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Module 10.1
Introduction to Steam Distribution
Space
Steam Steam heating
Pan Pan system
Condensate
Process
vessel
Steam
Condensate
Condensate
Steam
Make-up
water
Feedtank Condensate
Feedpump
The steam generated in the boiler must be conveyed through pipework to the point where its
heat energy is required. Initially there will be one or more main pipes, or ‘steam mains’, which
carry steam from the boiler in the general direction of the steam using plant. Smaller branch
pipes can then carry the steam to the individual pieces of equipment.
When the boiler main isolating valve (commonly called the ‘crown’ valve) is opened, steam
immediately passes from the boiler into and along the steam mains to the points at lower pressure.
The pipework is initially cooler than the steam, so heat is transferred from the steam to the pipe.
The air surrounding the pipes is also cooler than the steam, so the pipework will begin to transfer
heat to the air.
Steam on contact with the cooler pipes will begin to condense immediately. On start-up of the
system, the condensing rate will be at its maximum, as this is the time where there is maximum
temperature difference between the steam and the pipework. This condensing rate is commonly
called the ‘starting load’. Once the pipework has warmed up, the temperature difference between
the steam and pipework is minimal, but some condensation will occur as the pipework still
continues to transfer heat to the surrounding air. This condensing rate is commonly called the
‘running load’.
The resulting condensation (condensate) falls to the bottom of the pipe and is carried along by
the steam flow and assisted by gravity, due to the gradient in the steam main that should be
arranged to fall in the direction of steam flow. The condensate will then have to be drained from
various strategic points in the steam main.
When the valve on the steam pipe serving an item of steam using plant is opened, steam flowing
from the distribution system enters the plant and again comes into contact with cooler surfaces.
The steam then transfers its energy in warming up the equipment and product (starting load),
and, when up to temperature, continues to transfer heat to the process (running load).
There is now a continuous supply of steam from the boiler to satisfy the connected load and to
maintain this supply more steam must be generated. In order to do this, more water (and fuel to
heat this water) is supplied to the boiler to make up for that water which has previously been
evaporated into steam.
The condensate formed in both the steam distribution pipework and in the process equipment
is a convenient supply of useable hot boiler feedwater. Although it is important to remove this
condensate from the steam space, it is a valuable commodity and should not be allowed to
run to waste. Returning all condensate to the boiler feedtank closes the basic steam loop, and
should be practised wherever practical. The return of condensate to the boiler is discussed
further in Block 13, ‘Condensate Removal’, and Block 14,’Condensate Management’.
The working pressure
The distribution pressure of steam is influenced by a number of factors, but is limited by:
o The maximum safe working pressure of the boiler.
o The minimum pressure required at the plant.
As steam passes through the distribution pipework, it will inevitably lose pressure due to:
o Frictional resistance within the pipework (detailed in Module 10.2).
o Condensation within the pipework as heat is transferred to the environment.
Therefore allowance should be made for this pressure loss when deciding upon the initial
distribution pressure.
A kilogram of steam at a higher pressure occupies less volume than at a lower pressure. It follows
that, if steam is generated in the boiler at a high pressure and also distributed at a high pressure,
the size of the distribution mains will be smaller than that for a low-pressure system for the same
heat load. Figure 10.1.2 illustrates this point.
2.0
Specific volume m³/kg
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
0 6 2 4 8 10 12 14
Pressure bar g
Fig. 10.1.2 Dry saturated steam - pressure /specific volume relationship
Generating and distributing steam at higher pressure offers three important advantages:
o The thermal storage capacity of the boiler is increased, helping it to cope more efficiently with
fluctuating loads, minimising the risk of producing wet and dirty steam.
o Smaller bore steam mains are required, resulting in lower capital cost, for materials such as
pipes, flanges, supports, insulation and labour.
o Smaller bore steam mains cost less to insulate.
Having distributed at a high pressure, it will be necessary to reduce the steam pressure to each
zone or point of use in the system in order to correspond with the maximum pressure required
by the application. Local pressure reduction to suit individual plant will also result in drier steam
at the point of use. (Module 2.3 provides an explanation of this).
Note: It is sometimes thought that running a steam boiler at a lower pressure than its rated
pressure will save fuel. This logic is based on more fuel being needed to raise steam to a higher
pressure.
Whilst there is an element of truth in this logic, it should be remembered that it is the connected
load, and not the boiler output, which determines the rate at which energy is used. The same
amount of energy is used by the load whether the boiler raises steam at 4 bar g, 10 bar g or
100 bar g. Standing losses, flue losses, and running losses are increased by operating at higher
pressures, but these losses are reduced by insulation and proper condensate return systems.
These losses are marginal when compared to the benefits of distributing steam at high pressure.
Pressure reduction
The common method for reducing pressure at the point where steam is to be used is to use a
pressure reducing valve, similar to the one shown in the pressure reducing station Figure 10.1.3.
Separator
Steam Steam
Strainer
Trap set
Condensate
Fig. 10.1.3 Typical pressure reducing valve station
A separator is installed upstream of the reducing valve to remove entrained water from incoming
wet steam, thereby ensuring high quality steam to pass through the reducing valve. This is discussed
in more detail in Module 9.3 and Module 12.5.
Plant downstream of the pressure reducing valve is protected by a safety valve. If the pressure
reducing valve fails, the downstream pressure may rise above the maximum allowable working
pressure of the steam using equipment. This, in turn, may permanently damage the equipment,
and, more importantly, constitute a danger to personnel.
With a safety valve fitted, any excess pressure is vented through the valve, and will prevent this
from happening (safety valves are discussed in Block 9).
Other components included in the pressure reducing valve station are:
o The primary isolating valve - To shut the system down for maintenance.
o The primary pressure gauge - To monitor the integrity of supply.
o The strainer - To keep the system clean.
o The secondary pressure gauge - To set and monitor the downstream pressure.
o The secondary isolating valve - To assist in setting the downstream pressure on no- load
conditions.
Questions
1. Distributing steam at high pressure, instead of low pressure, will have the following
effect.
a | Heat losses from the pipes will be less. ¨
b | A lower storage capacity in the high pressure pipes. ¨
c | High pressure small bore steam pipes cost less to install and insulate. ¨
d | The steam pipes will be smaller creating wet steam. ¨
3. The start-up condensate load of a steam main is generally greater than the running load
because:
a | The pipework and fittings are cold, so steam is required to heat it up to steam
temperature. ¨
b | The steam space within the pipework has to be charged with steam to the
desired running pressure. ¨
c | The boiler crown valve or stop valve is opened very slowly and initially there
is insufficient pressure to discharge condensate through the steam traps. ¨
d | On initial opening of the crown valve, the steam distribution pressure will be low
and the enthalpy of evaporation of low pressure steam is greater than at high pressure
so a greater mass of steam will be condensed. ¨
4. The pressure at which steam is supplied to the plant should be dictated by:
a | The boiler operating pressure. ¨
b | The steam distribution pressure. ¨
c | The maximum allowable safe working pressure of the plant. ¨
d | The plant design pressure and temperature. ¨
Module 10.2
Pipes and Pipe Sizing
In the United Kingdom, piping to BS 1387, (steel tubes and tubulars suitable for screwing to
BS 21 threads) is also used in applications where the pipe is screwed rather than flanged.
They are commonly referred to as Blue Band and Red Band; this being due to their banded
identification marks. The different colours refer to particular grades of pipe:
o Red Band, being heavy grade, is commonly used for steam pipe applications.
o Blue Band, being medium grade, is commonly used for air distribution systems, although it is
sometimes used for low-pressure steam systems.
The coloured bands are 50 mm wide, and their positions on the pipe denote its length. Pipes less
than 4 metres in length only have a coloured band at one end, while pipes of 4 to 7 metres in
length have a coloured band at either end.
Fig. 10.2.1 Red band, branded pipe, - heavy grade, Fig. 10.2.2 Blue band, branded pipe, - heavy grade,
up to 4 metres in length between 4-7 metres in length
Pipe material
Pipes for steam systems are commonly manufactured from carbon steel to ANSI B 16.9 A106.
The same material may be used for condensate lines, although copper tubing is preferred in
some industries.
For high temperature superheated steam mains, additional alloying elements, such as chromium
and molybdenum, are included to improve tensile strength and creep resistance at high
temperatures.
Typically, pipes are supplied in 6 metre lengths.
Pipeline sizing
The objective of the steam distribution system is to supply steam at the correct pressure to the
point of use. It follows, therefore, that pressure drop through the distribution system is an important
feature.
Bernoullis Theorem (Daniel Bernoulli 1700 - 1782) is discussed in Block 4 - Flowmetering.
DArcy (DArcy Thompson 1860 - 1948) added that for fluid flow to occur, there must be more
energy at Point 1 than Point 2 (see Figure 10.2.3). The difference in energy is used to overcome
frictional resistance between the pipe and the flowing fluid.
hf
h1
h2
Length (L)
Point 1 Point 2
Where:
hf = Head loss to friction (m)
f = Friction factor (dimensionless)
L = Length (m)
u = Flow velocity (m /s)
g = Gravitational constant (9.81 m /s²)
D = Pipe diameter (m)
It is useful to remember that:
o Head loss to friction (hf) is proportional to the velocity squared (u²).
o The friction factor (f) is an experimental coefficient which is affected by factors including:
- The Reynolds Number (which is affected by velocity).
- The reciprocal of velocity².
Because the values for f are quite complex, they are usually obtained from charts.
[[P[ò
K
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I
KI P ≈ EDU
In practice whether for water pipes or steam pipes, a balance is drawn between pipe size and
pressure loss.
Oversized pipework means:
o Pipes, valves, fittings, etc. will be more expensive than necessary.
o Higher installation costs will be incurred, including support work, insulation, etc.
o For steam pipes a greater volume of condensate will be formed due to the greater heat loss. This,
in turn, means that either:
- More steam trapping is required, or
- Wet steam is delivered to the point of use.
In a particular example:
o The cost of installing 80 mm steam pipework was found to be 44% higher than the cost of 50
mm pipework, which would have had adequate capacity.
o The heat lost by the insulated pipework was some 21% higher from the 80 mm pipeline than
it would have been from the 50 mm pipework. Any non-insulated parts of the 80 mm pipe
would lose 50% more heat than the 50 mm pipe, due to the extra heat transfer surface area.
Undersized pipework means:
o A lower pressure may only be available at the point of use. This may hinder equipment
performance due to only lower pressure steam being available.
o There is a risk of steam starvation.
o There is a greater risk of erosion, waterhammer and noise due to the inherent increase in
steam velocity.
As previously mentioned, the friction factor (f) can be difficult to determine, and the calculation
itself is time consuming especially for turbulent steam flow. As a result, there are numerous graphs,
tables and slide rules available for relating steam pipe sizes to flowrates and pressure drops.
One pressure drop sizing method, which has stood the test of time, is the pressure factor method.
A table of pressure factor values is used in Equation 10.2.2 to determine the pressure drop for a
particular installation.
Where:
F = Pressure factor
P1 = Factor at inlet pressure
P2 = Factor at a distance of L metres
L = Equivalent length of pipe (m)
Example 10.2.2
Consider the system shown in Figure 10.2.4, and determine the pipe size required from the
boiler to the unit heater branch line. Unit heater steam load = 270 kg /h.
P1 = 7 bar g P2 = 6.6 bar g
L = 150 m
Although the unit heater only requires 270 kg /h, the boiler has to supply more than this due to
heat losses from the pipe.
The allowance for pipe fittings
The length of travel from the boiler to the unit heater is known, but an allowance must be
included for the additional frictional resistance of the fittings. This is generally expressed in terms
of equivalent pipe length. If the size of the pipe is known, the resistance of the fittings can be
calculated. As the pipe size is not yet known in this example, an addition to the equivalent length
can be used based on experience.
o If the pipe is less than 50 metres long, add an allowance for fittings of 5%.
o If the pipe is over 100 metres long and is a fairly straight run with few fittings, an allowance for
fittings of 10% would be made.
o A similar pipe length, but with more fittings, would increase the allowance towards 20%.
In this instance, revised length = 150 m + 10% = 165 m
The allowance for the heat losses from the pipe
The unit heater requires 270 kg /h of steam; therefore the pipe must carry this quantity plus the
quantity of steam condensed by heat losses from the main. As the size of the main is yet to be
determined, the true calculations cannot be made, but, assuming that the main is insulated, it
may be reasonable to add 3.5% of the steam load per 100 m of the revised length as heat losses.
In this instance, the additional allowance =
[
Revised boiler load = 270 kg /h + 5.8% = 286 kg /h
From Table 10.2.2 (an extract from the complete pressure factor table, Table 10.2.5, which can
be found in the Appendix at the end of this Module) F can be determined by finding the
pressure factors P1 and P2, and substituting them into Equation 10.2.2.
Table 10.2.2 Extract from pressure factor table (Table 10.2.5)
Pressure bar g Pressure factor (F)
6.5 49.76
6.6 51.05
6.7 52.36
6.9 55.02
7.0 56.38
7.1 57.75
)
P
)
Following down the left-hand column of the pipeline capacity and pressure drop factors table
(Table 10.2.6 - Extract shown in Table 10.2.3); the nearest two readings around the requirement
of 0.032 are 0.030 and 0.040. The next lower factor is always selected; in this case, 0.030.
Table 10.2.3 Extract from pipeline capacity and pressure factor table (Table 10.2.6)
Pipe size (DN)
Factor 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 150 200
(F)
Capacity (kg /h)
0.025 10.99 33.48 70.73 127.3 209.8 459.7 834.6 1 367 2 970 8 817 19 332
0.030 12.00 36.78 77.23 137.9 229.9 501.1 919.4 1 480 3 264 9 792 20 917
0.040 14.46 44.16 93.17 169.2 279.5 600.7 1 093 1 790 3 923 11 622 25 254
Although values can be interpolated, the table does not conform exactly to a straight-line graph,
so interpolation cannot be absolutely correct. Also, it is bad practice to size any pipe up to the
limit of its capacity, and it is important to have some leeway to allow for the inevitable future
changes in design.
From factor 0.030, by following the row of figures to the right it will be seen that:
o A 40 mm pipe will carry 229.9 kg /h.
o A 50 mm pipe will carry 501.1 kg /h.
Since the application requires 286 kg /h, the 50 mm pipe would be selected.
Having sized the pipe using the pressure drop method, the velocity can be checked if required.
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Viewed in isolation, this velocity may seem low in comparison with maximum permitted
velocities. However, this steam main has been sized to limit pressure drop, and the next smaller
pipe size would have given a velocity of over 47 m/s, and a final pressure less than the
requirement of 6.6 bar g.
As can be seen, this procedure is fairly complex and can be simplified by using the nomogram
shown in Table 10.2.7 (in the Appendix at the end of this Module). The method of use is explained
in Example 10.2.3.
Example 10.2.3
Using the data from Example 10.2.2, determine the pressure drop using the nomogram
shown in Figure 10.2.5 (same as Table 10.2.7).
Inlet pressure = 7 bar g
Steam flowrate = 286 kg /h
( 3 3 )
0D[LPXPSUHVVXUHGURSSHUP [
/
( )
0D[LPXPSUHVVXUHGURSSHUP [
0D[LPXPSUHVVXUHGURSSHUP EDU
Method:
o Select the point on the saturated steam line at 7 bar g, and mark Point A.
o From point A, draw a horizontal line to the steam flowrate of 286 kg /h, and mark Point B.
o From point B, draw a vertical line towards the top of the nomogram (Point C).
o Draw a horizontal line from 0.24 bar /100 m on the pressure loss scale (Line DE).
o The point at which lines DE and BC cross will indicate the pipe size required. In this case, a
40 mm pipe is too small, and a 50 mm pipe would be used.
20
C
10
5
10
15
3
20
2
25
Pressure loss bar / 100 m
30
40
1
50
60
70
80
0.5
100
125
0.3
150
D E
200
0.2
mm
250
300
0.1
ete
400
500
iam
pip 600
0.05
ed
0.03
0.02
ide
Ins
0.01
Steam pressure bar g
um
50% vacu
10
0 bar g
20
30
0.5
50
100
1
200
2
300
500
3
0
100
5
3 0 00
00
7
20
00
A 10
000
50
15
30 000
000
Saturation
10
g/h
20
000
20
temperature
000
30
ek
50
curve
flow 00
rat
100
B
am 200 0
50
70
100
Ste
Alternatively the pipe size can be calculated arithmetically. The following information is required,
and the procedure used for the calculation is outlined below.
Information required to calculate the required pipe size:
u = Flow velocity (m /s)
vg = Specific volume (m³ /kg)
ms = Mass flowrate (kg /s)
V = Volumetric flowrate (m³ /s) = ms x vg
From this information, the cross sectional area (A) of the pipe can be calculated:
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X
Rearranging the formula to give the diameter of the pipe (D) in metres:
[
' =
π [X
[
'=
π [X
Example 10.2.4
A process requires 5 000 kg /h of dry saturated steam at 7 bar g. For the flow velocity not to
exceed 25 m /s, determine the pipe size.
Where:
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0DVVIORZUDWH NJ KRU NJ V
9ROXPHWULFIORZUDWH [Y J
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π['ò
X
[
'ò π[X
[
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[
3LSHGLDPHWHU'
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3LSHGLDPHWHU' PRUPP
Since the steam velocity must not exceed 25 m /s, the pipe size must be at least 130 mm; the
nearest commercially available size, 150 mm, would be selected.
Again, a nomogram has been created to simplify this process, see Figure 10.2.6.
Example 10.2.5
Using the information from Example 10.2.4, use Figure 10.2.6 to determine the minimum
acceptable pipe size
Inlet pressure = 7 bar g
Steam flowrate = 5 000 kg /h
Maximum velocity = 25 m /s
Method:
o Draw a horizontal line from the saturation temperature line at 7 bar g (Point A) on the pressure
300
/s
m 200
city
lo 150
ve 5
m D
ea C
St
Pipe diameter mm
10
100
20
30
50
0
10 50
1 50
40
30
20
Summary
o The selection of piping material and the wall thickness required for a particular installation is
stipulated in standards such as BS 806 (1993) and ASME 31.1.
o Selecting the appropriate pipe size (nominal bore) for a particular application is based on
accurately identifying pressure and flowrate. The pipe size may be selected on the basis of:
- Velocity (usually pipes less than 50 m in length).
- Pressure drop (as a general rule, the pressure drop should not normally exceed 0.1 bar /50 m.
Appendix
Table 10.2.5 Pressure drop factor (F) table
Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure
bar a factor (F) bar g factor (F) bar g factor (F)
0.05 0.0301 2.05 8.748 7.60 64.84
0.10 0.0115 2.10 9.026 7.70 66.31
0.15 0.0253 2.15 9.309 7.80 67.79
0.20 0.0442 2.20 9.597 7.90 69.29
0.25 0.0681 2.25 9.888 8.00 70.80
0.30 0.0970 2.30 10.18 8.10 72.33
0.35 0.1308 2.35 10.48 8.20 73.88
0.40 0.1694 2.40 10.79 8.30 75.44
0.45 0.2128 2.45 11.40 8.40 77.02
0.50 0.2610 2.50 11.41 8.50 78.61
0.55 0.3140 2.55 11.72 8.60 80.22
0.60 0.3716 2.60 12.05 8.70 81.84
0.65 0.4340 2.65 12.37 8.80 83.49
0.70 0.5010 2.70 12.70 8.90 85.14
0.75 0.5727 2.75 13.03 9.00 86.81
0.80 0.6489 2.80 13.37 9.10 88.50
0.85 0.7298 2.85 13.71 9.20 90.20
0.90 0.8153 2.90 14.06 9.30 91.92
0.95 0.9053 2.95 14.41 9.40 93.66
1.013 1.0250 3.00 14.76 9.50 95.41
3.10 15.48 9.60 97.18
3.20 16.22 9.70 98.96
Pressure Pressure 3.30 16.98 9.80 100.75
bar g factor (F) 3.40 17.75 9.90 102.57
0 1.025 3.50 18.54 10.00 104.40
0.05 1.126 3.60 19.34 10.20 108.10
0.10 1.230 3.70 20.16 10.40 111.87
0.15 1.339 3.80 21.00 10.60 115.70
0.20 1.453 3.90 21.85 10.80 119.59
0.25 1.572 4.00 22.72 11.00 123.54
0.30 1.694 4.10 23.61 11.20 127.56
0.35 1.822 4.20 24.51 11.40 131.64
0.40 1.953 4.30 25.43 11.60 135.78
0.45 2.090 4.40 26.36 11.80 139.98
0.50 2.230 4.50 27.32 12.00 144.25
0.55 2.375 4.60 28.28 12.20 148.57
0.60 2.525 4.70 29.27 12.40 152.96
0.65 2.679 4.80 30.27 12.60 157.41
0.70 2.837 4.90 31.29 12.80 161.92
0.75 2.999 5.00 32.32 13.00 166.50
0.80 3.166 5.10 33.37 13.20 171.13
0.85 3.338 5.20 34.44 13.40 175.83
0.90 3.514 5.30 35.52 13.60 180.58
0.95 3.694 5.40 36.62 13.80 185.40
1.00 3.878 5.50 37.73 14.00 190.29
1.05 4.067 5.60 38.86 14.20 195.23
1.10 4.260 5.70 40.01 14.40 200.23
1.15 4.458 5.80 41.17 14.60 205.30
1.20 4.660 5.90 42.35 14.80 210.42
1.25 4.866 6.00 43.54 15.00 215.61
1.30 5.076 6.10 44.76 15.20 220.86
1.35 5.291 6.20 45.98 15.40 226.17
1.40 5.510 6.30 47.23 15.60 231.50
1.45 5.734 6.40 48.48 15.80 236.97
1.50 5.961 6.50 49.76 16.00 242.46
1.55 6.193 6.60 51.05 16.20 248.01
1.60 6.429 6.70 52.36 16.40 253.62
1.65 6.670 6.80 53.68 16.60 259.30
1.70 6.915 6.90 55.02 16.80 265.03
1.75 7.164 7.00 56.38 17.00 270.83
1.80 7.417 7.10 57.75 17.20 276.69
1.85 7.675 7.20 59.13 17.40 282.60
1.90 7.937 7.30 60.54 17.60 288.58
1.95 8.203 7.40 61.96 17.80 294.52
2.00 8.473 7.50 63.39 18.00 300.72
10
10
3
15
2
20
25
30
Pressure loss bar/100 m
40
1
50
60
70
80
100
0.5
125
15 0
mm
200
0.3
250
300
eter
0.2
400
500
diam
ipe 600
0.1
de p
0.05
Insi
0.03
0.02
0.01
cuum
50% va
g
0 bar
10
20
30
0.5
50
1
100
200
300
2
5 00
3
100
3 00 0
0
2 00
5
0
5 00
00
7
30 0000
10 0
h
00
10
kg /
00
20
000
50 0
15
rate
flow 0
am 00 00
Saturation
100
20
temperature
30
2
curve
50
Ste
70
100
300
/s 200
m
ity
loc
ve 5
m
ea
Pipe diameter mm
St 10 100
20
30
50
0
10 50
1 50
40
30
20
Questions
2. A 100 mm steam pipe has been selected for a particular steam flowrate with
8.3 bar g at the inlet and 7.7 bar g at the end of the run. Calculations show that, for
this flowrate and size of pipe, the pressure at the end of the run will actually be
7.9 bar g. Which of the following is true?
a | The steam velocity is higher than expected, and could cause noise ¨
b | The pipe has some additional spare capacity for future additional loads ¨
c | The resistance to flow is higher than expected ¨
d | A larger pipe is required ¨
3. A 40 m long 5 bar g saturated steam pipe is to be sized to carry 850 kg /h of steam.
Should the pipe be sized on velocity or pressure drop?
a | Pressure drop to limit the steam velocity ¨
b | On a velocity over 40 m/s ¨
c | On a velocity of about 25 m/s ¨
d | Either, provided the steam velocity does not exceed, approximately 5 m /s ¨
5. A straight run of pipe 30 m long and carrying saturated steam at 10 bar g is to be sized
by the velocity method to pass 20 000 kg /h. What size pipe is required?
a | 175 mm ¨
b | 150 mm ¨
c | 200 mm ¨
d | 250 mm ¨
6. From the following, what is the effect of sizing a 100 m long, 8 bar g steam pipe by the
velocity method?
a | Sizing by velocity takes no account of pressure drop along the pipe ¨
b | If the velocity is more than 40 m /s, the pressure drop along the pipe may be
very small and in practice a small pipe may be used ¨
c | If a low velocity is selected, the chosen pipe will probably be undersized resulting
in steam starvation at the plant ¨
d | Over a length of 100 m, the noise of steam flow can be unacceptable ¨
Answers
1: d, 2: b, 3: c, 4: a, 5: d, 6: a
Module 10.3
Steam Mains and Drainage
∆7
= N$ Equation 2.5.1
ì
Where:
Q = Heat transferred per unit time (W)
k = Thermal conductivity of the material (W /m K or W /m °C)
A = Heat transfer area (m²)
DT = Temperature difference across the material (K or °C)
= Material thickness (m)
With steam systems, this loss of energy represents inefficiency, and thus pipes are insulated to
limit these losses. Whatever the quality or thickness of insulation, there will always be a level of
heat loss, and this will cause steam to condense along the length of the main.
The effect of insulation is discussed in Module 10.5. This Module will concentrate on disposal of
the inevitable condensate, which, unless removed, will accumulate and lead to problems such
as corrosion, erosion, and waterhammer.
In addition, the steam will become wet as it picks up water droplets, which reduces its heat
transfer potential. If water is allowed to accumulate, the overall effective cross sectional area of
the pipe is reduced, and steam velocity can increase above the recommended limits.
Piping layout
The subject of drainage from steam lines is covered in the UK British Standard BS 806:1993,
Section 4.12.
BS 806 states that, whenever possible, the main should be installed with a fall of not less than
1:100 (1 m fall for every 100 m run), in the direction of the steam flow. This slope will ensure that
gravity, as well as the flow of steam, will assist in moving the condensate towards drain points
where the condensate may be safely and effectively removed (See Figure 10.3.1).
30 - 50 metre intervals
Gradient
Gradient 1:100 Steam
1:100
Trap set
Steam Trap set
Trap set
Condensate
Condensate
Condensate
The amount of condensate formed in a large steam main under start-up conditions is sufficient
to require the provision of drain points at intervals of 30 m to 50 m, as well as natural low points
such as at the bottom of rising pipework.
In normal operation, steam may flow along the main at speeds of up to 145 km/h, dragging
condensate along with it. Figure 10.3.2 shows a 15 mm drain pipe connected directly to the
bottom of a main.
Steam Flow
Condensate
Although the 15 mm pipe has sufficient capacity, it is unlikely to capture much of the condensate
moving along the main at high speed. This arrangement will be ineffective.
A more reliable solution for the removal of condensate is shown in Figure 10.3.3. The trap line
should be at least 25 to 30 mm from the bottom of the pocket for steam mains up to 100 mm,
and at least 50 mm for larger mains. This allows a space below for any dirt and scale to settle.
Steam Flow
Pocket Condensate
The bottom of the pocket may be fitted with a removable flange or blowdown valve for cleaning
purposes.
Recommended drain pocket dimensions are shown in Table 10.3.1 and in Figure 10.3.4.
Table 10.3.1 Recomended drain pocket dimensions
Mains diameter - D Pocket diameter - d1 Pocket depth - d2
Up to 100 mm nb d1 = D Minimum d2 = 100 mm
125 - 200 mm nb d1 = 100 mm Minimum d2 = 150 mm
250 mm and above d1 ³ D / 2 Minimum d2 = D
d2 d1
Steam
Condensate
Steam
Slug
Steam
Indications of waterhammer include a banging noise, and perhaps movement of the pipe.
In severe cases, waterhammer may fracture pipeline equipment with almost explosive effect,
with consequent loss of live steam at the fracture, leading to an extremely hazardous situation.
Good engineering design, installation and maintenance will avoid waterhammer; this is far better
practice than attempting to contain it by choice of materials and pressure ratings of equipment.
Commonly, sources of waterhammer occur at the low points in the pipework (See Figure 10.3.6).
Such areas are due to:
o Sagging in the line, perhaps due to failure of supports.
o Incorrect use of concentric reducers (see Figure 10.3.7) - Always use eccentric reducers with
the flat at the bottom.
o Incorrect strainer installation - They should be fitted with the basket on the side.
o Inadequate drainage of steam lines.
o Incorrect operation - Opening valves too quickly at start-up when pipes are cold.
Steam
Concentric
reducer Condensate Riser
Steam
Condensate
Steam
Eccentric reducer
Correct
Steam
Condensate
Incorrect
Steam
Branch lines
Branch line
Steam
Fig. 10.3.8 Branch line
Branch lines are normally much shorter than steam mains. As a general rule, therefore, provided
the branch line is not more than 10 metres in length, and the pressure in the main is adequate, it
is possible to size the pipe on a velocity of 25 to 40 m/s, and not to worry about the pressure drop.
Table 10.2.4 Saturated steam pipeline capacities for different velocities in Module 10.2 will
prove useful in this exercise.
(a) Incorrect
(b) Correct
Drop leg
Low points will also occur in branch lines. The most common is a drop leg close to an isolating
valve or a control valve (Figure 10.3.10). Condensate can accumulate on the upstream side of
the closed valve, and then be propelled forward with the steam when the valve opens again -
consequently a drain point with a steam trap set is good practice just prior to the strainer and
control valve.
Steam
Isolation Control
Drop leg valve valve
Strainer
Unit
heater
Isolation valve
Isolation valve
Trap set
Trap set
Condensate Condensate
Fig. 10.3.10 Diagram of a drop leg supplying a unit heater
Wet steam in
As a general rule, providing the velocities in the pipework are within reasonable limits, separators
will be line sized. (Separators are discussed in detail in Module 12.5)
A separator will remove both droplets of water from pipe walls and suspended mist entrained in
the steam itself. The presence and effect of waterhammer can be eradicated by fitting a separator
in a steam main, and can often be less expensive than increasing the pipe size and fabricating
drain pockets.
A separator is recommended before control valves and flowmeters. It is also wise to fit a separator
where a steam main enters a building from outside. This will ensure that any condensate produced
in the external distribution system is removed and the building always receives dry steam. This is
equally important where steam usage in the building is monitored and charged for.
Strainers
When new pipework is installed, it is not uncommon for fragments of casting sand, packing,
jointing, swarf, welding rods and even nuts and bolts to be accidentally deposited inside the
pipe. In the case of older pipework, there will be rust, and in hard water districts, a carbonate
deposit. Occasionally, pieces will break loose and pass along the pipework with the steam to rest
inside a piece of steam using equipment. This may, for example, prevent a valve from opening /
closing correctly. Steam using equipment may also suffer permanent damage through wiredrawing
- the cutting action of high velocity steam and water passing through a partly open valve. Once
wiredrawing has occurred, the valve will never give a tight shut-off, even if the dirt is removed.
It is therefore wise to fit a line-size strainer in front of every steam trap, flowmeter, reducing valve
and regulating valve. The illustration shown in Figure 10.3.13 shows a cut section through a
typical strainer.
Running load - Once the steam main is up to operating temperature, the rate of condensation is
mainly a function of the pipe size and the quality and thickness of the insulation.
For accurate means of calculating running losses from steam mains, refer to Module 2.12 Steam
consumption of pipes and air heaters. Alternatively, for quick approximations of running load,
Table 10.3.3 can be used which shows typical amounts of steam condensed each hour per 50 m
of insulated steam main at various pressures.
Table 10.3.3 Condensing rate of steam in 50 m of schedule 40 pipe - at working temperature (kg / h)
Note: Figures are based on an ambient temperature of 20°C, and an insulation efficiency of 80%
Steam -18°C
pressure Steam main size (mm) correction
bar g 50 65 80 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600 factor
1 5 5 7 9 10 13 16 19 23 25 28 31 35 41 1.54
2 5 6 8 10 12 14 18 22 26 28 32 35 39 46 1.50
3 6 7 9 11 14 16 20 25 30 32 37 40 45 54 1.48
4 7 9 10 12 16 18 23 28 33 37 42 46 51 61 1.45
5 7 9 11 13 17 20 24 30 36 40 46 49 55 66 1.43
6 8 10 11 14 18 21 26 33 39 43 49 53 59 71 1.42
7 8 10 12 15 19 23 28 35 42 46 52 56 63 76 1.41
8 9 11 14 16 20 24 30 37 44 49 57 61 68 82 1.40
9 9 11 14 17 21 25 32 39 47 52 60 64 72 88 1.39
10 10 12 15 17 21 25 33 41 49 54 62 67 75 90 1.38
12 11 13 16 18 23 26 36 45 53 59 67 73 81 97 1.38
14 12 14 17 20 26 30 39 49 58 64 73 79 93 106 1.37
16 12 15 18 23 29 34 42 52 62 68 78 85 95 114 1.36
18 14 16 19 24 30 36 44 55 66 72 82 90 100 120 1.36
20 15 17 21 25 31 37 46 58 69 76 86 94 105 125 1.35
25 15 19 23 28 35 42 52 66 78 86 97 106 119 141 1.34
30 17 21 25 31 39 47 51 73 87 96 108 118 132 157 1.33
40 20 25 30 38 46 56 70 87 104 114 130 142 158 189 1.31
50 24 29 34 44 54 65 82 102 121 133 151 165 184 220 1.29
60 27 32 39 50 62 74 95 119 140 155 177 199 222 265 1.28
70 29 35 43 56 70 82 106 133 157 173 198 222 248 296 1.27
80 34 42 51 66 81 97 126 156 187 205 234 263 293 350 1.26
90 38 46 56 72 89 106 134 171 204 224 265 287 320 284 1.26
100 41 50 61 78 96 114 149 186 220 242 277 311 347 416 1.25
120 52 63 77 99 122 145 189 236 280 308 352 395 440 527 1.22
Suitability
A mains drain trap should consider the following constraints:
o Discharge temperature - The steam trap should discharge at, or very close to saturation
temperature, unless cooling legs are used between the drain point and the trap. This means
that the choice is a mechanical type trap (such as a float, inverted bucket type, or thermodynamic
traps).
o Frost damage - Where the steam main is located outside a building and there is a possibility
of sub-zero ambient temperature, the thermodynamic steam trap is ideal, as it not damaged
by frost. Even if the installation causes water to be left in the trap at shutdown and freezing
occurs, the thermodynamic trap may be thawed out without suffering damage when brought
back into use.
o Waterhammer - In the past, on poorly laid out installations where waterhammer was a common
occurrence, float traps were not always ideal due to their susceptibility to float damage.
Contemporary design and manufacturing techniques now produce extremely robust units for
mains drainage purposes. Float traps are certainly the first choice for proprietary separators as
high capacities are readily achieved, and they are able to respond quickly to rapid load increases.
Steam traps used to drain condensate from steam mains, are shown in Figure 10.3.14. The
thermostatic trap is included because it is ideal where there is no choice but to discharge
condensate into a flooded return pipe.
The subject of steam trapping is dealt with in detail in the Block 11, Steam Trapping.
Ball float type Thermodynamic type Thermostatic type Inverted bucket type
Fig. 10.3.14 Steam traps suitable for steam mains drainage
Steam leaks
Steam leaking from pipework is often ignored. Leaks can be costly in both the economic and
environmental sense and therefore need prompt attention to ensure the steam system is working
at its optimum efficiency with a minimum impact on the environment.
Figure 10.3.15 illustrates the steam loss for various sizes of hole at various pressures. This loss can
be readily translated into a fuel saving based on the annual hours of operation.
Hole size
500 12.5 mm
400
Steam leak rate kg/h
10 mm
300
200 7.5 mm
100 5 mm
3 mm
0
1 2 3 4 5 10
Steam pressure bar g
Fig. 10.3.15 Steam leakage rate through holes
Summary
Proper pipe alignment and drainage means observing a few simple rules:
o Steam lines should be arranged to fall in the direction of flow, at not less than 100 mm per
10 metres of pipe (1:100). Steam lines rising in the direction of flow should slope at not less
than 25 mm per 10 metres of pipe (1:40).
o Steam lines should be drained at regular intervals of 30 - 50 m and at any low points in the
system.
o Where drainage has to be provided in straight lengths of pipe, then a large bore pocket should
be used to collect condensate.
o If strainers are to be fitted, then they should be fitted on their sides.
o Branch connections should always be taken from the top of the main from where the driest
steam is taken.
o Separators should be considered before any piece of steam using equipment ensuring that dry
steam is used.
o Traps selected should be robust enough to avoid waterhammer damage and frost damage.
Questions
3. Steam pipeline strainers should be fitted with their baskets on the side to:
a| Prevent condensate filling the body and being carried over
to the equipment being protected ¨
b| Provide a greater screening area ¨
c| Extend the periods between cleaning the strainer ¨
d| Provide more effective removal of the debris ¨
4. Using the velocity method, what size pipe is required to carry 500 kg /h of steam at
6 bar g over a 40 m run with a rising slope? (The specific volume of steam at 6 bar g is
0.272 m³ /kg
a| 40 mm ¨
b| 80 mm ¨
c| 50 mm ¨
d| 65 mm ¨
5. A correctly sized pilot operated reducing valve has been installed in a pressure reducing
station supplying an autoclave, as shown in Figure 10.3.16. What is wrong with the
installation?
DN20
pressure Safety
reducing valve
valve
DN25
stop valve
Steam at 280 kg /h of
7 bar g steam at 5 bar g
DN25 DN32
DN25 strainer stop valve
separator
6. As a minimum, horizontal runs of 150 mm steam main should be drained at intervals of:
a| Every 15 metres via 100 mm bore drain pockets, 100 mm deep ¨
b| Every 30 - 50 metres via 150 mm bore drain pockets, 100 mm deep ¨
c| Every 15 metres via 100 mm bore drain pockets, 150 mm deep ¨
d| Every 30 - 50 metres via 100 mm bore drain pockets, 150 mm deep ¨
Answers
1: d, 2: b, 3: a, 4: d, 5: d, 6: d
Module 10.4
Pipe Expansion and Support
Where:
L = Length of pipe between anchors (m)
∆T = Temperature difference between ambient temperature and operating temperatures (°C)
α = Expansion coefficient (mm /m °C) x 10-3
α) (mm /m °C x 10-3)
Table 10.4.1 Expansion coefficients (α
Temperature range (°C)
Material <0 0 - 100 0 - 200 0 - 300 0 - 400 0 - 500 0 - 600 0 - 700
Carbon steel 0.1% - 0.2% C 12.8 13.9 14.9 15.8 16.6 17.3 17.9 -
Alloy steel 1% Cr 0.5% Mo 13.7 14.5 15.2 15.8 16.4 17.0 17.6 -
Stainless steel 18% Cr 8% Ni 9.4 20.0 20.9 21.2 21.8 22.3 22.7 23.0
Example 10.4.1
A 30 m length of carbon steel pipe is to be used to transport steam at 4 bar g (152°C). If the pipe
is installed at 10°C, determine the expansion using Equation 10.4.1.
Expansion ( mm ) = L ∆T α
Where: L = 30 m
∆T = 152°C - 10 °C
∆T = 142°C
α in the range 0 - 200 = 14.9 x 10-3 mm m °C for carbon steel pipe
Expansion = 30 m x 142°C x 14.9 x 10 -3 mm m °C
Expansion = 63.5 mm
Alternatively, the chart in Figure 10.4.1 can be used for finding the approximate expansion of a
variety of steel pipe lengths - see Example 10.4.2 for explanation of use.
Example 10.4.2
Using Figure 10.4.1. Find the approximate expansion from 15°C, of 100 metres of carbon steel
pipework used to distribute steam at 265°C.
Temperature difference is 265 - 15°C = 250°C.
Where the diagonal temperature difference line of 250°C cuts the horizontal pipe length line
at 100 m, drop a vertical line down. For this example an approximate expansion of 330 mm is
indicated.
Temperature difference °C
50 100 200 300 400 500
220
200
Example
10.4.2
Length of pipe (m) 100
50
40
30
20
10
0
10 2010030 40 50200 300 500 1 000 2 000
Expansion of pipe (mm)
Fig. 10.4.1 A chart showing the expansion in various steel pipe lengths at various temperature differences
Table 10.4.2 Temperature of saturated steam
bar g 1 2 3 4 5 7.5 10 15 20 25 30
°C 120 134 144 152 159 173 184 201 215 226 236
Pipework flexibility
The pipework system must be sufficiently flexible to accommodate the movements of the
components as they expand. In many cases the flexibility of the pipework system, due to the
length of the pipe and number of bends and supports, means that no undue stresses are imposed.
In other installations, however, it will be necessary to incorporate some means of achieving this
required flexibility.
An example on a typical steam system is the discharge of condensate from a steam mains drain
trap into the condensate return line that runs along the steam line (Figure 10.4.2). Here, the
difference between the expansions of the two pipework systems must be taken into account.
The steam main will be operating at a higher temperature than that of the condensate main, and
the two connection points will move relative to each other during system warm-up.
Trap set
Condensate Condensate
Fig. 10.4.2 Flexibility in connection to condensate return line
The amount of movement to be taken up by the piping and any device incorporated in it can
be reduced by ‘cold draw’. The total amount of expansion is first calculated for each section
between fixed anchor points. The pipes are left short by half of this amount, and stretched
cold by pulling up bolts at a flanged joint, so that at ambient temperature, the system is stressed
in one direction. When warmed through half of the total temperature rise, the piping is
unstressed. At working temperature and having fully expanded, the piping is stressed in the
opposite direction. The effect is that instead of being stressed from 0 F to +1 F units of force,
the piping is stressed from -½ F to + ½ F units of force.
In practical terms, the pipework is assembled cold with a spacer piece, of length equal to half the
expansion, between two flanges. When the pipework is fully installed and anchored at both
ends, the spacer is removed and the joint pulled up tight (see Figure 10.4.3).
L Spacer
piece
The remaining part of the expansion, if not accepted by the natural flexibility of the pipework
will call for the use of an expansion fitting.
In practice, pipework expansion and support can be classified into three areas as shown in
Figure 10.4.5.
Fig. 10.4.5 Chair and roller Fig. 10.4.6 Chair roller and saddle
Roller supports (Figure 10.4.5 and 10.4.6) are ideal methods for supporting pipes, at the same
time allowing them to move in two directions. For steel pipework, the rollers should be
manufactured from ferrous material. For copper pipework, they should be manufactured from
non-ferrous material. It is good practice for pipework supported on rollers to be fitted with a
pipe saddle bolted to a support bracket at not more than distances of 6 metres to keep the
pipework in alignment during any expansion and contraction.
Where two pipes are to be supported one below the other, it is poor practice to carry the bottom
pipe from the top pipe using a pipe clip. This will cause extra stress to be added to the top pipe
whose thickness has been sized to take only the stress of its working pressure.
All pipe supports should be specifically designed to suit the outside diameter of the pipe concerned.
Expansion fittings
The expansion fitting (‘C’ Figure 10.4.4) is one method of accommodating expansion. These
fittings are placed within a line, and are designed to accommodate the expansion, without the
total length of the line changing. They are commonly called expansion bellows, due to the
bellows construction of the expansion sleeve.
Other expansion fittings can be made from the pipework itself. This can be a cheaper way to
solve the problem, but more space is needed to accommodate the pipe.
Full loop
This is simply one complete turn of the pipe and, on steam pipework, should preferably be fitted
in a horizontal rather than a vertical position to prevent condensate accumulating on the upstream
side.
The downstream side passes below the upstream side and great care must be taken that it is not
fitted the wrong way round, as condensate can accumulate in the bottom. When full loops are
to be fitted in a confined space, care must be taken to specify that wrong-handed loops are not
supplied.
The full loop does not produce a force in opposition to the expanding pipework as in some other
types, but with steam pressure inside the loop, there is a slight tendency to unwind, which puts
an additional stress on the flanges.
Flow Flow
Side elevation
Flow Flow
Trap set
Fig. 10.4.8 Horseshoe or lyre loop
Expansion loops
Welded bend
2W ∅
radius = 1.5∅
Welded joint
Fig. 10.4.9 Expansion loop
The expansion loop can be fabricated from lengths of straight pipes and elbows welded at the
joints (Figure 10.4.9). An indication of the expansion of pipe that can be accommodated by
these assemblies is shown in Figure 10.4.10.
It can be seen from Figure 10.4.9 that the depth of the loop should be twice the width, and the
width is determined from Figure 10.4.10, knowing the total amount of expansion expected from
the pipes either side of the loop.
Expansion from neutral position (mm)
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
400
300
200
Nominal pipe size (mm)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
25
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
W = width (metres)
Fig. 10.4.10 Expansion loop capacity for carbon steel pipes
Sliding joint
These are sometimes used because they take up little room, but it is essential that the pipeline
is rigidly anchored and guided in strict accordance with the manufacturers’ instructions;
otherwise steam pressure acting on the cross sectional area of the sleeve part of the joint
tends to blow the joint apart in opposition to the forces produced by the expanding pipework
(see Figure 10.4.11). Misalignment will cause the sliding sleeve to bend, while regular
maintenance of the gland packing may also be needed.
Stay bolts
Movement due to
pipework expansion
Fig. 10.4.11 Sliding joint
Expansion bellows
An expansion bellows, Figures 10.4.12, has the advantage that it requires no packing (as does
the sliding joint type). But it does have the same disadvantages as the sliding joint in that pressure
inside tends to extend the fitting, consequently, anchors and guides must be able to withstand
this force.
Figure 10.4.13 (a), (b), and (c) give a rough indication of the effects of these movements, but,
under all circumstances, it is highly recommended that expert advice is sought from the bellows’
manufacturer regarding any installation of expansion bellows.
Guides
Axial movement
Short
distance Fixing point
Axial movement
Guides
Small
lateral
Limit rods Large
movement
lateral
movement
Long Axial
distance movement
Small
angular
movement
Fixing point
Questions
1. A DN100 Schedule 40 pipe carries steam at 10 bar g over a length of 80 m. If the pipe is
installed at 10°C, using Equation 10.4.1 and Table 10.4.1, by how much will it expand?
a| 291 mm ¨
b| 196 mm ¨
c| 352 mm ¨
d| 207 mm ¨
2. If the expansion of a pipe from installation to working temperature was 352 mm, what
length of spacer would be used in ‘cold drawing’ the pipe being installed?
a| 352 mm ¨
b| 704 mm ¨
c| 176 mm ¨
d| 88 mm ¨
3. A 100 m run of 80 mm pipe at 15 bar g is supported at its ends and three intermediate
points. It is trapped at intervals of 40 m. Noise and vibration often occurs at start-up.
What do you think is required to put things right?
a| Fit more supports at 3 m intervals ¨
b| Check that the steam traps are removing condensate properly ¨
c| Check that the steam main isolating valve is opened slowly ¨
d| All of the above ¨
6. Condensate from a heater battery operating at 3.8 bar g returns to a vented pump set
from where it is pumped through a carbon steel pipe to an atmospheric boiler feedtank
which is 85 m away. Using the chart in Figure 10.4.1, what will be the approximate pipe
expansion from an ambient temperature of 0°C?
a| 130 mm ¨
b| 200 mm ¨
c| 160 mm ¨
d| 100 mm ¨
Answers
1: d, 2: c, 3: d, 4: a, 5: d, 6: d
Module 10.5
Air Venting, Heat Losses and a
Summary of Various Pipe Related
Standards
Discharge air to
a safe place
Steam main
The discharge from an air vent must be piped to a safe place. In practice, a condensate line falling
towards a vented receiver can accept the discharge from an air vent.
In addition to air venting at the end of a main, air vents should also be fitted:
o In parallel with an inverted bucket trap or, in some instances, a thermodynamic trap. These traps
are sometimes slow to vent air on start-up.
o In awkward steam spaces (such as at the opposite side to where steam enters a jacketed pan).
o Where there is a large steam space (such as an autoclave), and a steam /air mixture could affect
the process quality.
This being so, pipe heat losses can easily be found by reference to Table 10.5.1 and a simple
equation (Equation 10.5.1).
The table assumes ambient conditions of between 10 - 21°C, and considers heat losses from bare
horizontal pipes of different sizes with steam contained at various pressures.
Table 10.5.1 Heat emission from pipes
Note: Heat emission from bare horizontal pipes with ambient temperatures between 10°C and 20°C and still air conditions
Temperature Pipe size (DN)
difference 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 150
steam to air °C W/m
60 60 72 88 111 125 145 172 210 250 351
70 72 87 106 132 147 177 209 253 311 432
80 86 104 125 155 171 212 248 298 376 519
90 100 121 146 180 196 248 291 347 443 610
100 116 140 169 207 223 287 336 400 514 706
110 132 160 193 237 251 328 385 457 587 807
120 149 181 219 268 282 371 436 517 664 914
130 168 203 247 301 313 417 490 581 743 1 025
140 187 226 276 337 347 464 547 649 825 1 142
150 208 250 306 374 382 514 607 720 911 1 263
160 229 276 338 413 418 566 670 794 999 1 390
170 251 302 372 455 457 620 736 873 1 090 1 521
180 275 330 407 499 497 676 805 955 1 184 1 658
190 299 359 444 544 538 735 877 1 041 1 281 1 800
200 325 389 483 592 582 795 951 1 130 1 381 1 947
Other factors can be included in the equation, for instance, if a pipe is lagged with insulation
providing a reduction in heat losses to 10% of the uninsulated pipe, then it is multiplied by a
factor of 0.1.
/I
V = Equation 2.12.2
KIJ
Where:
ms = Rate of condensation (kg /h)
Q = Heat emission (W/m) (from Table 10.5.1)
L = Effective length of pipe, allowing for flanges and fittings (m)
f = Insulation factor. e.g.: 1 for bare pipes, 0.1 for good insulation
hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation (kJ /kg)
Equivalent lengths:
Pair of mating flanges 0.5 m
Line size valve 1.0 m
Example 10.5.1
50 m of 100 mm pipe has 8 pairs of flanges and two valves, and carries saturated steam at
7 bar g. Ambient temperature is 10°C, and the insulation efficiency is given as 0.1
With reference to Table 10.5.1 and the application of Equation 10.5.1: determine the quantity
of steam that will be condensed per hour:
Part 1 - Without insulation.
Part 2 - With the pipe insulated, but the valves and flanges are left without insulation.
Part 3 - Completely insulated.
/I
V = Equation 2.12.2
KIJ
/I
V =
KIJ
[[[
V =
&RQGHQVLQJUDWH NJ K
Part 2 - Pipe insulated, but without insulation on the valves and flanges:
Consider the two elements separately:
/I
,QVXODWHGSLSH V =
KIJ
[[[
V =
+HDWORVVIURPSLSHV V NJ K
/I
8QLQVXODWHGILWWLQJV V =
KIJ
[[[
V =
+HDWORVVIURPILWWLQJV V NJ K
Total condensing rate = heat loss from pipes + heat loss from fittings
Total condensing rate = 8.78 kg /h + 10.54 kg /h = 19.32 kg /h
Summary
To summarise the Steam Distribution Block of The Steam and Condensate Loop, the following
checklist may be used to ensure that a steam distribution system will operate efficiently and
effectively:
o Are steam mains properly sized?
o Are steam mains properly laid out?
o Are steam mains adequately drained?
o Are steam mains adequately air vented?
o Is adequate provision made for expansion?
o Can separators be used to improve steam quality?
o Are there leaking joints, glands or safety valves and why?
o Can redundant piping be blanked off or removed?
o Is the system effectively insulated?
Questions
3. From the following, what is the effect of air in a steam and condensate system?
a | Erosion of pipes o
b | Reduced heat output from the plant o
c | The steam traps will close as they would on sensing steam o
d | The air will prevent steam and condensate reaching the traps o
4. The surface cladding of insulation on a steam main is damaged and allows rain to enter
the lagging. What is the effect?
a | No significant effect o
b | Less condensation will occur in the pipe because the heat transfer rate through water
is less than the heat transfer rate through air o
c | The water will be evaporated and the steam formed will destroy the insulation o
d | Heat losses will increase because the heat transfer rate to water is much greater than
to air o
5. A 75 m long, 150 mm steam main operates at 10 bar g. The main runs outside and the
insulation is claimed to be 80% efficient. Approximately how much steam will be
condensed in meeting heat losses from the pipe?
a | 200 kg /h o
b | 40 kg /h o
c | 97 kg /h o
d | 28 kg /h o
6. If, in Question 5, the insulation was 90% efficient, what would the heat losses now be?
a | 180 kg /h o
b | 20 kg /h o
c | 194 kg /h o
d | 14 kg /h o
Answers
1: c, 2: d, 3: b, 4: d, 5: b, 6: d