TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO.

TITLE

PAGE NO.

LIST OF TABLE LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF SYMBOLS / NOTATION ABSTRACT

V VI

1. CHAPTER 1 1.1. Introduction 1.2 History 2. CHAPTER 2 2.1. working principle 2.2 crystallization 2.3 design of a single-effect lithium bromide air conditioning system 2.3.1 assumptions 2.3.2 evaporator heat exchanger design 2.3.2.2 calculation of overall heat transfer co-efficient (u) 2.3.2.2 effectiveness of the evaporator heat exchanger 2.3.2.3 length of the copper tube ( l ) 2.3.3 condenser heat exchanger design 2.3.3.1 length of condenser tube 2.3.4 absorber heat exchanger design 2.3.5 generator heat exchanger design 2.4 practical problems in water-lithium bromide systems 3. CHAPTER 3 3.1 construction of the unit and experimental results 3.2 solution heat exchanger 3.3 conclusion REFERENCES

ABSTRACT
Absorption refrigerators are machines, which produce cooling by using heat energy, and have no moving parts . The objective of this work is to design and construct a lithium bromidewater (LiBrH2O) absorption refrigerator with a nominal capacity . The analysis in various stages includes the design of the evaporator, absorber, heat exchanger, generator and condenser. Vapour absorption refrigeration systems using water-lithium bromide pair are extensively used in large capacity air conditioning systems. In these systems water is used as refrigerant and a solution of lithium bromide in water is used as absorbent. Since water is used as refrigerant, using these systems it is not possible to provide refrigeration at sub-zero temperatures. Hence it is used only in applications requiring refrigeration at temperatures above 0oC. Hence these systems are used for air conditioning applications.

CHAPTER - 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION Vapour absorption refrigeration systems using water-lithium bromide pair are extensively used in large capacity air conditioning systems. In these systems water is used as refrigerant and a solution of lithium bromide in water is used as absorbent. Since water is used as refrigerant, using these systems it is not possible to provide refrigeration at sub-zero temperatures. Hence it is used only in applications requiring refrigeration at temperatures above 0 C. Hence these systems are used for air conditioning applications. The analysis of this system is relatively easy as the vapour generated in the generator is almost pure refrigerant (water), unlike ammonia-water systems where both ammonia and water vapour are generated in the generator. A number of refrigerant-absorbent pairs are used, for which the most common ones are waterlithium bromide and ammonia-water. These two pairs offer good thermodynamic performance and they are environmentally benign and the solution has a strong affinity for water vapour because of its low vapour pressure. Since lithium bromide solution is corrosive, therefore inhibitors should be added in order to protect the metal parts of the system against corrosion. Lithium chromate is often used as a corrosion inhibitor . Lithium bromide-water air conditioner are available in two types, the single and the double effect. The single effect absorption air conditioner is mainly used for building cooling loads, where chilled water is required at 6-7 oC in evaporator . The coefficient of performance (COP) varies to a small extent (0.65 - 0.75) with the heat source and the cooling water temperatures. Single effect chillers can operate with hot water temperature ranging from about 80 0C to 120 0C when water is Pressurized. 1.2 HISTORY Attempts have been made to run vapour absorption systems by solar energy with concentrating and flat plate solar collectors. Several small solar absorption refrigeration systems have been made around 1950s in several countries. Serious consideration to solar refrigeration system was given since 1965, due to the scarcity of fossil fuel based energy sources. LiBr-water based systems have been developed for air conditioning purposes. The first solar air conditioning system was installed in an experimental solar house in University of Queensland, Australia in 1966. After this several systems
o

based on solar energy were built in many parts of the world including India. In 1976, there were about 500 solar absorption systems in USA alone. Almost all these were based on LiBr-water as these systems do not require very high heating temperatures. These systems were mainly used for space air conditioning. Remote and rural areas where space is not a constraint. In addition, these systems are environment friendly as they use eco-friendly refrigerants and run on clean and renewable solar energy or with the waste heat.

CHAPTER - 2
2.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE Fig 2.1 shows the lithium bromide vapour absorption system. The water for air conditioning coils or process requirements is chilled as it is pumped through the chilled-water tubes in the evaporator by giving up heat to the refrigerant water sprayed over the tubes. Since the pressure inside the evaporator is maintained very low, therefore, the refrigerant water evaporates. The water vapours thus formed will be absorbed by the strong lithium-bromide solution which is sprayed in the absorber. In absorbing the water vapour, the lithium bromide solution becomes weak. This weak solution is pumped by the pump to the generator where it is heated up by using the waste heat or direct electrical heating coils. A portion of water is evaporated by the heat and solution now becomes strong. This strong solution is passed through the heat exchanger and then sprayed in the absorber to the generator is also passed through the heat exchanger. This weak solution gets heat from the strong solution in the heat exchanger, thus reducing the quality of steam required to heat the weak solution in the generator.

FIG 2.1 Schematic representation of the system A: Absorber , G: Generator , P: Solution pump , C: Condenser , E: Evaporator ER: Refrigerant expansion valve , ES : solution expansion valve

The refrigerant water vapours formed in the generator due to heating of the solution are passed to the condenser where they are cooled and condensed by the cooling water flowing through the condenser water tubes. The cooling water for condensing is pumped from the cooling water pond or tower. This cooling water first enters the absorber where it takes away the heat of condensation and dilution. The condensate from the condensate from the condenser pressure to the evaporate pressure. The cooled water from the evaporator is pumped and sprayed in the evaporator in order to cool the water for air conditioning flowing through the chilled tubes. This completes the cycle. 2.2 CRYSTALLIZATION The pressure-temperature-mass fraction and enthalpy-temperature-mass fraction charts (Figs. 2.1 and 2.2 ) show lines marked as crystallization in the lower right section. The region to the right and below these crystallization lines indicates solidification of LiBr salt. In the crystallization region a two-phase mixture (slush) of water-lithium bromide solution and crystals of pure LiBr exist in equilibrium. The water-lithium bromide system should operate away from the crystallization region as the formation of solid crystals can block the pipes and valves. Crystallization can occur when the hot solution rich in LiBr salt is cooled in the solution heat exchanger to low temperatures. To avoid this the condenser pressure reduction below a certain value due to say, low cooling water temperature in the condenser should be avoided. Hence in commercial systems, the condenser pressure is artificially maintained high even though the temperature of the available heat sink is low. This actually reduces the performance of the system, but is necessary for proper operation of the system. It should be noted from the property charts that the entire water-lithium bromide system operates under vacuum.

Fig 2.1 P-T-Conc. Diagram for LiBr- H2O solution

2.3 DESIGN OF A SINGLE-EFFECT LITHIUM BROMIDE AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

G G
HE

A E 6 0C 45. 830 C 200 C

0 40 (fig 2.3 schimatic diagram of experimental setup) C

6 0C

6 0C

320C
E

350C

2.3.1 ASSUMPTIONS 7.5 To perform estimations of equipment sizing and performance evaluation of single-effect waterCM lithium bromide absorption cooler basic assumptions and input values must be considered. the basic OF assumptions are: HG 0.1 and absorber is assumed to be 0.7 cm of Hg . The pressure The pressure in the evaporator bar is assume to be 7 cm of Hg. in the generator and condenser ii. the steady state refrigerant is pure water, 0.7 iii. there are no pressure changes except through the flow restrictors and the pump, CM iv. Refrigerant at inlet of evaporator is saturated liquid and refrigerant at outlet of the OF evaporator is saturated vapour. HG v. Fouling factors are neglected at both condenser and evaporator. vi. Thickness of the condenser0.0 and evaporator is neglected vii. the pump is isentropic, and 094 there are no jacket heat losses. 38 Bar 2.3.2 EVAPORATOR HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN i. For the Evaporator Heat Exchanger h=2 design the data is shown in the following Table are considered. These data are extracted to511 facilitate construction. .48 The fluid inside the tube is heated by the run of fluid at the outer surface of the tube, so that progressive vaporisation occurs. The heat transfer coefficient increases with distance from the entrance since heat is added continuously to Cthe fluid. It is also not yet possible to predict all of the G

characteristics of this process quantitatively because of the great number of variables upon which the process depends and the complexity of the various two-phase flow patterns that occur as the quality of the vapour-liquid mixture increases during vaporization .Therefore, in the case of this study, the overall heat transfer coefficient is determined experimentally and finally the evaporator sizing is being done by - NTU method. TABLE 2.1 Evaporator Heat Exchanger Characteristics Parameter Type / Value Heat Exchanger Type Multi-pass horizontal tubes ( cross flow ) (outside diameter Do = inside diameter Di = 25 mm) Water inlet temperature 6 0C Water outlet temperature 6 0C Mass flow rate ( m ) 1.4*10-3 kg/sec Evaporator load ( Q ) 3.5 kW Evaporator pressure 0.7 cm of Hg TABLE 2.2 Properties of water and air during evaporating process. Fluid Temperature Density Dynamic 0C Name viscosity . Water Air 6 35 1000 1.145

Specific heat .

Thermal conductivity .

2.3.2.1 CALCULATION OF OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER CO-EFFICIENT (U) i) FOR INNER HEAR TRANSFER COEFFICIENT (hi):Reynolds no of the flow of water inside the copper tube VD Re = kg = density of water = 1000 m m V = velocity of flow = A m = mass flow of water in evaporator tubes 210 Q 210 1 m= = = . 2511.65 h so V = 1.4 10 1000 4 D = 1.4 10 = 2.85 10 1000 4 0.025 0.025 = 46.875

1.945 10

1.52 10

4187 1005

0.5818 0.02625

m sec

at 6 c = 1.52 centpoise

so Re =

1000 2.85 10 1.52 10

prandti no P = c = sp. heat of water = 4187 j

kg. k K= thermal conductivity of water at 6 c = 0.5818 w m. k As the flow is laminar and it is forced convection .so, N = 0.028 Re . Pr n = 0.4 for heating So Nusselt no of flow

c 1.52 10 4.187 10 = = 10.93 k 0.5818

N = 0.028 115.13 . 10.93 . = 3.24 Here flow is fully developed and constant heat flux so Nu=4.363 hD we know N = k N k 4.363 0.5818 => h = = D 0.025 => = . . ii) FOR OUTER HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT (ho) :Reynolds no of flow Re = V D

k here = density of air = 1.145 m m V = velocity of flow of air = 2 sec D = outer diameter of evaporator copper tube = 0.025 m = dynamic viscosity of air , N. S at 35 c = 1.945 10 m 1.145 2 0.025 Re = = 2943.44 1.945 10 So the cross turbulent flow in forced convection . Nusselt no , N = C Re Pr . TABLE 2.3 ( value of C and n with respect to the Re value )

We know here,

N = 0.683 2943.44

Now overall heat transfer co-efficient U = r

h .D k N k h = D . . = = . . k at 35 c = 0.02625 w m. k N = r k ln 1 1 r r

0.7268

= 25.39

1 r h + Here Kc = thermal conductivity of copper For small thickness U = 1 1 1

+1 h

U =

2.3.2.2 EFFECTIVENESS OF THE EVAPORATOR HEAT EXCHANGER Heat capacity of water = =( Heat capacity of air = = = = 0.3 0.3 = 0.09 = , = 1.145 0.09 2 = 0.2061 = = 0.2061 1005 = 207.13 =

1 101.53 + 26.65

1 h + h

= 21.1 w m k

. m c (T T ) = m c (T T ) T T 35 32 3 = = = = 0.103 T T 35 6 29 = .

350C

320C 6 0C 6 0C

(fig 2.4 evaporator heat exchanger) We know for a boiler or condenser = 1e e =1 NTU = ln(1 ) NTU = ln(1 0.103) = . NTU = UA c

We know that

A = Total area exposed to heat transfer

21.1 A 207.13 0.108 207.13 A= = 1.06 m 21.1 2.3.2.3 LENGTH OF THE COPPER TUBE ( L ):A L= . D 1.06 L= = . 0.025 This is the total length of copper tube required for the evaporator design . 0.108 =

2.3.3 CONDENSER HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN For the condenser Heat Exchanger design the data is shown in the following Table 2.4 are considered. These data are extracted to facilitate construction. The fluid inside the tube is cooled by dipping the heat exchanger tubes in a water tank where cooling water is at a static position, so that progressive condensation occurs. The heat transfer coefficient decreases with distance from the entrance since heat is removed continuously from the fluid. Therefore, in the case of this study, the overall heat transfer coefficient is determined experimentally and finally the evaporator sizing is being done by LMTD method. Table 2.4 Condenser Heat Exchanger Characteristics table Parameter Type / Value Heat Exchanger Type Shell and coiled type (outside diameter Do = inside diameter Di = 20 mm) Water inlet temperature 45.48 0C Water outlet temperature 45.48 0C Mass flow rate ( m ) 1.46*10-3 kg/sec Evaporator load ( Q ) 3.5 kW Evaporator pressure 7 cm of Hg The rate of heat transfer during the condensation process will be =

Here, U=overall heat transfer coefficient=1160

(for steam, copper and water)

A=area exposed to heat transfer = logarithmic mean temperature difference A=area exposed to heat transfer

45.480C

45.480C 250C

200C

(Fig 2.4 condenser heat exchanger )

= =>

2.3.3.1 LENGTH OF CONDENSER TUBE :Length of condenser tube =

3.5 10 = 0.134 1160 22.40

25 20 = 22.40 25 20

So the length of condenser tube required will be 2.132 m. 2.3.4 ABSORBER HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN In an absorber, the strong solutions, coming from bubble pump, absorb water vapor coming from the evaporator. In a recent study, a model for absorption of water vapor into aqueous LiBr flowing over a horizontal smooth tube was developed. Mass balance in absorber m = mass flow rate in evaporator m = mass flow rate of inlet strong LiBr solution m = mass flow rate of weak LiBr solution at outlet of absorber m +m = m => 1.4 10 +m = m => m m = 1.4 10

= .

Mass fraction of LiBr2 in absorber X = mass fraction of LiBr at the outlet of evaporater X = mass fraction of LiBr in weak solution X = mass fraction of LiBr in strong solution => m . X + m . X = m . X => 0.6 m = m 0.55 on solving m = 0.0168 kg sec and m = 0.0154 kg

heat absorbed in absorber = m h + m h m h mc t = 1.4 10 2511 + 0.0154 100 0.0154 30 = 4.593 kw

sec

2.3.5 GENERATOR HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN The weak LiBr solution from the absorber is pumped to the generator by a solution pump. Before pumping to the generator coils the solution is allowed to pass through a solution through the solution heat exchanger for the preheating of the weak solution. Generator provides the latent heat of vaporisation. The latent heat evaporates the water particles from the weak solution . Then the water vapour is allowed to pass through the condenser and the remained strong LiBr solution which contain a little amount of water particle goes to absorber tank through the solution heat exchanger. Table 2.4 Generator Heat Exchanger Characteristics Parameter Heat Exchanger Type Generator pressure Generator solution Type/ Value Induction coil type 7 cm of Hg Entering: 55% LiBr at 20C Leaving: 60% LiBr at 45.83C kJ kg

The enthalpy of strong LiBr solution at 45.83 and 60% (h6) =120 The enthalpy of saturated steam at 45.83 0C (h1) = 2584.7 kJ kg

The enthalpy of the inlet weak LiBr solution at 20 and 55% (h5)= 50 kJ kg

So the required size of generator for this air conditioning system will be 2.75 kW and it will be a coil type induction heater. 2.4 PRACTICAL PROBLEMS IN WATER-LITHIUM BROMIDE SYSTEMS Practical problems typical to water-lithium bromide systems are: i. Crystallization ii. Air leakage iii. Pressure drops As mentioned before to prevent crystallization the condenser pressure has to be maintained at certain level, irrespective of cooling water temperature. This can be done by regulating the flow rate of cooling water to the condenser. Additives are also added in practical systems to inhibit crystallization. Since the entire system operates under vacuum, outside air leaks into the system. Hence an air purging system is used in practical systems. Normally a two-stage ejector type purging system is used to remove air from the system. Since the operating pressures are very small and specific volume of vapour is very high, pressure drops due to friction should be minimized. This is done by using twinand single-drum arrangements in commercial systems.

heat supplied in generator Q = m h + m h m h = 7.31 10 2392.94 + 0.0154 120 0.0168 50 = .

CHAPTER - 3
3.1 CONSTRUCTION OF THE UNIT AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS All heat exchangers described above, are constructed in a way that permits the use of Varying number of tubes. The objective is to modify the number of heat exchanger tubes and Thus the heat exchange area, until the required operating conditions, depicted in Tables 2.1-2.4, Are obtained. This will ensure a design with a good COP. For this Purpose thermometer pockets and flow-meters are installed at various points of the unit for Measurements and adjustments. 3.2 SOLUTION HEAT EXCHANGER The solution heat exchanger is constructed with the copper pipes specified and is Positioned slightly below the generator as indicated in Figure. During operation the solution of the generator is flowing to the absorber by gravity and pressure difference and the flow is Adjusted with a valve. The solution being heated is pumped from the lower pressure of the Absorber to the generator.
3.3 CONCLUSION The unit designed is constructed and each heat exchanger is adjusted to the required Output. In this way the designed COP is ensured. Based on the construction experience of the 3.5kW unit that can cover the needs of a typical insulated house .The present cost of the absorption unit together with its running cost is economically viable. Considering also the destruction of the ozone layer caused by the use of electric chillers, absorption units will offer a better environment, especially if some form of Renewable or waste energy is used for their operation.