February 2013 (Spring drive) Bachelor of Computer Application (BCA) Semester 4 BC0048 Computer Networks

Q.NO.1: Differentiate LAN and WAN.

ANSWER:Definition: LAN LAN (Local Area Network) is computer network covering small geographic area, like home, office, schools, or group buildings. WAN WAN (Wide Area Network) is a computer network that covers a broad area (e.g., any network whose communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries over a long distance Less speed(150mbps) WANs have a lower data transfer rate as compared to LANs Internet is a good example of a WAN WANs tend to use technology like MPLS, ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for connectivity over the longer distances Layers 3 devices Routers, Multilayer Switches and Technology specific devices like ATM or Frame-relay Switches etc. In this case since networks in remote areas have to be connected hence the set-up costs are higher. However WANs using public networks can be setup very cheaply, just software (VPN etc) Have a large geographical range generally spreading across boundaries and need leased telecommunication lines Low bandwidth is available for transmission WAN covers more than 100 m

a a a of

Speed: Data transfer rates: Example: Technology:

High speed(1000mbps) LANs have a high data transfer rate Network in an organization can be a LAN Tend to use certain connectivity technologies, primarily Ethernet and Token Ring Layer 2 devices like switches, bridges. layer1 devices like hubs , repeaters If there is a need to set-up a couple of extra devices on the network, it is not very expensive to do that

Components:

Set-up costs:

Geographical Spread:

Have a small geographical range and do not need any leased telecommunication lines High bandwidth is available for transmission. LAN covers 100 m

Bandwidth: Geographical Area:

Q.NO.2: Explain the TCP/IP Reference Model with diagram. ANSWER:- The TCP/IP reference model is the network model used in the current Internet architecture. It was created in the 1970s by DARPA for use in developing the Internets protocols, and the structure of the Internet is still closely reflected by the TCP/IP model. It is considered as the grandfather of the Internet the ARPANET. The reference model was named after two of its main protocols, TCP (Transmission control Protocol) and IP(Internet Protocol).
There are versions of this model with four layers and with five layers. The original four-layer version of the model is shown below:

Layer 1 Networking Access Layer:

Layer 2
Internet or Internetworking Layer:

Layer 3 Host-To-Host (Transport) Layer:

Layer 4 Process Layer or Application Layer:

1. Layer 4 Process Layer or Application Layer: This is where the higher level protocols such as FTP, HTTP, etc. operate. The original TCP/IP specification described a number of different applications that fit into the top layer of the protocol stack. These applications include Telnet, FTP, SMTP and DNS. 2. Layer 3 Host-To-Host (Transport) Layer: This is where flow-control and connection protocols exist,, such as TCP. This layer deals with opening and maintaining connection, ensuring that packet are in fact received the transport layer is the interface between the application layer and the complex hardware of the network it is designed to allow peer entities on the source and destination hosts to carry on conversations. Data may be user data or control data. Two modes are available, full-duplex and half duplex. In full-duplex operation, both sides can transmit and receive data simultaneously, whereas in half duplex, a side can only send or receive at one time. 3. Layer 2 Internet or Internetworking Layer: This layer defines IP addresses, with many routing schemes for navigating packets from one IP address to another. The job of the network layer is to inject packets into any network and have them travel independently to the destination. The layer defines IP (Internet Protocol) for its official packet format and protocol. Packet routing is a major job of this protocol. 4. Layer 1 Networking Access Layer: This layer describes the physical equipment necessary for communications, such as twisted pair cables, the signaling used on that equipment, and the low-level protocols using that signaling. That Host-to-Network layer interfaces the TCP/IP protocol stack to the physical network. 2

Q.NO.3: Describe Circuit switching and message switching.

ANSWER: Circuit Switching: A circuit switching network is one that establishes a dedicated circuit (or channel) between nodes and terminals before the users may communicate. Each circuit that is dedicated cannot be used by other callers until the circuit is released and a new connection is set up. Even if no actual communication is taking place in a dedicated circuits then, that channel still remains unavailable to other users. Channels that are available for new calls to be set up are said to be idle. Circuit switching is used for ordinary telephone calls. It allows communications equipment and circuits, to be shared among users. Each user has sole access to a circuit during network use.

Communication using circuit switching involves three phases discussed below: 1. Connection establishment: Before any signal can be transmitted, an end to end circuit must be established. 2. Data transfer: Information can now be transmitted from source through the network to the destination using the dedicated path established. 3. Termination: After some period of data transfer, the connection is terminated Message Switching: Message switching was the precursor of packet switching, where messages were routed in their entirety and one hop at a time. It was first introduced by Leonard Kleinrock in 1961. Message switching system is nowadays mostly implemented over packet-switched or circuit-switched data networks.

Each block is received in its entity form, inspected for errors and then forwarded or retransmitted. It is a form of store-and-forward network. Data is transmitted into the network and store in a switch. The network transfers the data from switch to switch when it is convenient to do so, as such the delays can happen. The source and destination terminal need not be compatible, since conversions are done by the message switching networks. A delay for putting the message on the communications link is also incurred at each node enrooted. Message lengths are slightly longer than they are in circuit switching, after establishment of the header includes information identifying must be included with each message. The header includes information identifying the destination as well as other types of information. Most message switched networks do not use dedicated point-to-point links.

Q.NO.4: What are the functions of (I) Routers (II) Bridges.

ANSWER:Routers and Bridges Routers and bridges link two or more individual Local Area Networks (LANs) to create an extended-network LAN or Wide Area Network (WAN). (I) Routers: 1. Link networks using different network identities. 2. Transmit only the data needed by the final destination across the LAN. 3. Examine and rebuild packets without passing errors on to the next LAN.

WAN

WAN Port

ROUTER

LAN

A router stores and forwards data packetseach of which contains a destination and source network addressfrom one LAN or WAN to another. Routers are "smarter" than bridges, because they find the best route for all the data sent to them by the previous router or the end station of the LAN. Routers operate on the third layer of the OSI Model, the Network-Control Layer. Rather than passing packets based on the Media Access Control (MAC) Layer addresses (as bridges do), a router examines the packet's data structure and determines whether or not to forward it. Once the router determines where the packet should be sent, it finds the fastest route to send the data to its destination. That means it may repackage or break the data into smaller pieces than the receiving destinations can handle.

Bridges: 1. Connect two parts of the same network. 2. Read only the destination address of each Ethernet packet or Token Ring frame for maximum speed and efficiency.

TOKEN RING

TOKEN RING

Bridge

Bridge interconnects two Token Rings LANs

As illustrated in figure, a bridge connects two LAN segments into one larger continuous LAN. Unlike routers, every bridge builds an internal list of addresses of the attached network devices on both sides of it. When a bridge sees a packet, it checks the packet's address against its internal list. If the destination address is on the opposite segment or if the bridge doesn't have the address logged, the bridge forwards the information. Bridges operate at the Data-Link Layer of the OSI Model. They can distinguish between local and remote data, so data traveling from one workstation to another in the same segment doesn't have to cross the bridge. Bridges operate on MAC-Layer addresses. They're protocol independent, so they transfer data between workstations without having to understand the protocol. That means they require little or no configuration.

Q.NO.5: Define the terms Error Detection and Correction with respect to Data Transmission. Also explain the following concepts with respect to Error Detection and Correction: I. Parity Bits II. Cyclic Redundancy Check
ANSWER:Data processing and transmission systems use a variety of techniques to detect and correct errors that occur, usually for any of the following reasons: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Electrostatic interference from nearby machines or circuits. Attenuation of the signal caused by a resistance to current in a cable. Distortion due to inductance and capacitance. Loss in transmission due to leakages. Impulses from static in the atmosphere.

Error detection strategy: Send only enough extra information to detect an error; then request a retransmission from the source. This is called ARQ (automatic repeat request). In this case, both the sender and receiver may take part in retransmitting lost information. Error correction strategy: Send enough additional information to correct problems at the destination. This is called FEC (forward error correction). The receiver is responsible for fixing errors, if possible. (I):Parity Bits(Parity check):The parity bit, unlike the start and stop bits, is an optional parameter, used in serial communications to determine if the data character being transmitted is correctly received by the remote device. This is the simplest error-detection mechanism. A parity bit is appended to a block of data, normally at the end of a 7-bit ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) character. Two techniques-even parity or odd parity-are available, and which method is used is up to the user. In even parity, a parity bit is selected so that the character has an even number of 1s. In odd parity, the parity bit is selected so that the character has an odd number of 1s. For example, if even parity is selected and a computer receives a character with an odd number of 1s, it assumes an error and asks for a retransmission. This method easily breaks down. If two bits change, an error is undetectable by the receiver. (II):CRC(cyclic redundancy check):The CRC method operates on blocks of data called frames. Basically, the sender appends a bit sequence to every frame, called the FCS (frame check sequence). The resulting frame is exactly divisible by a predetermined number. The receiving computer divides the frame by the predetermined number. If there is a remainder, the frame is considered corrupted and a retransmission is requested. This method is commonly used in many forms of communication. It provides a high level of error detection with speed and ease of use.

Q.NO.6: Write notes on (i) Non-Persistent CSMA (ii) 1-Persistent CSMA (iii) P Persistent CSMA .
ANSWER:(I) Non-Persistent CSMA :

Non-persistent CSMA is less greedy. The algorithm is given below: 1. Sense the channel. 2. IF the channel is idle, THEN transmit. 3. If the channel is busy, THEN wait a random amount of time and start over. Non persistent CSMA is less aggressive compared to P persistent protocol. In this protocol, before sending the data, the station senses the channel and if the channel is idle it starts transmitting the data. But if the channel is busy, the station does not continuously sense it but instead of that it waits for random amount of time and repeats the algorithm. Here the algorithm leads to better channel utilization but also results in longer delay compared to 1 persistent. (II) 1-Persistent CSMA : 1-Persistent CSMA is selfish. The algorithm is given below: 1. Sense the channel. 2. IF the channel is idle, THEN transmit. 3. IF the channel is busy, THEN continue to listen until channel is idle. Now transmit immediately. When the sender (station) is ready to transmit data, it checks if the transmission medium is busy. If so, it then senses the medium continually until it becomes idle, and then it transmits the message (a frame). In case of a collision, the sender waits for a random period of time and attempts to transmit again. 1-persistent CSMA is used in CSMA/CD systems including Ethernet. (III)P Persistent CSMA : p persistent CSMA is a slotted approximation. The algorithm is given below: 1. Sense the channel. 2. IF the channel is idle, THEN with probability p transmit and with probability (1-p)delay for one time slot and start over. 3. IF the channel is busy, THEN delay one time-slot and start over. This is a sort of trade-off between 1 and non-persistent CSMA access modes. When the sender is ready to send data, it checks continually if the medium is busy. If the medium becomes idle, the sender transmits a frame with a probability p. If the station chooses not to transmit (the probability of this event is 1-p), the sender waits until the next available time slot and transmits again with the same probability p. This process repeats until the frame is sent or some other sender starts transmitting. In the latter case the sender monitors the channel, and when idle, transmits with a probability p, and so on. p-persistent CSMA is used in CSMA/CA systems including WiFi and other packet radio systems.