INVESTIGATION OF THE CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF IONIC AND COVALENT BONDING By: Avra Saslow Introduction: This

laboratory entailed a process of identifying unknown chemical compounds. There were two ways to assess the unknowns. The primary assessment was understanding if the chemical compound had an ionic or covalent bond. The secondary assessment to further identify the unknown was to check the pH. To have a better understanding of chemical compounds, it was necessary to understand how bonding creates the compounds. The difference between the classes of bonding and their chemical properties was investigated to help understand the formation of compounds. There are three classes of bonding: ionic, covalent, and metallic. Ionic bonding is the attraction of two atoms, one negatively charged (anion) and one positively charged (cation). Ionic bonding can only occur between a metal and a nonmetal. All elements try to achieve a state similar to a noble gas by having a full valence electron orbital ring, or an octet. In order to do so, a metal must want to lose electrons that the non-metal wants to gain. For example, it can be a simple 1:1 ratio like Radium (Ra) and Sulfur (S). Radium must lose two electrons to become an octet, and Sulfur must gain two electrons to become an octet, therefore, making an ionic bond. It can also be the product of a more complex exchange of electrons. An example of this would be Potassium Oxide (K2O). Each potassium atom gives up an electron, resulting in two electrons transferred to the oxygen atom. Therefore, the potassium has given up two electrons and the oxygen has accepted two electrons, leaving both in a more stable form as an octet. An ionic bond is incredibly strong due to its strong attractions between ions. Its tendency to attract electrons is very high, therefore making it extremely difficult to break the bond. Because the bond is so strong and tightly structured, it affects some of the compounds properties. For example, an ionic bond has a very high melting and boiling point, and is also particularly brittle. Because the electronegativity is so high for an ionic bond, and the electrons are so attracted to each atom, it takes a lot of energy to take away each electron after the bond has been formed, hence the high energy level of heat when trying to boil or melt the compound. The structure is also tightly knit together, therefore causing very little wiggle room for each ion. Therefore, the ionic structure cannot be bent or be flexible, causing it to be brittle. Ionic bonds often form crystals, such as salts. They also often make ceramics. In contrast to the transfer of electrons in ionic bonds, covalent bonds involve the sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms. It occurs primarily between two non-metals. Such bonds lead to stable molecules if they share electrons in such a way as to create a noble gas configuration (octet) for each atom. A covalent bond can either be polar or nonpolar.

In a covalent bond, electrons are not always shared equally, resulting in one atom having more of a pull of the electric charge. This is called polarity. Polarity represents an asymmetry of charges on the compound. It is dependent on two factors. The first factor is that each individual atom is polar. For this to happen, the electronegativity of each element needs to be analyzed. If the element with the smaller electronegativity is subtracted from the element with the bigger electronegativity, that number can help evaluate if the individual atoms are polar. If that number is less than .4, then it is nonpolar. If it is between .4 and 1, then it is moderately polar. If it is between 1 and 2.0, it is very polar, and if it is higher than 2 then it is ionic. The second factor in determining polarity is the asymmetry within the compound. One property of an ionic bond is that it often forms symmetrical crystals, therefore giving a reason as to why an ionic bond cant have polarity. If the individual atoms are polar in a covalent bond and the molecule is asymmetrical, then the molecule is polar, meaning that although it is being shared, it is not being shared equally. The electrons are drawn more to one pole. The polarity makes one end of the compound more negatively charged, and the other end more positively charged. As a result, there is a much weaker secondary interaction between two covalent, polar compounds called the dipole dipole forces. These forces are the result of the attraction of two oppositely charged molecules. In figure 1, two polar molecules are attracted to each other because of their charge. The two molecules are HCl and HCl. The chloride has more of a pull on the electrons making the molecule polar. Since both of these molecules are polar, the dipole dipole forces will take place. Because covalent bonds are fighting over electrons instead of transferring electrons, it has very different chemical properties. It is easier to break the covalent bond, requiring very little energy. As a result, covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points. Another property of covalent compounds is that they dont conduct electricity in water. This is because electricity is conducted in water from the movement of ions from one place to another. There are no ions in covalent compounds, therefore causing it to be unable to conduct electricity in water. Covalent bonds usually form polymers. You can anticipate some things about bonds from the positions of the elements on the periodic table. Elements from opposite ends of the periodic table will generally form ionic bonds. They will have large differences in electronegativity and will usually form positive and negative ions. The elements with the largest electronegativities are in the upper right of the periodic table, and the elements with the smallest electronegativities are on the bottom left. Although the chemical and physical properties of metallic bonding were not addressed during this lab, it is worth mentioning the importance of them. Metallic bonding is the sharing of electrons between two metals. An example would be a brass or pewter alloy. Covalent, ionic, and metallic bonds represent intramolecular bonds, which are the strongest type of chemical bonds. These happen within the atom, not between atoms.

There are also bonds that occur between neighboring molecules called intermolecular bonds. Dispersion forces between molecules are much weaker than the covalent bonds within the molecules. An example would be dipole-dipole forces which have been reviewed above. Induced dipole forces occur as a result of a non-polar molecule approaching a polar molecule. This non-polar molecule starts to be attracted to the polar molecule, forming a weak force between the molecules. As a result, polarity is induced within the non-polar molecule. In discerning the different types of bonds, it was important to gain an understanding of conductivity. If the compound conducted electricity when dissolved in water, it was considered to be formed by an ionic bond. If it did not conduct electricity when dissolved in water, it was considered to be formed by a covalent bond. There were two different ways to test for conductivity. In the first method, a conductivity probe was built using lights, wires, and a circuit board. When the red light lit up, it meant that the solution was semi-conductive, and when the red and green light lit up, it meant it was extremely conductive. When neither light lit up, it meant that that solution had no electrical conductivity. The second method, a more accurate method, used a conductivity probe that evaluated the electrical conductivity in terms of numbers instead of colors. For both tests, the control was distilled water, which was not supposed to light up or register a number, since it is non-conductive. Lastly, it was necessary to understand pH and how pH works. pH measures if a solution is an acid or a base, which is a helpful factor in deciding what an unknown is. To measure pH, pH strips were dipped into solutions, and either stayed the same color, turned red, or turned blue. If the paper turned red, that meant that the solution was an acid, whereas if it turned blue, that meant that it was a base. If it stayed the same color, it was neutral. Figure 1: Dipole Dipole Forces

Results: Unknown A: Sugar 1.005 g Description: White, crystalline structure. No odor. Conductivity #/color: Fairly bright red. 1045.3 s/cm pH: Neutral Unknown B: Sodium Chloride (Salt) 1.008 g Description: Small, crystalline structure. White, no odor.

Conductivity #/color: Very bright red, a little green. 1066.1 s/cm pH: Neutral Unknown C: Sodium Acetate 1.013 g Description: No distinct structure, white. Vinegar-like scent. Conductivity #/color: Bright red, medium green. 1065.7 s/cm Notes: Bubbling in water (not stirred) pH: Base Unknown D: Magnesium Sulfate Heptahydate (Epsom Salts) 1.001 g Description: Large, white crystalline structure. No odor. Conductivity #/color: Bright red. 1064.6 s/cm pH: Neutral Unknown E: Sulfur 1.003 g Description: Yellow powder, distinct odor, almost plastic-y Conductivity #/color: No color. 83.7 s/cm Notes: Floating in water. Refuses to dissolve, stays whole. The water and this powder make a heterogeneous mixture. pH: Neutral Unknown F: Sodium Bicarbonate 1.009 g Description: White powder, no odor. Conductivity #/color: Red, a little green. 1065.7 s/cm pH: Base Table 1: Melting Points of Unknown Substances Unknown Substance Melting Time A 37 seconds B >240 seconds C 95 seconds D 38 seconds E 28 seconds F >240 seconds

Figure 2: Unknowns Placed in Distilled Water Before Dissolved

Figure 3: Conductivity Probe and pH Probe

Discussion: The purpose of this lab was to identify unknowns using principles of conductivity and melting time to ascertain whether the compound was ionic or covalently bonded. The pH was used to help identify the compound. The techniques used in this lab included conductivity, melting point, pH, and sensory observations. In general, ionic compounds have a high melting time and a high conductivity level when dissolved in water. In contrast, covalent compounds have a low melting point and do not conduct electricity when dissolved in water. See figure 3 for meters used in the lab. Unknown A is sugar. Sugar is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and is made up of covalent bonds. The pH of sugar is 7, which is considered neutral. The results observed did not completely agree with what was expected for sugar. The conductivity suggested a compound that had an ionic bond. However, the melting time of 37 seconds suggested a compound that had a covalent bond. The measure pH was consistent with what was expected. An explanation for this discrepancy could be that the conductivity of distilled water was measured at 47 s/cm instead of 0 s/cm, and therefore was not an accurate control. Unknown B is Sodium Chloride, which is made of ionic bonds. The pH is approximately 7, which is considered neutral. The results observed agreed with what was expected for table salt. There was high conductivity, and a high melting time (greater than 240 seconds) consistent with an ionic bond. The pH also matched what was expected. Unknown C is Sodium Acetate, which is made of ionic bonds. Its pH is 8.9, which is considered a base. The results observed agreed with what was expected for vinegar. There was high conductivity and a moderately high melting time (95 seconds) consistent with an ionic bond. The pH was that of a base as expected. Unknown D is Magnesium Sulfate Heptahydate or Epsom Salts. The pH of Epsom Salts is 6, which is slightly acidic. It is composed of ionic and covalent compounds. The magnesium sulfate is an ionic bond, whereas the seven water molecules (7H2O) is covalent. Although there are covalent parts in the compound, the ionic part will cause the color change and high reading indicative of an ionic bond. However, the melting time (38 seconds) was similar to that of sugar, suggesting a covalent nature. The results suggested that the pH was neutral. This discrepancy may be due to misreading of the pH strip; the colors varied slightly. Unknown E is Sulfur, which is made up of covalent bonds. Its pH is 4.5, which is considered acidic. It is insoluble in water. The results suggested that color, the smell, and the inability to dissolve closely matched what was expected of Sulfur. The conductivity was extremely low, at 83.7 s/cm, which is consistent with a covalent bond. Its melting time was also low at 28 seconds. In summary, the results matched what would be expected for Sulfur. See figure 2 to note that sulfur was the only compound to not dissolve in water.

Unknown F is Sodium Bicarbonate, which is composed of ionic bonds. Its pH is 8.4, which is considered basic. Sodium Bicarbonate consists of 1 sodium, 1 hydrogen, 1 carbon, and 3 oxygen atoms. The red and green colors on the conductivity probe indicate that the results match what is expected for an ionic compound. The melting time of over 240 seconds also consists with what is expected for Sodium Bicarbonate. The measured pH was basic, matching what was expected. The three different methods used to identify the substance and identify if the substance was covalent or ionic were conductivity, melting time, and pH. Observing the crystalline structure of a compound would have been another method to support results stating if the compound was covalent or ionic. Although the labs results often had regularity with the actual compounds properties, there were still inconsistencies. One error was that the conductivity of the water (the control) was not measured in the actual water poured into each small beaker. The distilled water was poured into each beaker and the compounds were then dissolved. The control test was taken from an entirely different sample of distilled water. Therefore, the conductivity of the water in each individual beaker was not accurately tested using the conductivity probe. Although it was tested with the conductivity probe that measured in color, that probe cant be entirely relied on because of it often broke. The conductivity of the water in each individual beaker should have been taken, and the conductivity probe should have been set to zero in the distilled water to accurately obtain results and be an accurate control. This error could account for the inconsistency in Unknown A. Understanding the difference between covalent and ionic bonds is important because chemistry arises out of the interaction of molecules with molecules. Therefore, it is important to understand what a molecule is, how it works, and how it interacts with other molecules. This lab was also important because it was a building block in basic chemistry that will make it easier to learn the more difficult aspects of chemistry such as writing chemical formulas of bonds, learning chemical quantities, and even moving forward into chemical reactions and stoichiometry. It was also excellent practice using different scientific instruments and spending time in the lab, resulting in a higher comfort level in the lab, which is required for more dangerous experiments. Further research upon this lab could include why molecules are shaped certain ways, how bonding relates to the production of materials, and what happens with metalloids and bonding. There are further refinements that the lab itself needs. It would be interesting to be given a list of ten different compounds and have to find the pH, conductivity, melting time, and crystalline structures of five compounds and then identify the unknowns. This would require more scientific thinking and would bring up some interesting results. Also, it would be interesting to test more complex compounds and investigate what kind of bond it is.