Eyttrostaic

abal ltydrotlynasic

forces

w. van Gent.. ntrouction. myself to th subjects rnentioned in In this lecture I restrict of this session of the congress In othr lecturs the title. applicatj.ons of vre will- Iearn rnuch nore about th practical hydrodynanics in nature. t 1s useful to subdivid the topic in the two parts: - hydrostatic at rest forces vhich are the forces in a fluid and j"n a fluid - hydrodynanic are th forces in forces lthich motion. fron varl.ous The contnts of this 1ccur is based on naterial in th of rfernces books. They are nentiond in the list (1) for thos one is advisd ection. The first next to application relatd lhis in an inportant i.ntrested congrss, Reference to the other books is nade by tneans of h nurflber in O. cneral Llquj,d Propertig.

we have to consider the baslc proprties s watr is a liquid while ar gneral, first. some of th properties of a Iiquid and rlated to th physical proprtis others rnay be specific chnical by its which itself is detrnined of the liquid, conposition. viz. There are two gnral proprties, - a liquid has a fixd volun and differs fror a gas and - a liquid has fluidity and differs fron a sotid. property a liqui.d is different frorn a gas, but in By th first particles nove relatively to each can substances the both particles togther bcause of th renain In a liquid other. shap at rest is Th actual hutual attraction forcs. the conditions. n external by intrnal or external prescribd is th shape of th containing vessl with the sane condition volune. In a vessl which has a larger volune than the liquid th xtrnal or vhen th vesst is open on th upper side, seks the gravity that th I'j"quid of will cause inftunc possible free surface of the Th most uppr lvl. towest are faniliar You is thn flat at rest and horizontal. liguid itttn using cups and conmunicating with this fact in daiLy lif vessels. the condition controls an internal In the absence of gravity attraction, volurne. It is the capiftary shape of the liquid the outer vrhich crats a surface tnsion. Through this effect possible Cnds to assune th nininun urfac of the liquid of a nembran. When there ar no other area, l"ik th effct nhich is true conditi.ons th surfac is spherical, extrnal for fre falIng rain drops. rn ht brsrlt 1ctrr we have to deal with th effect of gravity, not ldirh the effect of capillary ttraction.

property Th fluidity of liquids is also the reason for the alternative nane; Iiquids are aLso narned fl"uids. Fluids differ fron solids; solids hav rigidity or a pernanent reaction against a change in relative positions of particles. F1uids do not have pernanent reactions; a fluid in flowing rrotion has resistance against changes but this rsistance disappears vhn the fluid cones to rest. So in a state of rst the fluidity property is perfect, gives rise In a flowing fluid viscosity to internal friction. Thj,s effect depnds on the flou rale. n alternativ way to indicate the differnce btwen fluids and solids is the differnce properties. in elasticity This is nentioned her for conpleteness sake. solids hav forrn elasticity and bulk elasticity. Fluids have no forn elastieityr which is the effect describd above. Fluids only hav bulk elasticity or conpressibil ity. This neans that have ven at rest a raction against change in volutn. fluids PracticaIly, horver, fluids are said to be incornpressible, 'hich is certainly true for vater in the context of this congress. t is worth noting that as a consequence of the snalf cornpressibil ity of \,rater, sound travels relatively fast in water, i.e. hore than four ti\es fastr thn sound travels in air. In general the voluhe of an amount of fluid depends on the quantity has to be givn tlperature and pressure. the latter nuch nore attention in the context of hvdrostatic ancl hydrodynamic forcs, Hytlrogtatic Forces in a Fluitl at Rst,

Topics: Pressure: l-. Hydrostatic Plessure 2. Measures of Pressure 3. Hydroslatic Parailox and Pascalrs Forc i 4. Buoyancy and rchinedest Law 5. EquiLibriurr and Stabil ity 6. FLoatng Bodies Hydroalynanic Forces in a Fluiil Topcs:
! IOT:

lait

in Uotion.

7. 8. 9. 10. 11, 12.

Velocity and strean lins Stranline patterns Curvd streanlines and deformation ReIatj-on between velocity anil pressure Shear flow and flo\r stability tarninar and turbulent flou Bodis in flov: 13. Boundary layers anal wafl friction 14. FIow sparation and effect on drag 15, Lift forcs arld rneasures to create lift
1 rtr:d f^rra< Ah t-h hrrhh '^v

1. Hydrostatic

prssur.

at rest on earth the gravitational forc exerted by In a ffuid globe plays a doninant rol. pressure in a The static this gravity up by together lrith the fluidrs own fl"uid is built ponderosity.

podxdy

D i r e c t i o no gravitY a t t r a ct i o n

Fig.

1 : cofuhn

of

fluid

givs

pressure,

(6)

At a point in a fl.uid we can think of a smatl horizontalsurface on which a force is exerted. Vertically above that surface ther is a coLurRn of lrater and air. Th total weight of that anount of vatr and air is the force which defines the pressure. static The total reight is proportional to the surface area, so !{e can spak of a force per unit of surface area and that is called pressure. The fluid weght is proportional to its mass density, i.e. its nass pr unt voluoe. Therefore also th hydrostatic pressure in a fluid depends on j.ts nass density, snall- differnqs in nass density can have consequencs through its effect on the pressure. Faroiliar exanples are buoyant flows in a hydrostatic water kttle being heated ancl the dif,fernce in floatinq on sea water and fresh water. The aubiects of buovancv and tdiIl be dealt r.rith nore extensvely. floating 2. Measures of Pressur.

Relat i ve A Pressure

Itlovabl e

0arum B Vacuu;l pheric Atmos pre5Sure (varies with $eather and altitude)

R e l. 0

A b s ou l te pressure A Absol u te pressure B

oaEul

Abs .0

Figure 2 : Various prssure levels,

(7)

The oficial neasure for pressure is one pascal (pa) , which neans a force of one Nevton on a surface of one square rnetr, 1Pa is a snall quantity if conpared with th atrnospheric

In the atmosphere at th free in which we 1iv. pressure pressure is about 100,000 lvel of the sea the surfac (one hundred thousand) Pa. This prssure l'vel is call'ed on in swirnrning are lnuch which pl.ay a rol The pressures bar. snaller. is nasured are usually by which the pressure Instrunents pressur hey indicate level. fron the atnospheriq calibrated so atnosphere. in the pressure anal ar set zero the relative pressure on1y. Frorn undr vater thy measure the hydrostatic pressur rs that the hydrostatj.c it follosls the definition fluds For havir proportional to the depth of submergenc. wight) the incrase of prssure r.rith dpth is stronger lrnore fluids, than for lightr 3. Hydrostatic Paradox and Pascalrs !aw.

pressure sems easy by of the hydrostatic Th understanding point of above the of water of the coluhn thinklng lthich do Howevr, ther are son special effects observation. do hav to concept but this directly fron follow not with the property of fluidity. essentially

Figure

3a : Prssure on the bottom of a vessel,

(6)

paradox: If v have thre is the socalled hydrostatic First bottoril area, th sane but th shapes vessefs vrith different dstance verticaL th sane if prssuf on these bottoms is t'h in of liquid amoun! salne, The to the free vatr surface is the b can bottom on the Th force the vessel- dos not nattr. We in the vssel. nuch hj-gher than th weight of the liquid just than wider .un "o.rl'.rde that the ide of pressure is nuch which I usal as a neahs to the weight of a colunn of fluid/ introduce the subj ect.

dar

Figure

3b: Pressure on th hull

of a body (6).

second there is the law of Pascat, vhich states that th pressure at a cerain subnergence 1evel is the sane in all directions. The force on a surface is the same for all orientations. This lat, follows froll the rquirenent that in a fluid in a state of rest aII fluid elrnents nust be in equillbrlun. Then the forces on all sides of a snall cube rrust b th sane. The picture is that of a floating ship. lrhich is a body not too diffrnt fron the subJect on this congress. It has to be noted that ttre pressur on the hull is equal to the indicated colunn of vater irrspective whether the colunn of watr is there in reality or only in our inagination, 4. Buoyancy and rchiedest lJai.r,

Figure

4: fully

submerged body (6) .

pressur are th properties of hydrostatic Th forenentioned is the faniliar Most se for understandin buoyanc forces. . of the upth-rust is an subrlerged body which force on a full,y volume the displacd water on he body equal to th weight of of water. This is linovn as rchimedes' Lanq. More generally. Drssures on the hull of a ship or on th skin of a body, lthen become forces on the ship or on th thay a"" put together depnding on th shape ay have any direction body, The iorce bcone This will t tft" uoay and on the prssure distribution. there is on hYdrodynamic forces !'thn in the sections clear also flow around the bodY. 5. Equilibriurn and stabil itY.

clv

c1
tlru
I
I

IP

Ftl

\ /

o
a Figure 5: Partly subrnrgdbody in two positions (6) '

of subderged th. situation not fully is when a body But the con|plicatd' rnore is the body on io."" htdrostatic Th helpful' i of forces instea of p!ssures 'niioarr"tiotr a force P own weightr its has water on body vhich is ftoating it s quilibriuh gravity G. Fo-r the centr of i" iing that the upthrust or buoyance force is equal to the "".""ty -but a different at is forc of this the centre veiqht, the picture in t.I i. ro- . sltnmetric bodv like i;;ii;" -sh-iP i r n e ' v r t i c a r on the ]ft F and G ar on the sahe whn th body is not becones nore corplicated ihe situaion like the ship in the position ymrnetric or not in a synhetric pictur on lhe ri-ght ' position' upright ftn.tt trr" snip hai rotated from its original (Note that it is G rmains the iame' t gravity iii"--""t.. in a o i l t-tte roa inside th ship noves, e'g' p.""ilr.-inJ

tanker, then also c rnay change its position relative to the ship.) The cntre of buoyancy witl chang in genral, say to Fd. The originat line through F and c and the vertical line through Fd point intrsect at M. This is call-ed the ntacentr. Nol,r we can s that the gravity force pull-s down the ship and the buoyance pusttes up th ship in suctr a vay position that th original of th ship is obtained again. This stabilizing effect is related to the relative position of M and G. When M is bIow c the shiD is not stabl.
5. Floating Bodis.

E '8 _ - _ F

rr\ /I\
\ T , /

+ m

l-

\l-l iw

Figur 6 r Floating

bodies,

(7) .

In this Figur you see three a types of floating bodies, bal,loon in the air, a subrlarine in the r.rater anil a surface ship at sealvl. 11 pictules show stable conditons, but it is irnportaht to note the differnt distances between !l (!'ight) and Fb (buoyance). lso not that the balloon and the subtnarine both have fixed positions of the buoyance forc. The balloon is most stable through the lower position of basket vith wight, The surfac ship has not such a 1ov position of the weight and is only stable thanks to the position flexibl of th buoyance force. Th subharine has not th stabili.zing features of the balloon or the surface ship; now stabi.lity stronqty depends on the position of Fb bing hiqher than the Dosition of w. The smalf distanqe bet!'en both

that indicates submerged body. ?. Vlocity

stability

is

weak in

suctr a case of

a fuLly

and Streamlins.

vectors S t r e a m l i n e s and velocity ( 5 ) . strearntube ( b o t t o n ) ,

(top) ; elernentary

10

To understand different typs of fluj.d notion some basic fatures have to be introduced. Each of these is directly to the variation related of the velocity of flora' either with tirne or r^'ith location in the field of rnotion. velocity is a quantity, vector possesses both since it nagnitude and direction. The velocity vector at any point in a noving fluid generally therefore has cgnponents in each of the three directions of our space and, again as a gnral rule, each of these conponents nay be expcted to vary both fron instant to instant and fron point to point. streanline is defined as a line lrhich lies in the direction of flov at every point at a gj-ven ins'Lan'Lt hence (see botton picture) at any point the veloclty vector and the strean line passing through that point rnust be tangential to one another, whll the vLocity component nornal to th streanll.ne at he point of tangncy nust necessarily have a zero nagnitude. If the velocity vector does not change in eithr nagnitud or direction with passage of tine at any fixed point in a moving fluid, such a flo!, is calld steady. In unsteady flow either the nagnitude or the direction of the velocity, or both together, will vary vith tine. (see bottom n elenentary flor., passage boundd by streanlines picture) is known as a streantube. It is evident that no flow passes tttrough the lralls of a streantube. If the fluid is inconpressible, it fol.lows that at any instant the rate of flov past aIl successive cross sections of the strearn tube rnust b the sane. Therefore a convrgence of stram lines vill corlespond to an increas of th vlocity rnagnitude with distanc and vice versa. This is called the law of continuitv.

11

8. strealrline

Pattern. a glance the direclion of throughout th field

of stram lines reveals at pattern rnagnitude of the velocity and relative f lov.

Figure

: strearnline

pattrns

of flow

around body,

(5) .

watr is an The flow around a body vhich moves in still a fixd fron f v observe such a flow f1ow. unsteady noving away from the body in the we se particles nosition, noving toward,s the body in the aft ?ront region and particles rf the body has a in th top picture. region a illustrated to transforrr the streamlines is possibl speed it costant of rlative into that f a steady flov by us of the principle That occurs if ve bserve the flow frorn a positon notion. which noves with the body. What we se then is shown in the principle is the basic picture. This procdure botton .of bodis which Herein experirnents. and ltind.tu;neI watertun-nel

L2

nornally nove at constant speed through a fluid at rst, Iike shlps, airplanes and svinners are held statonary strean of fluid rroving at the sarne relativ speed, I-n situations al.] kinds of measurnents and visuali-zation of becon nuch easier. 9. Curved Streanlines and Deforhation. look at vhat happens

e.g. in a this flov

Nov we want to have a closer precisty in th flowing fluid.

nore

- -r'- F --1
t l l -I.I-J

--T---r-r-1

l--+-

I
l

lrrototionol

Rototionol

Fgure 9 : Typs of notion of fluid

elemnts,

(5).

Tr^to basic notions of an elenentarv fluid Iemnt can be distinghuishd, viz. hotion atong curvd streanline and defornation. In th upper picturs the effec! of dforrnation in a fl-o!, r,rith straight streanlines is shorarn. This effct depends on the difference in vetocity along adjacent stranl-ins. n the top right picture w se that a fluid

13

the In th lol1'er picturs etement is deforrned and rotated. on is shovrn for a flow with curvd streanfines. satne effect between streanl,ines is in velocity the left the differnce element is strongly deforned, but as a such that he fluid called irrotational Thrfore this is still whole not rotatd. in velocity f1ow. on the botton right picture the difference efernt is not defomed is such the fluid betven streanlines we see that but roated as a vrhole, Fron this illustrations This can have tratmnts. fluid etements can unilergo different of th flow by irnportant consquencs for the description but' that will not be done hre. using nathenatics. 10. Relation betwn velocity and Pressure.

in aspects of a fluid Having discussed no\^' the kinqratical we and its stramlines. distributior notion, vj-z. its vlocity ha6 have to rturn to the pressure. The pressure distribution to be understood in ordr o learn about hydrodynanic forces as hydrostatie forcs. sinilarly

Figur

10

Velocity and Pressure distributi-on on a

14

If w could follow th flov along a streanlin rr r'ould exprience that at places of lon velocity th pressure is high and vice versa. In the picture this is denonstrated vith graphs for pressure (P) and for velocity (V). Renenber that Etreanlines are wider away in a lov, veloeity region and close togther at higher velocity. This velocity-presEur relationship, I'hich is called Bernoullj.rs 1aw, is very irnportant and reprsents rnajor effects 1n the fLolr. However, it is not accurate for prediction of a force on a body. For that purpose we also take into account the friction on the bodv surfac. s lonq as we paradox f disregard fric-Lion ve encounter the ;ocalled drlenber!, which says the force on a body in a 6teady Etran is zero. That is contrary to intuition. 11. Shear Flow and Flov stability. In a flo\,t ve have to deal also with instabilitis. This neans that above a certain speed the stramlines loose their rgular pattrn. Thy becone vry cornplicatd and can no longer be visual ized.

"/,///,/,/,///////,////////////////////t

'///////////////////////////////m

Figure

11 : crowth

of

a disturbance

in a florr,

(5) .

15

The underlying rnechanisrn is by no neans simple, but a Assurn analysis nay b helpful in understanding' cualitativ plan boundary a plac parallel to flow taks hat a laninar a) . such a flow hs zer speed at the ltal'l due to the picture which prevents slip atong the wall' Th ifect or viscosity flow appears as layered wj.th increasing sped avJay from the waff. irl sone distnce from the wall a disturbance is produced which yields at a given instant local undulations of the in the (pictues b). The acconpanyl-ng variation iii."riin.= tnds to pattern athich pressure wili- give ris to a vlocity ottler sid th (pictures o1 . on c an unulations .no^nt'tn" and of th presence of th fron viscosity thre are effects wa11 \irhich may darnpn th undulatj'ons. In practical . situations flol' whther the original ii "penat on- the itovr configuration is stabl or not. 12. Laninar and Turbul-nt FIow.

Laninar flot' iE defined as that in lthich th streamlines fron each other over thir entire length' renain distinct laninar flov nay be ither steady of unstady and ethr uniforrn or nonu-niforn' Turbulent flow is the opposite of laninar flolri once the hterogeneous mixing process started by evn the instananous- streamlines xists, iiw instaliiiti,es flow speaking turbulent becone lhoroughly confused. strictly to convenint is but it and nonuniform, is intrerentty-uniteady turbulence the of distinghuish- betvreen Lhe secondary motion can b Th latter and th prirnary motion of the fluid. or nonuniform unifonn as ither stady or unsteady, classifia the to regard vrithout or irrotationat and rolational turbulence itself.

Lominor
F i g u r 1 2 a : Laminar flow in a duct, (5) .

Turb ulent
Figure 12b : Turbulent flor^' in a duct, (5). Th ffect of turbulence is a lateral mixinq process rrhich results in an egualization of the rnean veloity vctor across the fIoJ section. 13. Boundary layer and wall friction.

s real fluid flows ovr the surface of a body, th effct of viscosity is fj.rst that the ftuid sticks to ti-Ie surface bv adhesive forces. But away fron the surface the fluid trie; to folLo' ttle rnain strean. The Laninar flow is in a layer of varying hickness; it begins frorn no thickness at the front of the body whre the fluid first contacts it and ir;rases alond the surface in th dirction of the rnotio!. such a larninar boundary layer nay change into a turbulent boundary layer.

Lmi nr boundry layer

T u r b u le n t b o u n d a

I ayer

Figur 13 : Boundary layers atong flat

plate,

(7).

In he picture these phenornnaare illustrated for a sinpl body, a srnooth flat plate. The boundaty layers occupy an xtrnely thin and usuatly invisible part of th fI; (th thicknss is exaggerated j-n the picture). Nevertheless it is of great inporlance since it is the essential reason for the xj.stenc of a flictional drag force exerted by the fluid on

!7

the body' The drag force also depends on the surface, snooth or rough.

quality

of th

rY ) spothbounda

a) Sooth soundry

boundarY b) Rough

boundrY b) Rouqh (7) '

Figure

14 : snooth and rough surfaces,

possesss laninar flo\^t occurring over smooth or rough surfaces picture th i both cases' as depicted n il;--J;"-;;;p;iii". Thus in faninar frow, surlace (a) and (b) on the left. the flow. on effct rouqhness has no the fluid notion is influenced' ho$rver, flow, i"-"iu"i"nt snooth solid boundaries it is over occurs flow When turbulent always separated fron the boundary by a fitn of laninar flow' xplained as foLrows. Th presence of a boundary hi;';";-'b; flov will reduce the freedom of the turbulent i"-" i"il"r""t^ pto"a". and in the region very crose to the boundary ii*itrq irnains laminar. Now a rough boundary of a turburnt ;;;]"; or as smooth as long as the roughness particls ii" .pp"u.. filrn' the laninar in are conpretel"y subnrged l.i""i* vhen th height of the-roughnss lements. exceeds the ;;;;;.;, b augnented vill' of the larninar fil-n the turbulence irri"ttt"it. diffrent A filrn is no longer ffective' ""-iii iu.i""t profile of the flow rsults as depictd in th lrio"ity pictures la) and (b) on th right.
14. Flow sparation we have looked at and effect a number of on drag' delails of th fl"ow, but now we

18

pay attention lrill to a broader viv of bodies in rnotion in a flow. Much of the hydrodynanic forces can b understood by the effect of separation.

Lt^.r1.uFb.d

ou.r.

ltow

...: !.
Po-llv. pr...u.. 9F.d t.nc

( ' :\
VAF|EX

Flgure 15 r Separation of flow at aft

end of body, (3).

elernents in the boundary layer loose energy and The fluid in the outer flow. elenents momentum in conparlson with fluid Near the af end of a body the pressure tends to j.ncrease. s partLcles fron th boundary Layer can not the fluid a result accunulate and are given a they cone to rest, tnove furthrt can grow and notion by the lain stream. This rotation rotary size is devel-oped. he eddy cannot be an eddy of increasing in the prsnc of the body but breaks away. Then retained another is all,owed to form and the procss repeats itself.

20

(r)

?lO

?llERl| O! CIRCII{R cylINDE.R t{

pIO.a: :O D&.|,C, NON.VISCOSS

{B) ctlrD! l.t aEri{orJs NIw!:RS r:{ 1la c!D!R o! lo;

co.=

r.z,

(C) crlI:aDA! !E1'/it!r{ 8d - ro4 aao ro5i yoRlEI saREt.iItn

cD.. l,Z.

(D) !!rr:

yr:

's?LrrtER" DEvIa! :r {lri;

c-

. 1,s,

(E) CYLILDEI tsOvE clMc^],

R E r N O ! , D iS rWlER ttY

C-

. O,t.

(!) STRrrg,llE sEctron r l t $

c).

I N 1 g : c R D E !O P 0 . C 6 .

Figure

16 : Separation

and t u r b u l e n t

wakes, (3).

2L

The result of separation and ddy formation is the fonnation in th wake is of other rrak. Th turbulence of a turbulent can be seen any situations nature than in a boundary layer. in the pictur. in a To return now to the probl-en af drag forces on objects and separation layrsr of bounclary flov, the effects fluid s'akes nay b absrved. Fundarnentally drag is caused by the forces transrnitted conponents of the nornal and tangential of the body' The nornal lemenls the surface the fluid to fron gneral pressure nay be hich in are those of, f,orces stleantub to the La Bernoutli's by applying calculated those of shear ar forces The tangntial to the body' adjacent effects in viscous frorn rising urface of te object a! the layer. the boundary 15. fi.ft Forces and Deasures to Create Lift.

lanl"nar of the effect of visclsity, Based on considerations of the resistance discussd we have flovJ, flow and turbulent longtudinal acts in This force bodies rnoving in water. of the flov. Thre iE also a i,. in the direction direction t is called the lift perpndicular this direction. to force great th hydrodynanlc irnportance in force and is of broDulsion of bodis. force also is a rsult of the pressures around a in"- tift body. To obtain tif it is necessary that in the. flow a is cratd. To undersland this effect it is useful cirulation to hink of long bodes like airplan wings' The lorlgest of the fLow but dirnension is not in the direction are relatively dinnsions The other DrDendicular to that. of the properties can discuss that we !..it. rnis facilitates adjacent flow in The parallel th flolr. plane to the flow in a Dlans does not dLffer froru each other.

Figure

1?a : circulatory

flow creating

lift,

(5) .

Figure 17b, 1?c : circulatory

flov' cralinq

fift,

(5)

In the pcture strearnlines around a cylinder are coniderd. The effect of boundary layers is disregarded. Although boundary layers pLay a specific role in the cralion of circulatory flow its effect on the nagnitude of the Lift in relation to circulation is srnaLl. (Hence lre can use Bernoulll's Law). In picture (a) there is no circulationr only an approaching flow fron the left. In this synmetric flow pattern there is no reason to expect a vertical forc on the cylinder as prssures are equal on both sids. ra,hnthe flov is conbind lrl"th The si,tuation becones different pure (pictur a circulation (b) ), Ieading to the flow pattern (c) . Far alray fron the cylinder th approaching in picture uniform as th vetocitles floi,r is still of the circulatory fLolr are snalL there, Cl-ose to the cylindr, hot'ever, the flow pattern is 6trongly distorted (a), in conparison nith picture The flow over the top has higher velocity than the flov along the botton. s a consequenc of the lalr of Brnoulli the pressure at the top is lorrer than at th botton and there is an upvard force called lift.

23

force can be very strong in conparison with-the drag Th lift and swl'mnrng force and it is vry useful. In nature flying by nen in phenrnenon, is utilizd while it on this deDnd again flying' a n d p u h p i n g , w i n d n i l l s p l o p u t s i o n , s h i p ;;ii;g, the conlrol to we have sone means by tfrat be cter It lril around the body. circulation

(d)

(c/
Figure 18 | Profile vhich crates circulation, (5) ' The betven the body in this picture and the The difference orevi.ous one is clar, It is not a cytindr but a profil'

24

most inportant featur of a profile is that the strearnlines at the trailing edge follow the body contour as snooth as possible. This is seen in pictur 1c1 vtricn is aiiierent trorn (a). The difference is due to boundary layr effects, lrhich create the requj-red circul-ation, picture lly, to nake the flow srnooth. s a consquenc there is lift. l-6. Drag Forces on the Hunan Body. To conclude this lcture \,re stlol^rsorn practical infornaEron about hydrodynanic forces on a human bdy \rhen it is placd in a strean in various positions. The resulls are obtaind frorl neasuretents in a vrindtunnel-, so strictly ve hav to speak of aerodynanc forces. But th results are fresented in such a vay that they also apply to circurnstance in water,

D/q
gftt 203fli

12 f+'

Figure

19 : Hunan body in a constant

strean,

(3).

The human body is of the shape sinilar to a cylinder of a Ienght to diantr ratio bet\a'en 4 and 7. cylj-nders ar of great technical interest and therefor a usfuL reference. The drag of the hunan body is expressed as an effectiv cross secfion which is confronted with the f1ow. This cross section is calculated fron th tneasured drag D and fror the reference pressure-q.of tlg.fJ9", q is proportional to the mass density of the fluid nultiplied by the vetocity ssuared. The cross sectional areas in the pictuie ire given in square feet. The given nunerical values re effectiv in regard of drag; thy nay differ from the ral cross sctional reas in regard of th geometry. s a refernc it can be rnentioned that the total suifac area of this hunan body is 20 square feet. References: 1. Counsilnan, J.8.,
1961..

trTh science

of swinning",

prentic verfag,

Ha1I,

rrTechnische Strnungslehre",

Springr

oerner, s.F., 'lFluiat - Dynanic Dragrt, Horner Fluid D v n a m i c s , 1 96 5 . "Mchanics of tiquldslr, Mccraw-Hill Book a.f., 4 . fipen, "Mechanical Engineerrs Handbook', ed' cinpay, 19!8. (rn
6h Errrn i <far\

FIowI' John wiley & Rouse, H., 'tFundamental Principles" E nof g i n ering Hydraulics'r, 1950. (chapter 1 in .tt,'r.t"., ed. ll. Rouse) rrBuoyance and schItena de Her, R.F. and Bakker, .R.' stan, cutenborg, The of ships", uitg. stability 1969. Netherlands, vnnara, ,t.i<., 'tElnntary Fluid Mechanics, John wiley & Sons, Inc., 1947.