set equal to zero, and so forth integrate along > The completly expanded form of the kinetic energy function is : & , q) = p1 ( & 1, & 1 ,0,0L 0, q)d & 1 + p 2 (q & 2 ,0L 0, q)d &2 T(q
0 &n q 0 &1 q &2 q

& 1, q & 2,q & 3 L & n , q ) d &n + L + p n (q

0

> For a line integral of this form to be independent of path, it is necessary and & , q) p j (q & , q) p i (q sufficient that : = for i, j = 1,2,L, n & & q j q i & , partial derivatives w.r.t. > Although p may be a function of q as well as q & space q i need not be considered, since the integration is taking place in the q

 The curl equations presented on the previous slide can be used to check & , q ), the generalized momentum vector on the validity of p(q & , q) must be invalid, since > If these curl equations are not satisfied p(q & , q ) would not be independent of path, which it must otherwise T(q be if it is to serve as as a state function o On the other hand, if the curl equations are satisfied, one cannot be & , q ) is correct, but only that it has the correct form certain that p(q & , q ) to be a state function for T(q

Example : Given the electromechanical system shown below. Determine the kinetic energy for this system

The generalized coordinates chosen for this system are : x = position of the mass = q1 (measured from the equilibrium position) q a = charge flowing in the left circuit = q 2 q b = charge flowing in the right circuit = q 3

& , q) Components of the generalized momentum vector p(q & , q) is concerned with coordinate q1 and > Coordinate 1 : Momentum p1 (q &1) & 1 = mq therefore the momentum of the iron slug (mx & , q ) = mq &1 p1 (q & , q) is concerned with coordinate q 2 and > Coordinate 2 : Momentum p 2 (q is the " electrical momentum" or flux linkage in the left circuit o Total flux linkage associated with q 2 is the sum of the self - inductance & 2 and the mutual inductance flux linkage M ab q &3 linkage L a q o Both L a and M ab are functions of the position of the iron slug (q1 ) Thus, & , q) = L a (q1 )q & 2 + M ab (q1 )q &3 p 2 (q & , q ) may be written in similar fashion : > Coordinate 3 : The momentum p 3 (q & , q) = L b (q1 )q & 3 + M ab (q1 )q &2 p 3 (q Thus, the momentum vector is : &1 &1) mq p1 (q & , q) = L a (q1 )q & 2 + M ab (q1 )q & 3 = p 2 (q1 , q & 2,q & 3 ) p (q & 3 + M ab (q1 )q &2 & 2,q & 3 ) L b (q1 )q p 3 (q1 , q

p i p j Checking the curl equations : = & j q &i q p1 p 2 = & 2 q &1 q p 2 p 3 = & 3 q &2 q 0=0 M ab (q1 ) = M ab (q1 )

i, j = 1,2,3

&1 &1) mq p1 (q & , q ) = L a (q1 )q & 2 + M ab (q1 )q & 3 = p 2 (q1 , q & 2,q & 3 ) p (q & 3 + M ab (q1 )q &2 & 2,q & 3 ) L b (q1 )q p 3 (q1 , q

p1 p 3 = 0=0 & 3 q &1 q & , q ) may be evaluated by line integration : Thus, T( q & , q ) = m & 2 )d & 1 d & 1 + L a (q1 ) & 2d & 2 + (L b (q1 ) & 3 + M ab (q1 )q &3 T( q
0 0 0 &1 q &2 q &3 q

& , q ) = 1 mq & 12 + 1 L a (q1 )q & 2 2 + 1 L b (q1 )q & 3 2 + M ab (q1 )q & 2q &3 T( q 2 2 2

& , q) This example illustrates not only the determination of the kinetic energy function T(q & , q), but a number of other points as well from the generalized momentum vector p(q > The resulting kinetic energy expression has three terms which are functions of more than one variable o Such terms are common if there is coupling between electrical and mechanical coordinates o In order to better specify the coupling, one would need to mathematically describe the dependence of the self and mutual inductances on q1
q

Potential energy state function : V(q) f ()d where f is the potential force
T 0

and d is a vector of differentials in the generalized coordinates q

q

> In expanded form : V(q) = f i ()d i

0 i =1

Since V(q) is a state function, the line integral is independent of path and V(q) may be written as : V(q) = f1 (1 ,0,0,L,0)d 1 + f 2 (q1 , 2 ,0,L,0)d 2 + L + f n (q1 , q 2 , q 3 ,L, q n 1 , n ) d n
0 0 0 q1 q2 qn

Potential Energy Function for problem at hand There are two potential energy storage devices in this system, the spring constant k and the capacitor C > The generalized force terms are : q f1 = kq1 ; f 2 = 2 ; f 3 = 0 C kq1 q f = 2 C 0 > The generalized force terms are functions of only one variable, so the curl f1 f1 f 2 f 2 = = = =0 equations are automatically satisfied q 2 q 3 q1 q 3 > The line integral of f is therefore : V(q ) = f1 (1 )d 1 + f 2 ( 2 )d 2
0 0 q1 q2

1 2 1 2 kq1 + q2 2 2C & , q ) T( q & , q ) V(q ) The Lagrangian state function is defined as : L(q V(q ) = & , q) = L(q 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 &1 &2 & & & + L a (q1 )q + + q2 mq L (q ) q M (q ) q q kq1 2 b 1 3 ab 1 2 3 2 2 2 2 2C

& , q ) and f (q ) There is an alternative way of viewing the relationship between p(q & , q ) and V(q ), respectively with T( q & , q ) and V(q ) are known, and consider how p(q & , q ) and f (q ) > If we assume that T( q & , q ) is simply : might be found, we find that p(q & , q) T( q & q 1 & & , q ) T( q, q ) T( q & , q) = p (q = q & 2 & q M & T( q , q ) &n q whereas f (q ) is : V(q ) q 1 V( q ) V(q ) f (q ) = = q 2 q M V( q ) q n
& q

& , q ) p T ( & , q )d & T( q

0

& , q) T( q & , q) = p (q & q

V(q ) f ( )d
T 0

V(q ) q

= f (q )

Example Write by inspection the kinetic and potential energy functions

for the systems below

2 &1 &2 T = 1 m1x + 1 m2x 2 2 2 2 V = 1 k 1 x1 + 1 k 2x 2 + 1 k 3 (x1 x 2 ) 2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 &1 & T = 1 L1q + 1 L 2(q L q q ) + & & 2 3 12 3 4 2 2 1 1 1 2 V= (q1 q 2 ) 2 + (q 3 q 4 ) 2 + q4 2C1 2C 2 2C3

m1 2 m 2 2 L(x 2 ) 2 & &1 + &2 + T= x x q 2 2 2 k k 1 2 q V = 1 (x1 x 2 ) 2 + 2 x 2 + 2 2 2 2C(x1 )

The Simple Pendulum The pendulum is comprised of a light rigid rod, that is pivoted at a support point A and carries a " bob" of mass m, which is free to swing in the plane of the paper > The forces acting on the mass m are the gravitatio nal force (mg) and the ten sion (T) in the light rod > The accelerati ons of the bob rotating about the fixed axis are : &) which acts tangentia l to the arc o The tangentia l accelerati on (L& & 2 which acts along the rod o The normally directed centrifuga l accelerati on L in the direction of the support center A > In this fixed rod case, we are not interested in tension in the rod o We also assume that all friction and dissipatio n can be neglected Applying Newton' s second law of motion in a direction perpendicu lar to the pendulum : & F = ma ; a = accelerati on = L& o The component of gravitatio nal force along the arc is mgsin Substituti ng : & mgsin = mL& & & + g sin = 0 L (equation of motion of a simple pendulum)
&2 L
& L&

 The gravitational potential energy (V()) is simply the gravitational potential of the bob (mass of rod neglected) times the height to which the bob has been moved relative to the equilibrium position, that is : V() = mgLcos The coordinates of the displacement of the mass are : x = Lsin ; y = Lcos The square of the velocity of the bob is : & cos) 2 + (L & sin ) 2 = L2 &2 &2 + y & 2 = (L v2 = x 1 & &2 o The kinetic energy is : T() = mL2 2 o The Lagrangian state function is : & , ) = T( & ) V() = 1 m(L2 & 2 + 2gLcos) L( 2

Example Given the double pendulum. Assume that the pendulum swings in one plane. Determine the Lagrangian state function for the system Solution q1 = 1 q2 = 2 The (x, y) coordinates of the mass m1 displacement are : x1 = L1sin q1 ; y1 = L1cos q1 The (x, y) coordinates of the mass m 2 displacement are : x 2 = L1sin q1 + L 2sin q 2 ; y 2 = L1cos q1 L 2 cos q 2 The potential energy state function is : V(q) = m1gL1 (1 cosq1 ) + m 2 g[L1 (1 cosq1 ) + L 2 (1 cosq 2 )]
L1 m1 L2 m2

We start by defining the generalized coordinates :

 The square of the velocity of the i th mass m i (i = 1,2) is :

2 2 2 2 & 1cos q1 ) 2 + (L1q & 1sin q1 ) 2 ] = L2 & &1 &1 v1 =x +y = [(L1q q 1 1 2 2 2 2 & & & & & & v2 = x + y = [(L q cos q + L q cos q ) + (L q sin q + L q sin q ) ] 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 & & & & = L2 q + L 1 1 2 q 2 + 2L1L 2 q1q 2 cos (q1 q 2 )

> Therefore, the kinetic energy is given by : 1 2 2 2 2 2 & , q) = [m1L2 & & & & & T(q q + m (L q + L 1 1 2 1 1 2 q 2 + 2L1L 2 q1q 2 cos (q1 q 2 ))] 2 1 2 2 2 & , q) = [(m1 + m 2 )L2 & & & & T(q q + 2m L L q q cos (q q ) + m L 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 2q 2 ] 2 & , q ) have the general form : > Let T(q 1 2 & , q) = [a11q &1 & 1q & 2 + a11q &2 T(q + 2a12 q 2] 2 where a11 (m1 + m 2 )L2 1 a12 m 2 L1L 2 cos (q1 q 2 ) a 22 m 2 L22

 The generalized momenta are : p1 = p2 = T & 1 + a12 q &2 = a 11q & q1 T & 1 + a 22 q &2 = a12 q &2 q

& 1 and q &2 > Thus, we may solve these equations simultaneously for q in terms of p1 and p 2 , and subsequently substitute these expressions into the equation for T( p, q ) : T( p, q) = 1 2(a11a 22 a )
2 12 2 [a 22 p1 2a 12 p1p 2 + a 11p 2 2]

where a 12 = a 12 (q1 , q 2 )
2 2 m 2 L22 p1 2m 2 L1L 2 cos (q1 q 2 ) p1p 2 + (m1 + m 2 )L2 1p 2 T( p, q) = 2 2 2m 2 L2 1L 2 [ m1 + m 2 m 2 cos (q1 q 2 )]

The Lagrangian state function is : L(p, q ) = T( p, q ) - V(q )

2 2 m 2 L22 p1 2m 2 L1L 2 cos (q1 q 2 ) p1p 2 + (m1 + m 2 )L2 1p 2 where T( p, q) = 2 2 2m 2 L2 1L 2 [m1 + m 2 m 2 cos (q1 q 2 )]

V(q ) = (m1 + m 2 )gL1 (1 cos q1 ) + m 2 gL 2 (1 cos q 2 )

Lagranges Equation and Newtons Law

Lagranges equation provides a means of deriving the equations that govern the motion of a system
Partial and total differentiation operations on a Lagrangian state function yield & a set of n second-order differential equations in the coordinates q and q
o These second-order differential equations may be reduced to the desired state variable form of first-order differential equations

Our objective here is to indicate (in a heuristic way) the origins and validity of Lagranges equation
This derivation also serves to illustrate an important feature of Lagranges equation, namely that it is valid in any consistent set of generalized coordinates The more elegant proof of Lagranges equation is based on Hamiltons principle and employs calculus of variations

Derivation Consider a mechanical system made up of n particles of constant mass & m i i = 1,2,..., n which is described in cartesian coordinates x For simplicity, we assume that the particles move in a one - dimensional space and therefore each particle has only one coordinate associated with its movement > Newton' s Second Law : d & )] = Fi for i = 1,2,L, n (state variable representation) [p i ( x dt & ) is the i th particle momentum, and Fi is the sum of where p i ( x forces acting on the i th particle Suppose now that we wish to consider this same system in another coordinate system, the q coordinates > The transformation from x to q need not be linear, and we indicate this fact by adopting the general notation : x = x (q)

> The time derivative of the old coordinates is then determined by &= the chain rule of differentiation to be : x

i =1

x (q ) q i

&i = x & , q) & (q q

& but also q o Thus, the old velocities are functions not only of q > The kinetic energy of the system may be written in terms of the 1 n & ) = mi x & i2 cartesian coordinates x as : T( x 2 i =1 & and q, it & on both q o Due to the functional dependence of x & and q follows that T will also be a function of q o Thus, partial derivatives of T with respect to q i may be formed as : T & , q )] T x & (q T[ x x & 1 T x &2 &n T x & 1 m1x &1 = + +L+ T m x & 1 q i x & 2 q i & n q i q i x x & T 2 2 &) = p( x where = x &2 = & M x & , q )] T T x & (q T[ x M & T =( ) &n mn x & q i q i x & x n & & T[ x (q, q )] T T x & & x d x T T &) &) { } o Thus, =( ) = p (x = p (x & q i q i x q i dt q i where the last expression is obtained by interchanging the order of differentiation

& ) with respect to the i th velocity In the same fashion, the partial derivative of T( x & i (i = 1,2,L , n) yields : coordinate q & , q )] & (q T[ x & x T T T &) & ) = ( )T = p (x ; where p ( x &i &i & q q x o To put this result into a more convenient form, we observe that : & = x = x (q ) x
j=1 n

x &j q q j &j q where = 0 unless i = j &i q

T &) = p (x

& x n x x & j} = = { q & i q & i j=1 q j q q i Thus, substituting : &i q

& , q )] & (q T[ x

x q i

o Taking the time derivative of the equation just above : But from preceeding slide : & & T[ x ( q , q )] x d d d x T & )]T &) { } + p (x { } = [ p( x & , q )] & (q T[ x d x T & q i q i dt dt dt q i &) { }= p (x dt q i q i Substituting : & , q )] & , q )] & (q & (q T[ x d T[ x d T x & )] { } = [ p( x + &i q q i dt dt q i

> Rearranging terms : & , q)] T[x & , q)] d & (q & (q x d T[x & )]T = [ p(x }{ &i q i q q i dt dt > The manipulations are nearly complete,and it is important to stress that all we have done is to manipulate the kinetic energy state function o As yet, no physicallaw has been called into play o From the state variableform of Newton's Second Law : d & )] = Fj for j = 1,2,L, n [p j (x dt o Substituting this expressioninto the r.h.s. of the equation (above arrow) : & , q)] n x j & , q)] T[x & (q & (q d T[x { }= Fj &i dt q q i q i j=1 > Letting Qi Fj
j=1 n

x j q i

(force associated with q i coordinate) (generalform of Lagrangeequation)

& , q)] T[x & , q)] & (q & (q d T[x { }= Qi &i dt q q i

o The Lagrangeequation corresponds to a set of n second order O.D.E.s that describe the motion of the n particles

 In the practical usage of the Lagrange equation, & , q )] T[ x & , q )] & (q & (q d T[ x { }= Qi & dt q i q i one usually separates the Q i ' s into three components in the following manner : Q i f i D i + Fi where f i = potential force D i = damping force Fi = applied force > Potential force : In terms of the potential energy function, f i is given by fi = V( q ) q i

o A negative sign preceeds f i in the expression for Q i above, since Q i is considered the force acting on the i th mass Earlier, f i was defined as the force acting on the potential energy storage device

> Damping force Di includes the force from all dissipative elements associated with the q i coordinate The only type of damping we will consider for the moment is viscous damping, for which D i is given by : & i where i is the viscous damping coefficient Di = i q The viscous damping force is usually written in terms of another &) state function called the Rayleigh Dissipation Function D(q 1 n &) jq &2 where : D(q j 2 j=1 The relationship between the viscous damping force Di and the Rayleigh Dissipation Function is : &) D(q &i Di = = i q &i q > The fact that the damping force opposes the motion of the system is indicated by the negative sign preceeding Di in the equation for Qi

o The applied force Fi includes all external forces that are associated with the q i coordinate V(q ) q i &) D(q &i q

> Thus, Qi f i Di + Fi =

+ Fi

Substituting into the Lagrange equation : & , q)] T[ x & , q)] &) & (q & (q V(q ) D(q d T[ x = + Fi }{ &i &i q q i q i q dt & , q)] T[ x & , q)] V(q) D(q &) & (q & (q d T[ x { }+ + = Fi &i &i q q i q i q dt o This last equation is called the operational form of the Lagrange equation

 The operational form of the Lagrange equation can be rewritten in a more compact form using the Lagrangian state function & , q) = T(q & , q) V(q) L(q 0 & , q) V(q) T(q & , q) V(q) D(q &) d T(q o Hence : { } -{ }+ = Fi &i &i &i q q q i q i q dt & , q) L(q & , q) D(q &) d L(q + = Fi or { }& & q i q i q i dt o This result takes a very simple form for the unforced conservative system without dissipation (Fi = Di = 0) & , q) L(q & , q) d L(q =0 { }&i q q i dt This equation can be represented in an alternate manner by means of Hamiltion's equations o In Hamilton's formulation one uses the momentum p and coordinate q & and q , as used in the Lagrangian as the basic variables rather than q formulation

 The state function of Hamilton, the Hamiltonian H(p, q ), is defined as :

T & L(q & , q) H(p, q ) p q

> The equations of motion are given by Hamilton' s equations : H(p, q ) &i = p for i = 1,2, L, n q i &i = q H(p, q ) p i

> Since Hamilton' s equations directly yield first - order O.D.E.s it may appear at first glance that they are a more natural means of generating the state equations o This however is incorrect o Application of Hamilton' s equation to electrical networks for example, yields results that are valid, but not results that are identical to those produced from Kirchhof' s Laws This is due to the use of the unfamiliar momentum variable p

Examples Using the Operational Form of the Lagrange Equation

& , q)] T[ x & , q)] V(q) D(q &) & (q & (q d T[ x { }+ + = Fi &i &i dt q q q i q i

Example Consider the rotational mechanical system below. The system consists of two flywheels with inertas J1 and J 2 , which are coupled together via a shaft with a torsional spring constant k 2 . o The flywheels are also connected to the rigid walls by means of shafts with tortional spring constants k1 and k 3 . In addition, both flywheels are acted upon by viscous damping forces with coefficients 1 and 2 , as well as by applied torquesT1 (t) and T2 (t) o Note however, that the inertia J 2 is subject to viscous damping forces that are due only to the difference in velocity between J1 and J 2

Rotational System

Solution It is assumed that the system parameters are constant and that the range of the variables is unrestricted The generalized coordinates are chosen to be the angles 1 and 2 ; the & and & generalized angular velocities are
1 2

> Kinetic energy : > Potential energy : > Dissipation energy : > Applied forces :

1 &2 1 & 2 J11 + J 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 V = k11 + k 2 (1 2 ) 2 + k 3 2 2 2 2 1 &2 1 & & )2 D = 1 2 ( 1 + 1 2 2 2 F1 = T1 (t) ; F2 = T2 (t) T=

Evaluating the Lagrange equation : & , q ) T(q & , q ) V(q ) D(q &) d T(q { }+ + = Fi &i &i dt q q i q i q For i = 1 : T & = J1 1 & 1 d T & ; T = 0 { } = J1& 1 & dt 1 1

V D & + ( & & ) = k11 + k 2 (1 2 ) ; = 1 1 2 1 2 & 1 1 & + & + ( & & ) + k + k ( ) = T (t) J&
1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 1

 Evaluating the Lagrange equation : & , q ) T(q & , q) V(q) D(q &) d T(q { }+ + = Fi &i &i dt q q i q i q T & for i = 2 : = J 2 2 & 2 d T T & & { } = J 2 2 ; =0 & dt 2 2

V D & & ) = k 3 2 + k 2 ( 2 1 ) ; = 2 ( 2 1 & 2 2 & + ( & & ) + k + k ( ) = T (t) J 2& 2 2 2 1 3 2 2 2 1 2 The Lagrange equations may be placed in state variable form in terms of a state vector x and an input vector u (t) : 1 & T1 (t) 1 & = A x + Bu (t) x= ; u (t) = ; x 2 T2 (t) & 2

0 1 0 0 0 0 (1 + 2 ) k2 2 (k1 + k 2 ) 1 J J1 J1 J1 J1 1 A= ; B= 0 0 0 0 0 1 (k + k 3 ) k2 2 0 1 2 2 J2 J2 J2 J2 J2 It is interesting to note that if the generalized coordinates are considered in sets of two, they are related by derivatives (i.e., they resemble phase variables) > For second - order systems, the phase variables and the generalized coordinates of Lagrange are often identical

Example : Determine the Lagrange equations of motion for the electrical system in the figure below :
+

L 1 (q 1 ) q1
q3

R2
q2 R1

e in (t) ~

e o (t)

L2

Solution : Since the applied force is in the form of a voltage e IN (t), we select the coordinates as charge q (refer to table of generalized coordinates for different systems) The circuit contains three energy storage elements and therefore we might expect three generalized coordinates (q1 , q 2 , q 3 ) &1 = q & 3 or q1 = q 3 > There is an obvious constraint in this problem, however, namely q o Consequently, there are only two generalized coordinates o This is an example of a holonomic constraint, which takes the form of either an algebraic equation f(x1 , x 2 , L, x n ) = 0, or an integrable & 1, x & 2 ,L, x & n , x1 , x 2 , L , x n ) = 0 differential equation of the form g(x Constraints that cannot be expressed as either algebraic or integrable differential equations are known as nonholonomic constraints A common example is the inequality constraint f(x1 , x 2 ,L, x n ) 0

 Due to the holonomic constraint (q1 = q 3 ), we choose our generalized coordinates as q1 and q 2 & 1 ) requires specification > Note that the nonlinear element L1 (q o We do this in terms of a flux linkage vs. current curve shown below o As a practical matter, flux linkages increase linearly up to a &1 = point where q &1) L(q & 1 < , the inductance L1 is constant and For q =0 &1 q & 1 ) it is best to Due to the presence of the nonlinear element L1 (q integrate the momentum vector & , q) to determine T(q & , q) p (q Momentum vector : & 1 )q & 1 + L 2q &1 L1 (q & , q) = p (q 0

&1 q

 Thus, the kinetic energy function is : & , q) = (L1 ( & 1 ) & 1 + L 2 & 1 ) d &1 T(q
0 &1 q

1 2 & &1 & & & T(q, q) = (L1 (1 )1 d1 + L 2 q 2 0 The other state functions may be written as : 1 2 V(q) = q2 2C 1 1 2 & & & &2 D(q) = R 1 (q1 q 2 ) + R 2 q 2 2 2 F1 The generalized force is : F = F2 F1 = e IN (t) ; F2 = 0

&1 q

 Applying Lagrange's equations of motion : d T T V D { } + + = Fi for i = 1,2 &i &i dt q q i q i q 1 2 & , q ) = (L1 ( &1 & 1 ) & 1 d & 1 + L 2q > Evaluating parts of the whole : T( q 2 0 T T T T & 1 )q & 1 + L 2q &1 ; = L1 (q =0 ; = =0 & & q1 q 2 q1 q 2 & ) d T L (q & 1 )& &1 + q &1 1 1 & &1 + L 2& &1 { } = L1 (q q q q o &1 &1 dt q q o & ) d T L (q &1 & 1 )+ q & 1 1 1 + L 2 ]& { } = [L1 (q q & & dt q1 q1 o V V q 2 =0 ; = q1 q 2 C D D &1 q &2) ; & 1 + (R 1 + R 2 )q &2 = R 1 (q = R 1q &1 &2 q q Lagrange's equations are therefore : & ) L (q & 1 )+ q & 1 1 1 + L 2 ]& &1 + R 1 (q &1 q & 2 ) = e IN (t) [L1 (q q &1 q & 1 + (R 1 + R 2 )q &2 + R 1q q2 =0 C
V(q ) = 1 2 q2 2C 1 1 & ) = R 1 (q &1 q & 2 ) 2 + R 2q &2 D(q 2 2 2
&1 q

& 1 ) characteristic by applying If we consider linearizing the L1 (q & 1 , then L1 (q & 1 ) = L1 a constant the nonholonomic constraint q & 1curve equal to the slope of the vs q & ) L (q 1 1 =0 &1 q o The Lagrange equations may be simplified as : &1 + R 1 (q &1 q & 2 ) = e IN (t) (L1 + L 2 ) & q q2 =0 C o We note also that the output voltage of the circuit is given by : q 2 (t) e 0 (t) = C o Defining the terms : L L1 + L 2 ; R R 1 + R 2 &1 + R 1 (q &1 q & 2 ) = e IN (t) L& q & 1 + (R 1 + R 2 )q &2 + R 1q & 1 + Rq &2 + R 1q q2 =0 C q 2 (t) e 0 (t) = C