The Metaphor of Musical Motion: Is There An Alternative Author(s): Judy Lochhead Source: Theory and Practice, Vol.

14/15 (1989/1990), pp. 83-103 Published by: Music Theory Society of New York State Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41054225 . Accessed: 25/05/2013 16:14
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The MetaphorofMusical Motion: Is ThereAn Alternative* Lochhead Judy

havepassed sincePeter wrote: "Theproblem of Almost Westergaard thirty years in in lies not the difficulties of music traditional extending rhythm contemporary in newmusic, butin theinadequacy tohandle increasing concepts complexity analytic Muchhas beenwritten to handleanymusic/'1 about oftraditional concepts analytic hasbeengained. ofmusic since andmuch structures the article, Westergaard's temporal that has been directed towardthekindsof temporal Butlittle attention concepts a Since music is we and theoretic constructs. underlie art/'2 might "temporal analytic in thought oftemporal aboutmusicas a means well consider thenature conception someoftheproblems with it. toward associated clarifying are not a satisfactory Difficulties surrounding uniquetomusic; temporality wayof nature of time has been a since the of the conceiving problem beginnings philosophy. One issue has particular relevance to thought oftemporal aboutmusic:theconcept
*An earlier version of this paper was given at the annual meeting of the Society for Music Theory, November9, 1985,Vancouver. Westergaard, "Some Problemsin Rhythmic Theoryand Analysis/'Perspectives ofNew Music, 1/2 (1962); on Contemporary in Perspectives Music Theory, ed. Benjamin Boretz and Edward T. Cone (New reprinted York:Norton,1972),226-37. 2Music has been considereda "temporalart/' by a greatvarietyof writers: philosophersand aestheticians as well as musicians. For instance,Stravinskyin his PoeticsofMusic in theFormof Six Lessons(trans. Arthur Knodel and Ingolf Dahl, New York, 1947, 29), writes that "...music is based on temporal succession and requires alertnessof memory.Consequently music is a chronologic art, as painting is a spatialart." And froma somewhat different perspective,Susanne K. Langer writesin Feelingand Form: "Music makes timeaudible, and its formand continuity sensible." (New York: Charles Scribner'sSons, 1953),110. some writers have been exploringspatial featuresofmusical sound. For instance,see Robert Recently Morgan "Musical Time/Musical Space," CriticalInquiry,6/3 (1980), 527-38; Thomas Clifton,Music as Heard: A Study in Applied Phenomenology (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979); and Jonathan Audible Music: Ligeti's Problem,and His Solution,"Musk Analysis, Bernard,"Inaudible Structures, 6/3 are (1987),207-36and TheMusic ofEdgardVarse(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987). These writers carefulto point out the interpntration of temporaland spatial features.While recognizingthe validity and usefulnessof exploringthespatial metaphor,I have chosen to focus on temporality here because this is theessentialdimensionofmusical phenomena and because it poses so many conceptualdifficulties.

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An investigation ofa on theidea ofmusicalmotion. flowor passagebearsdirectly will the notion of flow be temporal surrounding philosophical controversy provocative of Before issueandinto more intothis ourentry general questions temporality. jumping let us briefly consider theidea of discussion oftemporal intothephilosophical flow, itself. musical motion Such we knowas music. successions attributed to thesounding "Motion" is often A music. few in of about all sorts be found attributions examples writing virtually may In his intoour discourse. enters motion someofthevarious demonstrate waysthat on TheSymphony MiltonBabbitt comments on theRecent "Remarks of Stravinsky" rootpositiontriad, movement is a G-major "The finalsound of the [first] Psalms: - a motion - bystructural E to from third ofa minor emphasis] [my parallelism defining as continuous writes: "Taken Yeston G."3 Maury flow, pulsessuggest [equidurational] and to create a tempoof recurrence, but merely internal no necessary groupings of theplacement it would require motion ofany consequence, or metrical rhythmic Wuorinen writes: theflow."4 within accents someinterpretive And,Charles "Disjunct In is absent."5 that beena signalto critics has often linear therefore, motion, 'melody' moves.6 that to one cannot ofmusical suchdiscussions motion, point anything actually orpreceded and aresucceeded extension soundshavetemporal Insubstantial byother refers to twosuccessive In theexcerpt harmonies, soundsor silence. above,Babbitt a sortof builton E and G, betweenwhichhe ascribesa motion. Yeston, positing of certain between a motion notes flow of places theflow temporal pulses, background For notes. successive between occurs motion For accent. that aremarked Wuorinen, by entities harmonies, between a relationship describes accents, motion each writer, - in a temporal whose of succession is an attribute Musicalmotion succession. notes flow is of the source immediate and the is metaphor temporal meaning metaphorical, orpassage.7 the from assumemeaning and musicalmotion ofbothtemporal The metaphors and both move is relative: itself in spacewhich ofobjects motion space through objects
3Milton Babbitt,"Remarks on the Recent Stravinsky/'Perspectives of New Music (1964); reprintedin ed. Benjamin Boretz and Edward T. Cone (New York: Norton, and Stravinsky, on Schoenberg Perspectives 1972),168. The Stratification (New Haven: Structures," ofMusical Rhythm Rhythmic 4MauryYeston, "Uninterpreted Yale University Press,1976),35; my emphasis. 5CharlesWuorinen,"Melody," Simple (New York: Longman,1979),53; my emphasis. Composition is the consequence of moving air whichin turnsets in motionvarious 6One could argue thatsound itself of the inner ear, but most discussions of musical motion are not directed to this aspect of structures most (if not all) authorsdo not argue thata higher-level sound. And further, concept of musical motion restson a lower-levelconceptof thegenerationand perceptionof sound. 7Note thatthemetaphorof "flow" is also presentin theYeston quote above.
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toother with Thetemporal is similarly itrequires relational; objects.8 respect metaphor ofa first-order theassertion time that movesor flows withrespect to a second-order - usuallyas involves a relative motion time. The musical between sounds metaphor orchords andtime, ortime andtonal notes, intervals, space. of thetemporal The validity was debatedby a variety of metaphor vigorously in and scientists the of this but the musical philosophers early metaphor years century, has been employed The issuesarising from thedebateilluminate quiteuncritically. someofthedifficulties music's towhich structure, surrounding temporal Westergaard In andsuggest somenewavenues for I willbe about music. alluded, thought particular, withtherelevance concerned oftheissuesforthought aboutcontemporary music. in structure that characterize music have Changes posedsignificant twentieth-century for those whothink aboutthat and theproblem oftemporal structure music, problems incontemporary music hasbeenoneofthe most perplexing. Thediscussion willproceed as follows: PartI summarizes thecentral issuesofthe II presents and scientific Part a critique ofthree recent articles on debate; philosophical thetemporal structures of twentieth-century musicin lightof theseissues;PartIII drawstogether thetwoprior remarks on thesignificance ofthe partswithgeneral issuesfor musical philosophical concepts. I M. E. McTaggart inan article debate abouttemporal in motion J. sparked appearing 1908 called"TheUnreality ofTime/'9 He demonstrated that "time is unreal" byarguing that thetwoordinary timeare logically One of waysofconceptualizing impossible. theseordinary oftimeinvolvesthemetaphor ofmotion and theother conceptions denies it. explicitly Thesetwonotions of timeare commonly referred to as dynamic and static time. calledthem theA-series and theB-series. or the is time, A-series, McTaggart Dynamic characterized tensed that to the determinations of by language corresponds temporal andpast.Forexample, and that itis New future, present, imagine youlivein Montana Year'sDay.On this oftheprevious January day youreadaboutand lookat pictures
8Thequestion ofhow metaphorical arisesis complex and beyond thescope of thispaper.By meaning that themeaning oftemporal motion derives from I imply notthatthere is no asserting spatialmotion realsensein which in a broader exists butonlythat there are no substantial motion, temporal meaning, entities which location (seealsonote16below). change spatial MarionGuckexplores how metaphor foranalysisin "MusicalImagesas Musical may function TheContribution ofMetaphor toAnalysis/' In Theory 29-42. 5/5(June 1981), Thoughts: Only, M. E. McTaggart, 'The Unreality ofTime/' 17 (1908), 457-74. 9J. Mind,
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now,and you you watch the footballgames thatare occurring year thathas occurred, make plans to turnover a new leaf duringthe year thatwill occur. Underlying this in an tensedlanguageis a notionofchange.Forinstance, on thatJanuary Montana, day - changesfrom a the first taste of summer tomato eventyou expectto occur being say in July, to being a fondmemory to being a flavorful a pleasant expectation, experience the metaphorof temporal in November.It is this conceptof change thatincorporates motion.10 Static time, the B-series, is characterized by non-tensed language such as before/afterand earlier than/later than. Temporal designations such as these ifan eventX at rYl is earlierthanan Forinstance, orderrelations. determine permanent Y. in thefirst eventY at T2,thenX is alwaysearlierthan Or otherterms, day of 1989is thanthelast day of 1989. always earlier accountforone kindoftemporal to theA- or B-series oftimeaccording Descriptions in seriesor,in other betweensuccessiveevents a temporal therelation structure: words, of timein philosophicaland scientific considerations orderrelations. Comprehensive The question of of orderand of durationor extension. literature deal with structures it will unrelated a but not is extension however, be not, issue; separate temporal here. considered of time are conceptuallyavailable in Both the dynamicand staticformulations and analytic occurin music theoretic see both as we will later, language (and, ordinary as growth, such refer to dynamicprocesses language). It is just as commonforus to earlier /after, decay,evolution,and developmentas to staticrelationssuch as before than/later than. In ordinaryusage the two conceptsare equally viable. McTaggart, however, pointed out a contradictionin these two conceptions which led to his oftime'sunreality. assessment follows fromthe assumptionthat McTaggart'sargumenthas two parts. The first in the B-series, is of events Since the order involves time McTaggart permanent change. themeaningof maintainsthatstatictimecannotaccommodatechange.Consequently, the earlier than/later than designations of the B-series depends upon the futurerelations of the A-series. In otherwords, the meaning of the B-series present-past depends on the temporal determinationsof the A-series. The second part of the thatthe A-seriesis contradictory. demonstrates Everyeventin an A-series argument for all threemutually incompatibletemporal determinations; has, simultaneously, in have been will is an event that that to it is now, present McTaggart, contradictory say
10Thedirectionof this motion itselfchanges according to usage. If we say thatan event changes from to being present,to being past, thereis a motionfromfuturetoward thepast. But if we say being future, - thenthereis a motionfrom - forinstance,an apple becomes rotten thatan object becomes something thepast toward thefuture. Theory and Practice

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and willbe in thepast.The contradiction thefuture, is notresolved by theassertion has these determinations that theevent This assertion temporal requires "successively." ofa second-order time series. Themoments ofthis theintroduction second-order series thethree wouldalso have,simultaneously, determinations, temporal requiring again ofa third-order and so theargument theassertion series, goes in an infinite regress. remains SincetheA-series and sincetheB-series on theA, time depends contradictory is unreal. Thisproof incited ofboththeA- and B-series to developarguments proponents s thesis. The issues that were central to the debate between the McTaggart' countering advocates oftheA-andB-series aroseeither as responses toMcTaggart's or to the proof Issues to the musical considerations below are competing presented theory.11 pertinent Fourarguments as "arguments." thatcharacterize theB-theory are presented first, that followed four characterize the by A-theory.
of the B-theory Arguments

First The B-series can accommodate Thisargument rests on the argument: change. distinction between and an distinction temporal becoming temporal change, important since defines as a fundamental oftime.B-theorists feature contend McTaggart change that confused with show that reflects the McTaggart becoming change. becoming They ofan observer relation toa series ofevents and that is notintrinsic temporal becoming In theB-series to theevents themselves. different statesofan changeis defined by at different times. be demonstrated when it be for object Changemay may stated, that at an earlier time the is a and at later time the is rotten. instance, apple ripe apple Second The in of static time best models time the world. argument: concept objective the B-theorisfs is in the the that time is an existent Underlying position assumption
11 A limitedbibliographyabout the debate over the A-and B-seriesis given below. For a more complete listof references see RichardGale, ThePhilosophy ofTime(London: Macmillan, 1968), 503-06.Worksby Btheoristsinclude: BertrandRussell, Introduction to Mathematical (London: George Allen & Philosophy Unwin, 1919) and An InquiryintoMeaning & Truth(New York: Norton, 1940); Nelson Goodman, The Structure Press, 1951); W. V. Quine, "Mr. Strawson ofAppearance (Cambridge,Mass.: Harvard University on Logical Theory/'Mind 62 (1953); A. J.Ayer,TheProblem (London: Macmillan, 1956); and ofKnowledge and Scientific Realism(London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1963). Works by AJ.J.C. Smart,Philosophy theorists: C. D. Broad, Scientific (London: Kegan Paul, Trench,Trubner,1923); P. Marhenke, Thought of CaliforniaPublicationsin Philosophy "McTaggarfs Analysis of Time/' TheProblem ofTime,University 18 (1935); W. S. Sellars, "Time and the World Order/' Minnesota Studiesin thePhilosophy ofScienceIII, H. of Minnesota Press, 1962); M. Capek, Feigl, G. Maxwell, and M. Scriven,eds., (Minneapolis: University 'The Inclusion of Becomingin the PhysicalWorld," TheConcepts ofSpace and Time,M. Capek ed., Boston Studiesin thePhilosophy XXII (Dordrecht:D. Reidel, 1976); and J.N. Findlay,"An Examination ofScience, of Tenses," Contemporary British III, H. D. Lewis, ed. (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1956). Philosophy Volume 14/15 (1989/9O)

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oftime that existent is prior to world and that a concept modelsthis objective physical on The third rests this other assumption. concepts. argument any Thirdargument: Temporalbecoming is mind-dependent.The change that or whenit becomes a future event whenit becomes characterizes past exists present in on in an other relation to words, observer; becoming depends the "now only that while some eventsin thenatural claim of an observer. B-theorists awareness" and transitive as a uni-directional, worldmaybe described series, they asymmetric, of an observer.12 the orientation from of no evidence becoming apart temporal give in termsof the B-seriesare priorto Fourth Temporaldesignations argument: contendthatthe statement designationsin termsof the A-series. B-theorists than at a timethat is earlier in died means the died "Schoenberg past" "Schoenberg time." another
of the A-theory Arguments

offuture, determinations The tensed First past,and therelated present, argument: we world.A-theorists oftheobjective are structures ofbecoming, notion arguethat of and of the and of have certain events, future, becoming present, past knowledge and of the structures reveals the that assert events. world, objective experience They from thatoftheobjective is notdistinguishable thatthetimeofan observer further, orfuture as past, orevent ofan object Thedetermination world. byan observer present, either areintrinsically actsofan observer a cognitive involves act,and "ifthecognitive with are which of these the then acts, contemporaneous them, objects pastor present, world oftheobjective Sincetime either be intrinsically must likewise pastorpresent."13
characterizethe "classical" and transitivity 12Thetemporalpropertiesof uni-directionality, asymmetry, as follows: may be formulated conceptof time. Withrespectto thesuccession A B C D theseproperties A is followedby B, B by C, and C by D IfA is beforeB, thenB is not beforeA. IfA is beforeB, and B is beforeC, thenA is beforeC. Uni-Directionality Asymmetry Transitivity

and conceptsmay findthe following of temporalproperties in further The reader interested investigation (New York: Cambridge University books useful: P. C. W. Davies, Space and Timein theModernUniverse to thePhilosophy of Timeand Space (New York: Press, 1977), and Bas. C. van Fraassen, An Introduction Random House, 1970). 13 P. Marhenke, 18 in Philosophy, Publications of California Analysis of Time/' University //McTaggart/s ofCaliforniaPress, 1935),162. (1934), (Berkeley:University Theory and Practice

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from thetime ofexperience, and thetensed doesnotdiffer determinations of becoming andpastareobjective structures oftime. future, present, Animportant difference exists between Second argument: ontological pastandfuture difference is linked totheobjectivity of"now"awareness. As proof, and this the events, thatthefour-dimensional demonstrate of space and time A-theorists representation oftheontological difference ofthepastand future. givesevidence Theyarguethat, in no event the causal of to real according relativity past anysingle theory, conceivably in canever be contained thecausalpastofanyother observer realobserver. conceivably in thephysical In other worlddiffer from future and the words, events, past events "now"ofsubjective awareness is that moment that the future from the separates past. Third A-theorists determinations oftheB-series are arguethat argument: temporal on determinations of the A-series. show that the statement dependent temporal They birth is earlier thanSchoenberg's death"meansthatifSchoenberg's "Schoenberg's is in thepresent, birth is in thepast.Further, death claimthat A-theorists Schoenberg's in a loss ofmeaning. thetranslation ofa tensed statement intoan untensed oneresults in 1951is later Forinstance, thestatement in 1874" death than hisbirth "Schoenberg's doesnottellus that is dead. Schoenberg Fourth s claimthattheA-series is contradictory a involves argument: McTaggart' A- and B-relations. confusion between ForMcTaggart, theB-series entails permanent relations of orderbetweenpermanent events.The A-seriesentailsimpermanent relations between events. A-theorists that conceives ofthe permanent argue McTaggart A-series as a sort of"chorus-line" ofevents across which the"spotlight ofthepresent" eachevent itsmomentary Sucha conception confuses the moves, giving presentness. Afeatures of and B-time. to the the a A-series involves A-theorists, defining According of that it involves the of in not a is, change time, changing events, just change the relations events.14 between An investigation ofthephilosophical that underlie forthe assumptions arguments A-and B-series shedssomelight on thedifferences between thetwonotions oftime.15
14The A-theorists used this tocounter theargument that theB-series canaccommodate reasoning change. Theargument oftheB-theorists rests on thedistinction between an eventand an object: an eventdoes notchangein theB-series but an objectmay existin different statesat different times.A-theorists - by such demonstrate thatchangeis not impliedby statements the history of an object tracing statements as theapple is ripeabone timeand rotten at another. that the state of the Theyargue ripe time never and thus itis an event in theB-series. Sincethese arepermanent appleat theearlier changes, states oftheobject, theB-series cannot accommodate change. 15A that the debate over and static time concerns theroleofmetaphor in the question parallels dynamic constitution of meaning. of a literalistic of metaphor would makethefollowing Proponents theory claims: in spacehasa significance linked tothat and (2) thetransfer ofthat (1) motion context, specifically from one context to another, in a metaphor, results in a loss ofmeaning. of a significance Proponents constitutive would claimthatmetaphorical in fact, theory languageconstitutes unique meanings, by
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the debate arise from Whilethe questionsabout timethatcharacterize analytic in thetwentieth-century, thetwosidesreflect different concerns within this philosophy for the B-series are based on tradition. the of Arguments philosophical assumptions that can an Realism. B-theorists assume describe language Philosophical independently sucha notion ofreality has beendefined and objective existing by reality. Historically, withuniversais and thetranscendance of has beenassociated existence and existence in theBin other The permanence oforder relations withpermanence. words, time, In theA-series, otherwise. a reality that has proved difficult todefine series givestime thefuture is notyet, and the thepastis no more, canbe said to ''exist7': no part oftime with no or the is constantly existing permanent parts, becoming past.Thus, present world. structure ofthe is nota "real" time dynamic that from for theA-series comeoutofphilosophies experience develop Arguments that involves from theposition A-theorists usesoflanguage. andordinary argue reality contend that theworldand thelanguage-user. a reciprocal relation between They of the world. and thus reveals the relation reflects this reality language the time and dynamic Thedebate overstatic demonstrating generated commentary are not but also of both so as another over of one not long they conception validity only about the world confused.One writer, J.N. Findlay,claims that statements Abut that thenon-tensed are and B-relations characterized meaningful by both He shows arealways true orfalse.16 since arepreferable statements oftheB-series they to of relations: two kinds of the from a combination results that McTaggart's paradox the is to ascribe and future that a event is past,present, single simultaneously say totheA-series.17 relations oftheB-series permanent the to support aboveareformulated offered Thearguments by A- and B-theorists either advocate to It is not the other. over of one mypurpose conception priority thedebate as a basisfor from as preferable; itis touse theissuesarising rather, position will be concerned The critique structure. aboutmusic'stemporal a critique oftheories in a theoretical context oftime with whatconception notonly (orconceptions) operate
that is our ofmotion context. In theinstance toa different context a concept from somespecific applying with confrontation a visualand tactile derives from that ofa concept concern theapplication here, space a not only a new meaningbut, further, domain of timeconstitutes to the less comprehensible where noneexisted. terminology in Gale, The 19 (1941);reprinted Australian 'Time: A Treatment/' Journal 16J.N. ofPhilosophy, Findlay,
Philosophy ofTime,143-62.

time and static between thedistinction wouldapproach quitedifferently. dynamic 17Phenomenologists - a temporal of experience framework timeas a fundamental characterizes Martin spread Heidegger is priorto and makespossible framework and past. Thistemporal that future, present, encompasses aretwosuchpossibilities. and dynamic oftime. Thestatic other conceptions conceptions
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but also withthelargerphilosophical thatunderlietheconception. assumptions a for basis the allows foran interdisciplinary Further, using philosophical critique between that a broader basefor comparison temporal concepts provides understanding the of music's structures. problem temporal II II presents Part ofarticles authors: AllenForte, critiques bythree Christopher Hasty, Each article and David Lewin.18 offers a theory abouttemporal structure based on drawnfrom thetwentieth-century I have chosento focuson examples repertory. theories aboutmusicfrom thepresent becausemuchofthismusic century precisely the of well-established aboutmusicand challenges applicability temporal concepts to a head the of the structures ofmusic. brings general problem formalizing temporal AllenForte baseshismodeloftemporal structure on thepremise that "duration is themost of This seems to Forte's (90-91). important aspect rhythm" premise put theory outside theboundaries ofthiscritique sincethedebateoverstatic and dynamic time concerns theorder structures notthedurational structures oftime. The (ormetric) twostructures arenotso clearly and theorder in relations however, separable, implicit Forte's deserve attention here. theory Forte models structure durations into (as defined temporal bytranslating bya score) numerical values.Thistranslation makescomparison ofdurational quantities simpler and allows one to determine relations betweendurations. In Forte's proportional in theclearest structure words,thistranslation "presentisi rhythmic possibleway, detached from with its bias toward traditional notation, (91). ordinary interpretation" la cites thefirst sixbarsofthefifth movement from Webern's for Example Bagatelles lb showsForte's of those Quartet, bars, String Op. 9. Example "proportional graph" I haveannotated. which In Example lb thenumbers associated witheither solidhorizontal linesor broken linesrepresent thevaluesofthedurational units that canbe determined from diagonal A durational thescore. inForte's unit modelcanrefer toeither oftwodifferent kinds of I extension: what call note duration and resultant duration. The extent of temporal precise either kindof durational unitis figured betweenthebeginning (attack)and end
18Allen ofRhythm in Webern's Atonal MusicTheory 2 (1980), Forte, Music/' "Aspects 90-109; Spectrum, in Post-Tonal Music: Preliminary and Motion/' Christopher Questionsof Duration Hasty,"Rhythm 25/2 (Fall 1981), 183-216;and David Lewin, "Some Investigations into Journal ofMusic Theory, and Metric MusicTheory: ed. Richmond Browne (New Foreground Rhythmic Patterning," Special Topics, York:AcademicPress,1981),101-36. are not comprehensive; My critiques theyaddressonlythose ofthethree articles that arepertinent toa consideration ofunderlying aspects temporal concepts.
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(release) of a note, but a durational unit is not necessarilyequivalent to the actual a durationalunit "is determined by the sounding lengthof a note. In Forte's terms, graph]:attackto following pair ofnodes [i.e.,forour purposes,dots on theproportional and releaseto release." (94) to release,releaseto attack, attack attack,

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A note is simply thetemporal extent ofa noteas defined duration and byitsattack In Example numbers and solidhorizontal linesrepresent release. lb, thenon-bracketed and brokendiagonallines represent Bracketed numbers notedurations. resultant from" thebeginnings Thesedurations "result durations. and/orendsoftwodifferent ofviolin Forinstance, thequarter rest is represented notes. I,inbar2 inthescore bythe unit unitof 12 in theproportional This results from the release of durational graph. in 1 in 2. and cello's notes bar and the of violin I's note bar violin II's,viola's, beginning aredetermined valuesofdurational units theinteger value Thenumerical byassigning inthe 1toa duration willallowonetoassign whole tothelonger durations that integers In Example lb thevalue1is assigned tothethirty-second music considered. note being a half a an -note ofa dodecatuplet: thus, equals24, quarter-note equals12, eighth equals 6,andso forth. Witha numericaltranslationof the score in place, one may consider the in bar1 two relations between thedurational units. Forte outthat points proportional durational unitsof 12 articulate thelonger of24. The comparative duration relation between theunitof24 and thearticulating unitof 12 forms a "proportio dupla."(95) hisdiscussion Forte continues ofthemovement the formed byshowing proportions by in variousdurational units.An instance of the "proportio bars 4-5 is sesquiltera" in bars4-6involving annotated on Examplelb. He also identifies a palindrome the durational values6-6-18-6-6. aboveandbelowthegraph ofExample lb Myannotations make the relations. explicit proportional in Forte's Thecomparative between relations durational units modeldepend noton theuni-directionality ofthedynamic series buton thepermanent relations ofthestatic series.Forte'scomparative are isotropie; structures thatis, theyimplytemporal but not For Forte's directionality "proportio uni-directionality.instance, dupla" does notdistinguish between2:1 and 1:2.19 of any sortis nota defining Directionality a A of visual willclarify: itis impossible sequence. property palindromic representation - 8 8 16 8 8. to distinguish a palindromic 8 8 16 8 8 from its sequence retrograde within the constraints of the theordering oftwo durations of8 However, B-series, a duration before of16andtwoafter itclearly defines the palindrome. Forthemostpart, Forte's modeloftemporal structure rests on a concept ofstatic time.The model,as such,does not addresscertain kindsof temporal issues. For thefirst bar is described as a "proportio but that does not instance, dupla," concept concern theproblem ofhowtheproportion manifests itself 24 whenthedurational unit
19While theterms and sesquiltera do mean, 2:1 and 3:2, dupleproportion proportion strictly speaking, Forte does notuse them thisway.In hisarticle theterm toboth 2:1and 1:2and "proportio dupla"refers toboth 3:2and2:3. "proportio sesquiltera"
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until theendofbar1,until after the cannot be saidto "exist" (the"1" oftheproportion) The model deals withformed, not forming, unitof 12 has alreadyoccurred. first structures. thechanging status ofa structure. Forinstance, themodeldoesnotaddress Further, overthe from an incomplete toa completed structure thechange itdoesnotdeal with claimthat theB-series ofbar2. WhileB-theorists thedownbeat time ofbar 1 through inForte's more model is somewhat thesituation canaccommodate complicated change, which events durational Themodelcompares durational since itinvolves proportions. overtime thechanges Itdoesnotfollow arenotdiscrete. areand sometimes sometimes timeto manifest events thedurational Thuseventhough ofa singleobject. require the duration. of with the actual is notconcerned model the themselves, "unrolling" or formed It describes oftheB-series. rests Forte's modelclearly uponassumptions existence an have Durations of that series. characteristic structures objective permanent The modelpositsnotstructures are fixed. them between relations and comparative relations. webofcomparative buta definite overtime themselves manifest which motion as an aspectofmusicand linksit to addresses specifically Hast/s article a philosophical from and duration motion his work considers of Thefirst duration. part music based model for a and thesecond post-tonal presents temporal part perspective, first onthe ideasofthe part. of is a structure motion that on theassumption rests discussion Thephilosophical Harris to Errol the work of the (185).Hastycites philosopher phenomena temporal duration ofmusical at theroot are and idea that the change temporal continuity clarify a hand the one on succession out that Harris and motion.20 requires temporal points a continuity eventsand, on theother, between of changeor impermanence notion ofcontinuity a notion without is inconceivable itself Duration events together. binding of thedual nature describe comments Harris's in succession. events diverse between over thedebate ofthedistinctions andarereminiscent relations characterizing temporal time.21 and static dynamic thisdual natureof temporal from ofmusicalmotion Hastydevelopsa concept is there ofa musical events thesuccessive between that He states relations. presentation a of means obtains a more or two between relation. a qualitative events, unity If, by musical as be described relation thenthequalitative between them, may continuity
29 (1976),464-82. Review 20SeeErrolE. Harris,"Time and Eternity/' ofMetaphysics, 21Boththe static and dynamic formulationsof time require some notion of change and continuity. one of of timehave always pointed out this duality,but in eitherformulation, Philosophical treatments thesetwo featuresis emphasized. Theory and Practice

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what Hasty calls a structure, thatis thebasis of of a unity, motion.It is the formation musical motion. In his words: "What is required for motion to take place is the orwhole betweenor among events"(191). ofa structure formation Hast/s discussion of the philosophicalbasis of musical motionclearlyrestson a dynamic concept of time that feeds his interestin developing a temporal model of post-tonal music. He posits the "mind-dependence" of applicable to the structures but our mode of cognition that"it is not thematerialworld itself motion,contending ofmotionby the"formation ofa relations" whichcreatestemporal (191). His definition the tensed series of time. restson a uni-directional structure" series, temporal dynamic While born of the continuity of a structure, musical motion depends on the relations as defined series. oftemporal impermanence by a dynamic in II of his articleproceeds Part The model of temporalstructure Hasty presents ofmusicalmotion.To illustrate his model,Hasty considersthefirst from his definition 12 bars ofWebern's third movement.22 The present discussion Op. 27 Piano Variations, will focuson bars 1-2only;Example2a citesthesebars.Hastybeginswiththeassertion that the "continuous event of bars 1 and 2 [is] a unit,"what he also refersto as a "structural its structural component"(197). The discussion of this unit demonstrates in elementsof the unit are coherenceby showing various ways which the different and conceives of them as associated. Hasty calls such associations segmentations, different different interpretations, ways in whicha "groupofnotesmay be heard" (197). WhileHastyidentifies foursegmentations oftheunitin bars 1-2,Example 2b citesonly thefirst. In Segmentation and lastnotesare unitedby an 1/1 (shownin Example2b) thefirst the second and equivalentdurationand are called elementA; by the same criterion, B. These two elements third notesare unitedand called element are themselves united as a "higher-level 1. structure" interval class both are instances of ic Other by similarity: - a retrograde(or inversional) factorsassociating Elements A and B are contour relation- and pattern of metrical accent- again a retrograde relation (weak, weak). strong/strong, identifies anotherunifying factorof the firstsegmentation: interval-class Hasty In Segmentation association. the ic of content the four three-note subsetsis 1/1, possible shown in brackets.These ic formations, the bracketedic numbers,are the basis of a association. A there is "a motionfrom...[l, 4, 5] to unifying Hastywritesthatin Element relation betweentheic [1,3, 4] while in B thisorderis reversed"(199). This retrograde associations unitesA and B as a structure. In his philosophicaldiscussion,Hasty assertsthatmusical motionand continuity resultfromthe formation of structures. Such a theoretical concernrestsfirmly on a
bars1-5from Stefan Piano (1959). ^Hasty alsoconsiders Wolpe'sForm for
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Variations forPiano,Op. 27,Movement III, bars 1-2. Example 2a: Webern, 1. ofUnit s analysis Hasty'
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Theory and Practice

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or relationship" theevents as a "mutual (191).Sucha conditioning through" "spread at thecognitive moment of[1,3, 4],thedownbeat of movement wouldbe experienced ofaccentual we might notethattheretrograde relation and contour bar 2. Further, A and B elements ofSegmentation between structures 1/1occurin bar2; the Hasty's In all ofthese "allat once."23 occur themotion structures instances, resulting similarly in a cognitive ofa structure occurs instant withthemovement thecompletion from so tospeak, overthetime ofthestructure. To suppose backward," cognition "spreading motion would requireexpectation and thussomeprior directed" ofa "forwardly which is being While thedynamic modeloftime is ofthestructure complded. knowledge in these the remains whether the notentirely instances, question conceptual precluded nature ofitsapprehension. needattend tothecognitive ofmotion ascription In another model operatesfortheic bars 1-2,a static involving segmentation inwhich ofbar1 and theD ofbar2. Theorder icsoccur for theEl? for theEl? association * D either for on howone is 4, 5, 1 and theorder a) 4, 3, 1; b) 1,3,4; orc) depending toa) a chronological tofigure that order: ofthemusic, decides according presentation all to to the or at once. decision show ic association c) b) temporal D, proximity Hasty's as a for the normal and reflects concern "formed" relations the 4] 5] form, [1,4, [1,3, by not the of time. his ofthestatic relations bases model model, "forming" dynamic Hasty on dynamic structure oftime and concerns himself with oftemporal concepts directly in post-tonal ofmotion music.However, not to thequestion attending temporal by and byrelying on somestatic themodelpresents factors ofcognition more a relations, sucha mixture is notnecessarily mixture ofstatic and dynamic time. While a failure of ofthetypes ofinformation is themodel, clarification generated concepts by differing valuable. theoretically Lewin's article a theory that models ourexperience ofmetric structure and presents in particular our experience ofa metric downbeat. WhileLewinpresents several morecomplex versions ofthetheory, considers successively mydiscussion onlythe first andsimplest version. Lewin's theorydeparts froma perceptual problem presented by Jeanne listeners to respond to a seriesofidentical Bamberger.24 Bamberger expected pulses durations of2,3,4,and5 units as an ametric The separated bysuccessive phenomenon.
23Inthecase of theretrograde one might "is becoming" the contours, arguethatthestructure during entire duration oftheD ofmeasure and thus thecontour structure is not 2,sincethedurational similarity manifest until theD completes itself. 24The was presented and problem duringthepanel "Cognitive Approachesto Music Composition First International Conference on Computer Institute ofTechnology, Music,Massachusetts Perception," October 29,1976.
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Both theexpected thepulsesas a metric heard listeners was that phenomenon. problem in 3a. Lewin's shown are metric the and ametric Example response reported response in The such a metric listeners of the addresses might respond way. question why theory with the downbeat on willfocus ofLewin's occurring the theory following presentation thesecondbarlineofthe after thedownbeat fifth words, occurring pulse,orin other fifth that this in Lewin 3a. "metric pulse has a unique argues Example response" prominence. lineandlabelseachattack ofthepulsesona time theattack Lewin points represents are reckonedaccordingto the units units of to time; point according elapsed in Example 3b. The is shown series This experiment. time-point original Bamberger's 14 in Lewin's the at annotated is concern of downbeat present example. time-point fourchronological discussion processthat stagesofthelistening through proceeds when a moment to thetime-points 2, 5, 9, and 14. Each stagerepresents correspond units areperceived. durational certain 2, at whichtimea The first processoccursat time-point stageof thelistening 5. Atthis at time-point Thesecondstageoccurs unitof2 has elapsed. durational stage time between duration units of 3 a duration a listener (that that Lewinclaims perceives Example 3a: Two responsesto a seriesof identicalpulses separatedby oftime of1,2,3,4,and5 units durations

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2 and 5) and a duration of5 units duration between time 0 and 5). (that points points 2 ofStage 1is retained. he daimsthat theduration Further, a table ofthelistening Lewinconstructs Foreachstage indicating perceived process, 2. The durations. 3c shows the table for rowof andretained Example Stage uppermost the table indicatesdurationalunits thatare possible in thisinstance.The row ofthosedurational units and retained at tabulates thenumber underneath perceived 1 2. Atthis t equals5,there areentries of under thedurations of2,3,and5. Stage stage, 14 is oftime-point themodelyieldsat the"downbeat" Whatkindofinformation and its durational forLewin'stheory. Thisis Stage4 of thelistening crucial process, 4 areunique inExample ofStage with 3d.Thedurational entries tableis shown respect 5 and 9,havebeen"experienced" twice while no becausetwodurations, toprior stages was experienced morethanonce in Stages 1-3.Lewin attachesspecial duration 4 areuniqueas such.He calls that thedurational entries at Stage tothefact significance at thisstageand correlates thispeakingwiththe factthe"peaking" thisnumerical 14. a downbeat at of time-point perception outofthelaboratory and usesittoconsider metric Lewintakes thetheory structure in thesixth The scoreofbars1-6 is givenin Op. 19miniatures. pieceofSchoenberg's in is annotated to show Lewin is interested whether his 4a and Example time-points. of confirms the notated downbeat the left-hand modelofdurational peaking piano's in bar5; thisis theonlynotated downbeat ofthefirst 6 bars.Example 4b is an chord ofLewin'sdurational tablefor bars1-6.The column on thefarleft annotated version 2 ofLewin's listening process Example 3c: Stage d= 234579 number ofd 110 10 experienced at t = 5 0 12 14 0 0

4 ofLewin's listening process Example 3d: Stage d= 234579 numberofd 1112 experienced at t = 14 12 12 14 11

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shows time-points that correspond to attacks in the score, and the uppermost, forthisexcerpt. row shows possibledurations horizontal In Example4b I have underlinedtherow of durationentries fortime-point 17, the time-point correspondingto the notated downbeat of bar 5. I have also circlefour in thisrow; theseentries are Lewin's numerical entries 17, peaking values. Time-point what a "maximal bears Lewin calls functional four with its peaking entries, unique 17 confirms thenotateddownbeat ictus"(112),and thedurational peakingat time-point ofbar 5. a notionof uniLewin's model restson a dynamicconceptof time.It formulates of perceivedand retaineddurations directional changeby showingthe transformation of a over the chronological listening process.While the conceptof motionis not stages model. The durationaltransformations, Lewin's it underlies incorporated, explicitly the "becoming" of a structural which are chartedin the duration tables, formulate event,in thiscase an ictus or downbeat.And, the chronological stages of thelistening another. to one relation in and a tensed stand present) (past process The model posits a listener and a listening process taking into account the units.The approach does not tackletheproblemsof listener of temporal apperception Nor does it considerwhat between listeners. differences individual and competence are perceptuallypossible. For instance,in the kinds of durational discriminations Lewin does discussionofthemetrical sequence ofdurations, responsein theBamberger unit 2 than a durational unitof rather notconsider perceivesa durational whya listener of 1 at time-point 2; since a single unit has been heard,it seems likelythata listener it as a durationof1 and successiveunitswould be reckonedaccording would interpret but The listenerin Lewin's model is not a real or ideal listener to it as a standard.25 oftemporal a function rather change.26 relationsof statictime;it allows for Lewin's model does not posit the permanent a durationaleventmay For event. of a single instance, multipletemporaldesignations be perceived,retainedat Stage 1, retainedat Stage 2, and so on.27In termsof the Aofevents. a changing Lewin's model incorporates theorists,
^One mightposit a sophisticatedcognitiveprocess that would compare a succession of durations and arriveat a largest common unit. Lewin does not make such an argumenthere but ratherprovides for such a process theoretically. 26 to note thatLewin's model of timeresemblesHusserl's model as it As a side issue here,it is interesting trans.JamesChurchill (Bloomington: is articulatedin The Phenomenology ofInternalTime-Consciousness, see Indiana University Press, 1964), especially 48-52. For an analysis of Husserl's ideas on temporality, MIT Mass.: Awareness 1984). and Press, Izchak Miller,Husserl, (Cambridge, Perception, Temporal 3 (1986), 27In the article "Phenomenology,Music Theory,and Modes of Perception/'Music Perception, of eventschange over timewiththe 327-392, Lewin employs a similarmodel in which theinterpretations addition of new perceptualinformation. Theory and Practice

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PianoPieces, SixLittle Op. 19,VI,bars1-6 Example 4a: Schoenberg,

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IH In a famouspassage fromBook XI of the Confessions, Augustinelaments,"What, is time?I know well enoughwhatit is, providedthatnobodyasks me; but ifI am then, Such an observation servesus well: to explain,I am baffled."28 asked whatit is and try We know full well what rhythmand musical motion are, but our attempts to often resultin paradoxical themin a formal sense,whilenot unsuccessful, comprehend structures. these temporal questionsabout theverynatureof flow fromthe visual bias of our Some of the enigmas surroundingtemporality models. our and hence Language equips us betterto describe conceptual language phenomena visually rather than aurally apprehended.29 Sounds, like time, are to Our inability like a book or clarinet. and cannotbe said to existtangibly ephemeral so that make timeand sounds "standstill"so thattheymaybe "grasped"conceptually, we may "see" what they are all about, may be correlated with a less developed applicable to temporaland sounding language and conceptualframework descriptive phenomena. works withinsimilar The discourse of theoriesabout music's temporalstructure that bear on the problem of music's temporal of language, constraints constraints in music theory and analysis.For example,the theoretical structure questionof what of a musical whole (a group or segment)and the analyticaldetermination constitutes is itself of how to the issues related such a whole are temporal temporal unity problem timethatunderliethe possible.The problemarises fromtwo ways of conceptualizing betweenstaticand dynamictime.So on one hand, timeis conceivedas a distinctions and after ofbefore differences in whichdistinct nows or moments successionofdiscrete flowin whichthe continuous obtain.On theotherhand,timeis conceivedas constant in obtain.These two views mustbe reconciled and future of past,present, distinctions moments whole or unity;thatis, distinct the conceptof a temporal orderto formulate flow. continuous mustbe unified ofsuccession by The problem of temporal grouping and segmentation engages both these a of the eventsconstituting and an articulation The basis forcontinuity requirements. temporal unit require both a theoreticaland an analytical determination.These are essentially on issues of criteria, while not simplymade and resting determinations, of others). duration, order, unity(among engagingquestions temporal,
Book XI, trans.R. S. Pine-Coffin (New York,1977),264. 28St. Augustine,Confessions, and in bias this discusses 29ThephilosopherDon Ihde ofSound (Athens, Listening Voice:A Phenomenology Ohio, 1976),see Chapter1, "In Praise ofSound/' 3-16.

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The distinctionbetween static and dynamic time that has been our focus here but it raises issues of touches on only a part of the larger topic of temporality, this while for music. The title of to askingif alternatives significance essay, ostensibly the metaphorof musical motionexist,asks anotherquestion:What are the temporal and thoughtabout music and how do theybear on theoretical conceptsunderlying structure? concerning temporal problems analytical The discussion above showed a static model underlying Forte's theory.The are tunelessly trueand not mind-dependent. he formulates structures Hasty's theory but his structures bear tracesofstatic addressesthequestionofmusicalmotiondirectly, and Lewin's theoryformulates structure relations, accordingto dynamicprinciples. a theory is not the goal here,but of the typeof model underlying Mere identification what thattheory can and cannotassertabout a means by whichto comprehend rather musicalphenomena. Difficultiessurrounding each model are various and often raise ontological questionsabout music itselfand our observationsof it. For instance,about theories can existapart fromits apprehension based on statictime,one mightask if structure in the theory and whether a listener is implicit itself. One would also have to inquire afterthe role of the score in determinations of structure: does the visual specifically, informationof the score provide a satisfactoryrepresentation of the sounding phenomena,or does visually apprehended information correspondto thatwhich is aurallyapprehended? About theoriesbased on dynamictime,one mightask whethermotionis said to occur in the transformation of a single event or musical object,or is it a quality of relation betweendifferent events?Questions about the score arise here too: is motion attributable to the eye scanningthe page in analysis or performance? How does its visual information to the of the listener? Questions correspond sounding experience about theroleand capabilities ofthelistener arisefordynamictime:Can listeners make the kinds of temporal discriminations proposed by the theory? How does one that eitherimplicitlyor explicitlyinvolve a listener?These investigatestructures borderon largerphilosophicalissues but theyare fundamental to any questionsoften theoretical or analytical and as such deserve attention. approach, they It has been my purpose here not to endorse any particular mode of temporal conceptionbut to clarifythe assumptions underlyingtheoriesabout the temporal structure of music. Such a clarification allows us to betterunderstandwhat a theory or not achieve and thus to fosterprogress toward a more satisfactory may may of structure. understanding music's temporal

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