+

Introduction
I
!
n what ways docs Chincsc poctry dicr lrom
Vcstcrn poctry: First, it cnjoys an unbrokcn
thrccthousandycarold tradition out ol which
havc cvolvcd many lorms, mctcrs, and stylcs. Tc word
shih, lor cxamplc, is uscd by thc Chincsc as a gcncric
labcl lor poctry in a rathcr broad scnsc, cxcluding
only thc tzu (pocms in thc lyric mctcr) and thc ch
(songpocms), or to rclcr spccically to thc carlicst
anthology ol Chincsc poctry known as thc Shih Ching.
Chincsc vcrsc compositions ol thc shih lorm arc oltcn
callcd by thcir subgcncric namcs such as ssu-yen shih
(lourword pocms), l-shih (rcgulatcd vcrsc pocms),
ctc.
1
vcn whcn onc lorm is no longcr in voguc, it is
ncvcr complctcly supplantcd, and oltcn continucs to
appcal to contcmporary pocts lor its archaic avor.
Sccondly, lrom thc vcry bcginning, Chincsc poctry has
bccn intimatcly rclatcd to music. Tc Shih Ching is madc
up ol (1) lolk songs and ballads, (2) lcstivc songs sung at
court banqucts, and (3) tcmplc hymns pcrlormcd to thc
accompanimcnt ol music and dancc. Vith only a lcw cx
ccptions, thcsc songs wcrc compilcd by unknown pocts in
thc Ycllow Rivcr rcgion in North China. Tc sao tradition,
which dcvclopcd quitc indcpcndcntly in thc South, and
which crystallizcd in thc works ol thc poctic gcnius Chu
Yuan (343:278 8C), may havc originatcd lrom shaman
istic chants pcrlormcd as part ol lolk rcligion practiccd by
thc pcoplc ol thc Yangtzc rcgion in what is now Hunan
and Hupch. Ancicnt music, not having bccn transcribcd
on bamboo tablcts or stonc monumcnts, provcd morc
cphcmcral than ancicnt vcrsc, and has bccn, lor thc most
part, lost. 8ut ncw musical instrumcnts and tuncs wcrc
introduccd into thc Middlc Kingdom lrom thc bordcr
pcoplcs ol thc Vcst and thc Northwcst and hclpcd to
rcvitalizc lolk poctry at dicrcnt timcs.
2
vcn whcn thc
musical contcxt lor lyrics had bccn lorgottcn, pocms wcrc
still writtcn to bc chantcd, not just rcad aloud.
Tirdly, undcrlining thc anity ol poctry with music
is thc naturc ol thc Chincsc languagc itscll, which dic
tatcs that cach writtcn graph, or charactcr, has a mono
syllabic pronunciation. Hcncc, thc rhythmic quality ol
Chincsc vcrsc is bascd not on a systcm ol strcsscd and
unstrcsscd syllablcs, but (cxccpt lor ancicnt poctry)
on a pattcrncd altcrnation ol words ol dicrcnt tonc,
or pitch.
3
Tc usc ol tonal mctcr has bccn thc most
distinctivc charactcr ol Chincsc vcrsc sincc thc scvcnth
ccntury, othcr auditory dcviccs uscd by Chincsc pocts
includc thosc lamiliar to studcnts ol Vcstcrn poctry
such as cnd rhymc, intcrnal rhymc, allitcration, asso
nancc, and onomatopocia.
A lourth dicrcncc, and anothcr charactcristic ol thc
languagc that has impartcd a spccial avor to Chincsc
poctry, is thc lrcqucnt omission ol thc subjcct ol a scn
tcncc in classical Chincsc. !n Chincsc grammar, thcrc
arc also no cxplicit distinctions madc in tcnsc lor vcrbs,
Introduction to Chinese Poetry
Wu-chi Liu and Irving Yucheng Lo
1976, !ndiana Univcrsity Prcss.

Rcprintcd with pcrmission lrom Sunower Splendor: Tree Tousand Years of Chinese Poetry, cditcd by Vuchi Liu and !rving Yuchcng Lo, pp. xiiixxiii (8ool
ongton, !N: !ndiana Univcrsity Prcss, 1975).
Vuchi Liu camc lrom a litcrary lamily in China. His Amcrica dcgrccs includcd his Ph.. in nglish litcraturc lrom Yalc. Hc has taught in both countrics
and has authorcd and cditcd many books.
!rving Yuchcng Lo studicd in China, also, prior to taking his Ph.. in nglish litcraturc (Univcrsity ol Visconsin). A prolcssor ol nglish and world litcra
turc, hc has authorcd many scholarly articlcs.
+ !x:vobic:iox :o Cnixvsv Pov:vv
numbcr lor nouns, or casc and gcndcr lor pronouns.
Tus, a linc ol Chincsc poctry tcnds to bc morc com
pact, almost tclcgraphic. Somctimcs this grammatical
sparscncss contributcs to dclibcratc ambiguity as, lor
instancc, in a linc by Li Shangyin (813:858):
tso ying tang chiu chung
sit oriolc likc winc hcavy
A pcrch lor oriolcs, as il wcighcd down with winc
(Littlc Pcach 8lossoms in thc Gardcn)
8ut, morc oltcn, thc contcxt ol a pocm indicatcs vcry
prcciscly both thc implicd subjcct and tcnsc ol vcrbs, as
in thc lollowing linc by Shcn Yuch (441512):
yi
lai
shih cho-
(!) rcmcmbcr (shc) comc timc bright
cho shang chieh- chih
bright (shc) climbup
stcpsincourtyard
! rccall thc timc shc camc,
Radiantly trcading up thc stcps.
(Four Rccollcctions)
Tc nonincctional naturc ol Chincsc and thc tcrsc
ncss it pcrmits arc mattcrs ol linguistic convcntion
rathcr than poctics: rcadcrs should not assumc that
poctry lics in brcvity alonc.
4
Filthly, on thc social provcnancc ol Chincsc poctry,
onc must concludc that, dcspitc thc cxaltcd status
cnjoycd by poctry as a litcrary lorm, thcrc is no spccial
class ol pcoplc, or prolcssion, in traditional Chincsc so
cicty dcsignatcd as pocts. Chincsc poctry has, lrom thc
carlicst days, drawn its inspiration lrom two distinct
groups, namcly, thc common pcoplc, with thcir col
loquial idiom and plain stylc ol spccch, and thc litcrati,
with thcir vast crudition and sophisticatcd scnsibilitics.
From timc to timc, thcrc arc intcractions bctwccn thc
two groups (cl. 8amboo 8ranch Song or othcr villagc
dittics, which attractcd many a litcrary poct and wcrc
imitatcd by thcm). Tc patronagc ol litcraturc bclorc
thc scvcnth ccntury, howcvcr, was gcncrally conncd
to thc nobility and thc courticrs (cl. thc Chicnan
pocts). Vhcn poctry cmcrgcd, undcr thc Tang, as
an important, il not thc chicl, critcrion in thc sclcc
tion ol ocials, many scholarsby mcans ol impcrial
cxaminations (or, in spccial cascs, privatc audicncc)
achicvcd thc covctcd chin-shih (a tcrm mcaning
prcscntcd scholar) dcgrcc and appointmcnt to ocial
posts. Tcrclorc, a numbcr ol pocts, cspccially during
thc Tang and carly Sung cras, wcrc primarily high ol
cials, and thc writing ol poctry was considcrcd among
thc litcrati as an avocation, a pcrsonal accomplishmcnt,
or a mcans ol scllcxprcssion. Tc broad class ol pcoplc
traincd in thc writing ol poctry includcd many womcn,
cithcr lrom good lamilics or lrom thc courtcsan pro
lcssion, somc Taoist and 8uddhist monks wcrc also
notcd lor thcir poctic talcnt. Tis tradition has contin
ucd to thc prcscnt timc.
Tcrc wcrc, to bc surc, disacctcd intcllcctuals such
as thc Tang poct Mcng Chiao (751814), or ban
ishcd ocials likc Chu Yuan. 8ut thcy wcrc not potes
maudits: thc training thcy had rcccivcd in thc Conlu
cian classics had imbucd thcm with a scnsc ol duty and
scrvicc. Vhcn litcrary cxccllcncc was no longcr valucd
by thc rulcrs, as undcr thc Yuan (Mongol) dynasty, ar
tistic talcnts ol thc timc wcrc channclcd into othcr art
lorms such as drama and painting. r, whcn thc road
to ocialdom was bcsct with insurmountablc obstaclcs
and dangcrs, as undcr thc autocratic rulc ol thc Ming
cmpcrors, pocts carncd thcir living by sclling calligra
phy and painting in which thcy cxccllcd. vcn in thc
modcrn cra, a ghtcr lor social and political rclorm, Lu
Hsun (18811936), who was also a giant ol modcrn
(pai-hua, or colloquial) litcraturc, chosc to cxprcss his
inncrmost thoughts in traditional vcrsc. Chincsc pocts
scc as thcir primary mission in lilc not thc writing ol
poctry, but thc lulllmcnt ol thcir ambition and aspira
tions lor a succcsslul carccr. And this includcs thc
busincss ol govcrning thc cmpirc, as in thc casc ol thc
loundcr ol thc Han dynasty, Liu Pang, and thc lcadcr
ol thc Chincsc Communist Party, Mao Tsctung.
Finally, with rcspcct to thcmcs in Chincsc poctry,
pcrhaps a lcw cxplanations arc nccdcd to account lor
thc high incidcncc ol ccrtain topics. Chincsc poctry has
traditionally bccn closcly rclatcd to thc lilc and activitics
ol thc pcoplc. For thc last thrcc thousand ycars, China
has bccn an agricultural country, hcncc, thc impor
tancc attachcd to thc changc ol scasons, thc obscrvancc
ol rituals, or thc conccrn lor thc lot ol thc larmcrs is
rcadily apparcnt in thc poctry ol any pcriod. Tc usc ol
poctry as a lorm ol social intcrcoursc has also bccn a
pronounccd lcaturc. As carly as during thc Spring and
Autumn pcriod (770466 8C), vcrscs wcrc rccitcd lrom
mcmory at statc lunctions by ocials in thc coursc ol
+ Wu-chi Liu and Irving Yucheng Lo
diplomatic rcccptions, as rcccntly as Fcbruary 26, 1974,
Prcmicr Chou nlai ol thc Pcoplcs Rcpublic ol China,
in wclcoming Prcsidcnt 8oumcdicnc ol Algcria at a
banquct in Pcking, quotcd a linc, Flowcrs lall o, do
what onc may,
5
lrom Ycn Shus (9911055) lyric, to
provc a point. Anothcr popular practicc is thc cxchangc
ol pocms bctwccn lricnds, writtcn by using cithcr thc
samc rhymcwords as thc original pocm or words lrom
thc samc rhymccatcgory.
6
Tc particular londncss ol thc Chincsc pocts lor thc
thcmc ol parting should bc undcrstood in thc rcal
lilc contcxt ol thc dicultics ol travcl in prcmodcrn
China. !n addition, a monarch with absolutc powcr
could dccrcc thc banishmcnt ol any ol his subjccts to
a rcmotc, oltcn uninhabitablc part ol thc cmpirc, and
such scparation usually mcant lilctimc cxilc, or cvcn
dcath. 8y thc traditional way ol thinking, to livc lar
away lrom oncs nativc district (cxccpt in thc capi
tal or whilc scrving as ocials in thc provinccs) was
considcrcd undcsirablc sincc it would mcan that onc
could not carc propcrly lor oncs anccstral tombs, nor
lulll oncs dutics to thc lamily. !n conlormity with thc
Conlucian tcaching, thc conccpt ol lricndship is also
vicwcd with spccial rcvcrcncc: rcgardcd as onc ol thc
vc basic human rclationships, it closcly lollows in
importancc thc rclationship bctwccn thc cmpcror and
subjcct, lathcr and son, husband and wilc, cldcr brothcr
and youngcr brothcr.
Comparcd to lricndship, scx sccms to bc a thcmc ol
minor importancc in Chincsc poctry. Vhcn womcns
position was gcncrally cast in a subscrvicnt rolc, and
thc institution ol thc plcasurc houscs cxistcd, womcn
wcrc rarcly thc objccts ol adoration. Hcncc, Chincsc
lovc pocms arc scldom cndowcd with thc samc spiritu
al intcnsity as onc nds in thc lovc pocms ol thc Vcst.
Still, thcrc arc disarmingly charming lovc songs ol lolk
origin, subtlc and ironic impcrsonations ol boudoir
lcclings, and touching apostrophcs bctwccn lovcrs.
Tcrc arc also lovc pocms addrcsscd to oncs wilc (dur
ing a pcriod ol lorccd scparation and travcl), clcgics
writtcn lor oncs wilc (a Chincsc scholar is rcticcnt
to show in public his lccling lor his wilc whilc shc is
living) or concubincs, and passionatc pocms and lyrics
inspircd by unrcquitcd lovc. A jaundiccd vicw that
Chincsc poctry docs not trcat romantic lovc is vcry
much mistakcn: rathcr, thc manncrs ol cxprcssing lovc
arc dicrcnt and rccct dicrcnt social convcntions.
II
How is this assortmcnt ol thcmcs trcatcd and ac
commodatcd in Chincsc poctry during thc dicrcnt
pcriods ol its long history: !t must bc said that Chi
ncsc pocms will bc lound to show dicrcnt lcvcls ol
tcchnical accomplishmcnt: lrom thc simplcst and thc
lcast adorncd to thc most allusivc and sophisticatcd.
Comparc thcsc two pocms, onc a lovc song writtcn
bclorc thc sixth ccntury 8C, and thc sccond a lyric by
thc highly stylizcd poct ol thc ninth ccntury A, Vcn
Tingyun:
Lovcly is thc modcst girl,
Shc awaits mc at thc corncr ol thc wall
! lovc hcr, but do not scc hcr,
! scratch my hcad, not knowing what to do.
(Lovcly !s thc Modcst Girl)
Frozcn in ight, two buttcrics adorn
A bluc pin, goldstcmmcd, in hcr hair.
Vho knows thc inmost sccrcts ol hcr hcart:
nly thc bright moon and thc owcring branchcs.
(Tunc: cvalikc 8arbarian)
Tc dicrcnccs in vcrbal tcxturc and cmotional intcn
sity arc unmistakablc. r, takc thc lollowing statcmcnt
ol thc lamiliar sic transit gloria mundi thcmc madc by
Tao Chicn (365427), a poct notcd lor thc spontanc
ity ol his stylc:
8right blossoms scldom last long:
Lilcs upanddowns cant bc chartcd.
Vhat was a lotus owcr in spring,
!s now thc sccdhusk ol autumn.
(Misccllancous Pocms, No. 3)
And comparc thcsc lincs with thosc ol Han Yu
(768824), a dicult and allusivc poct:
Tc cosmos turns in cndlcss pcriods
And thc csscncc givcn cvcry thing dicrs
yct cach, attuncd to timc, attains its placc
no nccd to trcasurc thc cvcrgrccn.
(Scntimcnts at Autumn, No. 2)
Tc complcxity ol a Chincsc pocm, both tcchnical
and intcllcctual, rcsults lrom a conucncc ol scvcral
intcllcctual sourccschicy Conlucianism, Taoism,
and 8uddhism. Vhilc Conlucianism inculcatcs thc
idcals ol ordcr and stability and ol human brothcr
hood, thc tcachings ol Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu
+6 !x:vobic:iox :o Cnixvsv Pov:vv
cxpound thc thcory that thc world is govcrncd by im
pcrmancncc and ux, maintaining also that to livc in
harmony with naturc is thc only way to assurc mans
survival. Philosophical Taoism is rcinlorccd by thc
tcachings ol 8uddha introduccd in China during thc
Han dynasty. Tc brcakup ol thc rst stablc, univcrsal
cmpirc ushcrcd in an agc ol grcat crcativity in many
arcas: in philosophical dcbatc, in studics ol phonology
(inucnccd by thc study ol Sanskrit), in litcrary criti
cism, in landscapc apprcciation, in calligraphy and
painting. Poctry, hcir to all thcsc intcllcctual pursuits,
spokc lor thc rst timc with a multiplc voicc.
Tc pocts ol thc Tang cra
7
dcvotcd thcir cxclusivc cn
crgy and talcnt to thc rcncmcnt ol thc various lorms
ol shih, culminating in thc artistry sccn in thc works ol
Li Po (70162) and Tu Fu (71270). Tc brcak lrom
thc clcgant tradition ol thc Six ynastics vcrsc oc
currcd at thc bcginning ol thc dynasty in thc poctry ol
Lu Chaolin (c. 64180), among othcrs, and cspccially
Chcn Tzuang (661702), whilc cvcn morc individu
alistic voiccs bcgan to bc hcard in thc works ol Vang
Vci (70161) and thc 8uddhist monk Han Shan, who
probably livcd during thc cighth ccntury.
Following thc grcat chaos ol thc An Lushan rcbcl
lion in thc middlc ol thc cighth ccntury, thcrc cmcrgcd
morc loudly thc voiccs ol satirc and rcalism, such as
cxcmplicd in thc works ol Po Chuyi (772846) and
Yuan Chcn (779831). !n thc works ol thc bcst Tang
pocts, a conccrn lor craltsmanship gocs hand in hand
with thc attcmpt to broadcn thc scopc ol poctry. Tc
two strains ol rcalism and lyricism arc combincd in thc
lronticr pocms, thc carlicr cxponcnts ol which stylc
wcrc Kao Shih (702:65) and Tscn Shcn (71570),
and in thc narrativc pocms which arc lound in such
grcat numbcrs.
Vith thc dcclinc ol thc matcrial culturc, cxtraordi
nary gcniuscs who wcrc poctic rcbcls likc Han Yu,
Mcng Chiao, or Pi Jihhsiu (c. 83383)manipulatcd
thc traditional thcmcs cvcn morc boldly, and somc
turncd morc and morc inwardly to thc abyss ol thcir
soul. Vhilc philosophical poctry had its champi
ons in Han Yu and, to a lcsscr cxtcnt, in Liu Tsung
yuan (773819)bccoming morc and morc 8ud
dhistic toward thc cnd ol thc cra (cl. Ssukung Tu,
837908)thcrc also occurrcd thc cxubcrant, acsthctic
poctry ol Tu Mu (80352), Li Shangyin, and Vcn
Tingyun (813:70) toward thc cnd ol thc dynasty.
uring thc sccond pcriod ol division (thc Fivc ynas
tics cra, 90760), thc ncw voguc ol thc lyric mctcr,
which startcd in Changan and sprcad as lar as thc rc
motc lronticr town ol Tunhuang, miraculously our
ishcd in two ccntcrs ol civilization lar apart lrom cach
othcr: in thc kingdoms ol Shu (Szcchwan) and South
crn Tang (with its capital in what is now Nanking).
Tc sophisticatcd artistry ol thc tzu rcachcd a ncw
lcvcl in thc works ol Li Yu, thc Last Rulcr ol Southcrn
Tang (93778), and ol thc many pocts rcprcscntcd in
thc Hua-chien chi (thc carlicst tzu anthology, compilcd
in Shu, prclacc datcd 960).
Vith thc unication ol thc cmpirc undcr thc Sung,
thc carly Sung pocts continucd lor a timc to imitatc
thc tcchnical aspccts ol latc Tang poctry, rcsulting in
thc socallcd Hsikun stylc ol vcrsc. 8ut thc gcnius
ol such pocts as Mci Yaochcn (100260), uyang
Hsiu (100772), and Su Shih (10371101) succccdcd
in arrcsting this trcnd and brought poctry into closcr
contact with thc lilc ol thc prospcrous Northcrn Sung
socicty in all its aspcctssccular, intcllcctual, and ar
tistic. Tc rcalistic poctry grcw morc and morc popular,
and thc cxponcnts ol this stylc includcd most ol thc
major shih pocts ol thc Southcrn Sung such as Yang
Vanli (11241206) and Lu Yu (11251210).
Tc grcatcst achicvcmcnt ol thc lyric pocts ol thc
Sung cras appcars to bc thcir ability to assimilatc not
only thc ncw music and ncw vocabulary ol thc mar
kct placc, but also thc intcllcctual discourscs ol all
pcrsuasions. Tis lcrmcnt, sustaincd by thc hcroic and
patriotic tcmpcr ol thc timcs, rcachcd thc highcst lcvcl
ol intcnsity in thc works ol Lu Yu and Hsin Chichi
(11401207). Living in a vibrant yct prccarious timc,
thcy wcrc cagcr to accommodatc all thc lorccs ol thcir
milieu and to blcnd words and idcas and music into
onc intcgratcd art lorm. (!t is probably not accidcntal
that many ol thcsc pocts wcrc also lamous lor thcir
calligraphy, thc visual appcal bcing but anothcr dimcn
sion ol Chincsc poctry.) Toward thc cnd ol thc South
crn Sung pcriod, whcn lyric poctry bccamc morc and
morc conccrncd with tcchnical dctails ol cmbcllish
mcnt, it soon lost its vitality.
uring thc onc ccntury ol Mongol rulc in thc Yuan
pcriod, ncw musical mclodics and a ncw poctic gcnrc
cmcrgcd in China. Likc thc tzu, thc ch pocms in
which thc Yuan writcrs cxccllcd havc multiplc tunc
pattcrns and a sct ol complicatcd prosodic rcquircmcnts.
8ut this ncw lorm admits cvcn morc lrccly thc usc ol
+ Wu-chi Liu and Irving Yucheng Lo
cvcryday colloquial spccch, thc idiom and slang ol thc
common pcoplc, and cxtra or paddcd words in ad
dition to what is rcquircd by thc mclody, it also bcars
thc mark ol thc vocabulary and music ol thc Mon
gol conqucror. Pocms wcrc again writtcn to bc sung,
cspccially by girls in plcasurc houscs and by actors and
actrcsscs. Tc nondramatic songs, known as san-ch
(to bc distinguishcd lrom thc dramatic songs, hsi-ch),
wcrc compilcd by poctdramatists, usually commoncrs
or minor ocials, and by pocts who wcrc high ocials
though thcy still disdaincd thc acting prolcssion during
thc most ourishing pcriod ol Chincsc drama. l thc
poctdramatists, Kuan Hanchiing (c. 1220c. 1300)
and Ma Chihyuan (1260:1334:) contributcd signi
cantly to thc dcvclopmcnt ol thc ch, whilc pocts likc
Chang Yanghao (12691329) and Chang Kochiu
(1265:1345:) consolidatcd this vcrsc lorm by working
cxclusivcly in it.
Tc thcmcs and contcnts ol thc ch arc as varicd as any
othcr lorm ol Chincsc poctry. As a wholc, thc ch, again
likc thc tzu, is basically lyrical in naturc. !n spitc ol its
dramatic potcntialitics, thc pocts madc littlc attcmpt in
using thc ch as a mcdium ol narrativc poctry, cxccpt in
somc ol thc songscqucnccs (tao-ch), scvcral cxamplcs
ol which arc also includcd in this volumc. n thc othcr
hand, thc writcrs ol thc nondramatic songs wcrc skillcd
in thcir dcscriptions ol sccncrics and situations, pcr
sons and objccts (somctimcs trivial and humorous), and
thoughts and scntimcnts. Tcsc arc somctimcs com
prcsscd into a singlc short song (hsiao-ling) or claboratcd
into thc songscqucnccs which usually lcnd thcmsclvcs
to political or social satirc. Vhilc lrcsh and innovativc
in thc carly phasc ol its dcvclopmcnt, this ncw subgcnrc
bccamc lormalizcd and convcntional in latcr pcriods
(lrom latc Yuan through thc Ming and Ching dynastics),
during which thc ch continucd to bc writtcn but stcadily
lost its popularity as a lorm ol poctry.
Tc last six hundrcd ycars in China produccd many
talcntcd pocts, but, comparcd to thosc ol Tang and
Sung, no major gurcs. Undcr thc Ming, thcrc wcrc
thc tragic gcnius Kao Chi (133674) and poct
paintcrs likc Shcn Chou (14271509), Tang Yin
(14701523), and Hsu Vci (152193). !n thc Ching
dynasty loundcd by thc Manchus, Chincsc pcoplc la
borcd in grcat rcstraint undcr a long tradition and lor
cign rulc, thcy compilcd a largc numbcr ol outstanding
anthologics and cstablishcd schools ol poctry, as il in
scarch ol a magic lormula with which to producc grcat
poctry upon prcscription. 8ut this conlormist agc also
produccd somc unconvcntional gcniuscs: pocts likc thc
Sinicizcd Manchu noblc Nalan Hsingtc (165585),
thc paintcrcalligraphcr Chcng Hsich (16931765),
and thc lrustratcd Kung Tzuchcn (17921841). To
ward thc cnd ol thc dynasty, providing continuity with
our own agc, wcrc mcn likc thc rclormistpoct Huang
Tsunhsicn (18481905), a diplomat who had visitcd
lour contincnts, thc rcvolutionary poct Liu Yatzu
(18871958), loundcr ol thc Southcrn Socicty (Nan
shc), activc during thc carly twcnticth ccntury, and thc
pcssimistic scholarpoct Vang Kuowci (18771927),
whosc suicidc by drowning sccmcd to ccho thc lcgcnd
ol thc dcath ol Chinas rst poct, ChuYuan. Tc works
ol thcsc mcn all rcvcal a painlul awarcncss ol thc mod
crn tcmpcr, a dccp consciousncss ol Chinas wcakncss
as a political cntity, and a scnsc ol cstrangcmcnt lrom
modcrn socicty.
III
!l onc scans thc long tradition ol Chincsc poctry,
two salicnt lcaturcs stand out clcarly: (1) its utilitar
ian or didactic aspcct, and (2) its lunction as a mcans
ol scllcxprcssion or scllcultivation. To illustratc thc
rst strain, wc nccd only to point to thc usc ol poctry
as convcntions in politc socicty or as attcmpts ol thc
pocts to allcgorizc thcir situations in lilc. !ndccd, lrom
Chu Yuan to Lu Hsun, thc satiric thrust ol Chincsc
poctry has ncvcr bccn bluntcd: poctry is a tool lor
social rclorm to both banishcd ocials and modcrn
rcvolutionarics. Tc sccond tcndcncy, to considcr
poctry as no morc than a skill in scllcultivation, may
also bc cxcmplicd by both practicc and prcccpt. As
carly as thc sixth ccntury, thc scholar Ycn Chihtui
(53191) wrotc in a book ol lamily instruction that thc
lunction ol all typcs ol litcraturc was to dcvclop oncs
nativc scnsibility,
8
adding as an altcrthought or to
givc othcrs uncmbarrasscd advicc. Rcmcmbcring this
dual naturc ol poctry, Ycns dictum sccms consonant
with an carlicr critical vicw, by Liu Hsich (:473), that
litcraturc can bc dichotomizcd into rcncmcnts (wen,
litcrally, thc charactcristic markings on animal skin
and hcncc ornamcntation) and utility (pi, litcrally,
thc brush, or pcn). And onc is tcmptcd to say that
a majority ol Chincsc pocms, though writtcn in thcir
multilarious lorms and stylcs bclong to cithcr ol two
traditionsthosc writtcn by pocts to plcasc or consolc
thcmsclvcs and thosc writtcn to movc othcrs (both
gods and mcn).
+8 !x:vobic:iox :o Cnixvsv Pov:vv
!n thc scnsc ol aording scllcultivation, or scll
cxprcssion, on thc onc hand and purposclulncss on thc
othcr, poctry is gcncrally rcgardcd by thc Chincsc morc
as a litcraturc ol powcr than as a litcraturc ol knowl
cdgc. Vhilc Chincsc poctry is dccply rootcd in thc
daily livcs ol thc pcoplc, thc Chincsc ncvcr losc sight
ol its lolticr goal, sharcd by all imaginativc litcraturc
(which, typically, in thc Vcst rcachcs thc highcst lcvcl
ol dcvclopmcnt in cpic and drama). As dcscribcd by
thc critic c Quinccy, in discussing Homcr, Sophoclcs,
and Shakcspcarc, this goal is to rcstorc to mans mind
thc idcals ol justicc, ol hopc, ol truth, ol mcrcy, ol rctri
bution, which clsc (lclt to thc support ol daily lilc in its
rcalitics) would languish for want of sucient illustra-
tion. (!talics minc.)
!rving Yuchcng Lo
Notes
1 For othcr lorms scc xplanations, No. 7: Subgcncric Namcs
ol Poctry: Shih, Tzu, and Ch. Vhilc tzu and ch arc
composcd according to thc prcscribcd prosody ol thc tunc
pattcrn uscd, cvcry onc ol thc shih lorms can bc in thc lour
syllabic mctcr, thc vcsyllabic mctcr, or thc scvcnsyllabic
mctcr and arc callcd thc lourword, vcword, or scvcn
word pocms. Tc loursyllabic linc, thc most common mctcr
in thc Shih Ching, was not popular in latcr timcs, but Tao
Chicns (365427) Tc Scasons Comc and Go and Kung
Tzuchcns (17921841) Tc Lutc Song wcrc composcd in
this mctcr.
2 Tis took placc at lcast twicc in Chincsc history: oncc dur
ing thc carly Han, whcn thc Music 8urcau (Yeh-fu) was
rcactivatcd around 120 8C to supcrvisc thc collccting ol
court music and lolk tuncs, as wcll as ol songs and music
ol nomadic Tartar tribcs, thus contributing to thc birth ol
a gcnrc ol balladry known as thc yeh-fu. Anothcr instancc
was during thc cighth and ninth ccnturics, whcn ncw music
was brought to thc Tang capital by tradcrs and soldicrs lrom
Pcrsia and othcr parts ol Ccntral Asia, cxcrting dccisivc
inucncc on thc tuncs and mclodics ol thc tzu.
3 Tc two contrasting groups ol toncs uscd lor poctry arc
callcd lcvcl or cvcn (ping, mcaning thc highlcvcl or
highrising pitch) and dccctcd (tse) toncs, thc lattcr
rclcrring to thc thrcc lowrising (shang), highlallingto
low (ch), and cntcring (ju) toncs. Tc cntcring tonc,
though no longcr prcscnt in modcm Chincsc (cxccpt in somc
dialccts), is still uscd in thc writing ol classical poctry, in
ancicnt Chincsc it had a consonantal cnding ol p, t, or k. For
paradigms ol major vcrsc lorms ol thc modcrnstylc poctry
(chin-ti shih) ol Tang and somc ol thc tunc pattcrns ol tzu,
rcadcrs may consult Jamcs J. Y. Lius Te Art of Chinese Poetry
(Univcrsity ol Chicago Prcss, 1962), pp. 2627, 3233 and
Lius Major Lyricists of the Northern Sung (Princcton Univcr
sity Prcss, 1974).
4 !t is this quality that cndcarcd Chincsc poctry to many
imagist pocts in Amcrica during thc twcntics, and may havc
lostcrcd a stylc ol translation which dispcnscs with prcposi
tions and articlcs, akin to pidgin nglish. Conccivably, whcn
carricd to an cxtrcmc, thc translation ol Li Shangyins linc
quotcd abovc might rcad as Sit oriolc likc winchcavy. Vc
bclicvc in prcscrving thc structurc ol thc original, but within
thc control ol thc targct languagc, and not at thc cxpcnsc ol
intclligibility. Chincsc grammar must bc undcrstood in tcrms
ol nglish grammar. For cxamplc, stativc vcrbs in Chincsc
may occur as adjcctivcs. Hcncc, to supply a vcrb in thc trans
lation in this instancc, or a subjcct whcn it is implicd, nccd
not ncccssarily dctract lrom a linc ol poctry as poctry.
5 Peking Review 17:10 (March 8, 1974), 6 and Renmin Ribao
(Fcbruary 28, 1974). For a translation ol this lyric, scc Jamcs
J. Y. Liu, Major Lyricists of the Northern Sung, pp. 1820.
6 Tc tcrms uscd lor this kind ol poctry arc cithcr tzu-yn, or
ho (somctimcs translatcd as harmonizing), thcy arc rcn
dcrcd as Following thc Rhymc ol or Rcplying to in this
volumc.
7 Tc Tang dynasty produccd so many pocts and poctic stylcs
that Chincsc litcrary historians, sincc thc Ming, oltcn spcak
ol thcm in tcrms ol lour pcriods: thc arly Tang (618712),
thc Flourishing, or High, Tang (71365), thc MidTang
(766846), and thc Latc Tang (847907).
8 A morc litcral translation ol this phrasc: tao-yeh hsing-ling
is to mold and shapc |oncs| own naturc and spirit, cl.
Family Instructions for the Yen Clan, translatcd and annotatcd
by Tcng Ssuyu (Lcidcn: . J. 8rill, 1968), p. 85. Vc lollow
Jamcs J. Y. Liu in his translation ol hsing-ling as nativc
scnsibility (Te Art of Chinese Poetry, p. 74).