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'-^'
COMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW THROUGH AN ORIFICE by HERSCHEL NATHANIEL WALLER, JR., B.S.
A THESIS IN MATHEMATICS
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE
Accepted
May, 1973
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Dr. Wayne Ford for allotting time to direct the writing of my thesis and for the interest he has shown in my work. I am also indebted to Dr. L.
11
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKN0V7LEDGMENTS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. INTRODUCTION EQUATIONS OF CONTINUITY EULER'S EQUATIONS THE THREE TYPES OF FLUID MOTION ROTATIONAL MOTION AND EULER'S EQUATIONS NAVIER-STOKES EQUATIONS BERNOULLI'S EQUATIONS FLOW EQUATIONS FOR THE ORIFICE METER . . . . SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . .
ii iv
12 16 20 35 41 51 53
LIST OF REFERENCES
111
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 1. 2. 3. 4. An incompressible fluid element Forces on a fluid element A fluid element in two-dimensional flow . . . . Viscous fluid elements, (a) at rest, and (b) in motion A diagrammatic comparison of one-dimensional (a) nonviscous flow and (b) viscous flow in a pipe 6. Stresses on an infinitesimal volume of a viscous fluid 7. An orifice type differential meter with U-tube manometer
page 3 8 12
21
5.
22
23
41
IV
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The purpose of this thesis is to show the development of the fluid flow equation used almost everywhere in the United States to calculate the rate of flow of natural gas through an orifice. This purpose is accomplished in, essentially, two steps: (1) Starting with the most fundamental relation-
ships, the Navier-Stokes equations for compressible fluids are derived. These equations allow for not only the usual
hydrostatic forces but also the forces due to friction between adjacent fluid elements and between the fluid and its container. The various types of fluid flow are dis-
cussed, and the Euler equations are developed. (2) Using a multitude of assumptions the Navier-
Stokes equations are reduced to the fluid flow equation used in the natural gas industry to calculate flow rate through an orifice. and discussed. Several of the assumptions are listed
CHAPTER II EQUATIONS OF CONTINUITY Incompressible Fluids Consider an element of incompressible fluid volume. Let the element be a rectangular parallelepiped with sides dx, dy, and dz parallel to, respectively, the mutually x, y, and V z. Let the instantaneous |v| , and let
perpendicular axes
with magnitude
the scalar components of the velocity vector parallel to the X, y, and z axes be, respectively, V ,V and V .
As seen in Figure 1, the volume of fluid entering the left yz face of the element is
V^dydz,
yz
Therefore the net change in volume for the x-direction is 9V ir-^ dxdydz. dx
For the y-direction, the volume change is 9V ^ dxdydz 9y and for the z-direction is 9V j ^
dxdydz
V^dydz
9V X (V^+^3^x) dydz
9V 'y^
(V + -Z dy)dxdz
y
^Y
V dxdy
The
volume of fluid leaving the element must equal the volume entering the element because the fluid being considered is incompressible. Therefore, 9V 3V 3V
Equation (1) is called the equation of continuity for incompressible fluids. The sum of the partial derivatives of the scalar components of velocity (the left side of Equation (1)) is called the divergence of an incompressible fluid, V, abbreviated div V. Hence, for
div V = 0.
(2)
Compressible Fluids Now suppose the fluid is compressible; that is, volume is a function of pressure. The equation of contin-
uity for a compressible fluid must be based not upon the constancy of volume but upon the constancy of mass. Consider Figure 1 again. If p is the density of yz
the fluid, then the mass of the fluid entering the left face of the element in time dt is
(pV^)dydzdt,
yz
(pV
X
9(pV ) + _ J i _ dx)dydzdt.
dX
and for the z-direction is 9(PV^) ^r dxdydzdt 9z The total net outflow is, then. 9(pV ) 9(pV ) 9(pV^) [ ^ ^ ^ + - ^ + - ^ ] dxdydzdt
Because of this outflow, however, the mass inside the element is reduced by
- ( | | ) dxdydzdt
For the total mass to remain unchanged, the following equation must hold: 9(pV ) 9x 9(pV ) 9y 3(pV ) 9z
^9t' '
(3)
Equation (3) is called the equation of continuity for compressible fluids. If density is constant, as for incom-
pressible fluids. Equation (3) reduces to Equation (1). Another way to express Equation (3) is
1^ + div (pV) = 0 .
dt
(4)
CHAPTER III EULER'S EQUATIONS Again consider an element of fluid volume as in Figure 1. In this case, hov/ever, consider the forces acting If the pressure is denoted by p, as
seen in Figure 2, the differential force caused by the pressure across the yz faces of the element is
- (1 | dx) dydz.
xz
- (l 1^ dy) dxdz
xy
faces,
- ( J c | dz) dxdy.
dZ
The vectors i, 3, and k are the unit vectors parallel to the X-, y-, and z-axis, respectively. F is, therefore, The total differen-
tial force
If the operator
del,
V,
is defined to be
V = then
^ 9x ^ = " 3y ^ ^ 3z '
F = - Vpdxdydz.
(6)
pdxdy + (^
dz)dxdy pdxdz
pdxdy
dm,
the density,
p,
p =
dm dxdydz
dm
F = - Vp -^ .
(7)
Even though the fluid element may change in shape as it moves, its mass remains constant. Hence, if external forces
^ dV , F = ^ dm ,
(8)
where (7),
is time.
dV . _ ^ dm _ dm - - Vp
dV ^ P ^ + Vp = 0.
(9)
Velocity, in general, depends not only upon position (x,y,z) and time (t) but also upon initial position (x^,y^,z ) at a reference time (t). Assuming a fixed initial position and time.
10
^ = ^ ^ + 9 V ^ + dt 9x dt " ^ 9y dt Letting
9 V d z . 9V 9z dt " ^ It
,,^v ^^^^
V V
= ^ dt'
V ^ ^z = dt'
^X33^
\ ^
^ Z 3 7 = ^-^-
(1^)
= (^V)V . Il .
(12)
9^ p[(V.V)V + 1^ ] + Vp = S .
(13)
This is the vector form of Euler's equations of motion. Equation (13) can be separated into three scalar equations The first of these is 9V o(v ^ P^ X 3x 9V V y 9y 9V V z 3z 9V . ^r-^ ) + -^ = 0; 9t ' 9x
or 9V X 3x 9V y 9y 9V z 9z 9V 9t ,J . p 9x
11
If body forces (external forces, such as gravity) are considered, their vector sum, B, can be denoted as follows:
S = Xi + Y^ + zS ,
where
x, Y, and
forces per unit mass in the x-, y-, and z-direction, respectively. Equation (14) then becomes 9V 9V 9V 3V X . ,, X , X + _^Ji + 1 ^ 9p Vx 3 ^-^ ^-^ ^-^ x + Vy 9 y + Vz 9 z + ^x^ 9t p 9 x - X = 0. (15)
(V.V)V + | ^ + V p - g = J . dt P
(16)
CHAPTER IV THE THREE TYPES OF FLUID MOTION Fluid motion is of three basic types: (1) (2) (3) Translation Rotation Deformation
To see the relationships among these types, consider two-dimensional fluid flow. in the fluid and a point Figure 3 shows a point a distance 0 is V 0(x,y)
0'(x+dx, y+dy) 0.
= V(dx) i dr =
+ (dy)
from
The velocity at
dy
"x
#
dx
Fig. 3.A
12
13
and at
O'
is
^ + dV.
Now,
has components
V , in the
Therefore the
V' = V + dV
dy ^
9V dx + ^ 9y
dy . ^
V' = V
XX
(18)
The components
and
14
linear velocity in the x- and y-direction, respectively. V ^ and V y were the only components in Equations (18) ,
If
( a = b = c = e = 0 ) , then the rectangular fluid element in Figure 3 would remain rectangular at every point in the field of flow; that is, the flow would be ideal parallel flow. The terms adx and bdy are expressions of the
change of velocity in the x- and y-direction, respectively; they represent the "stretching rate" of the edge of the element in each direction. 3V ^1 = 93E^ or 3V 9V From Figure 3, ^^^ 9V ^2 = 97^ '
Equation (19) represents the change of the angle between the two edges of the rectangle at point 0. The terms a, b,
and c, then, represent the deformation of the fluid element between point O and point 0'. Then
Now assume
a = b = c = 0. 3V __J1 = 9x 9V
^ 9y
so that
15
Yi = - Y 2 ' or - Yi = Y2
Therefore,
e = I (Yi - (-Yi))
e = Y L.
Thus, ^ 9V 9V
Equation (20) is an expression of the angular velocity with which the rectangular element moves about an axis through point O and normal to the plane of flow; that is, e
represents the rotational velocity of the element. The terms V , V , a, b, c, and e, then, translation,
express the relationship among these types of flow for the two-dimensional case.
CHAPTER V ROTATIONAL MOTION AND EULER'S EQUATIONS As shown in Chapter IV, angular (rotational) velocity about an axis normal to the plane of flow can be expressed as T 9V 1( _jz: 2^ 3x 3V X 3y
of flow in Figure 3 is thought of as the z-axis, then the above expression represents rotational flow about the z-axis. For three-dimensional flow rotational velocity is represented by three terms; one is the above expression. The other two are T 3V 1( _Ji 2^ 9z 3V 2. 9x ^
16
17
for rotational velocity about the x-axis. Tne vector, V , formed from the three expressions. 1 J . 9V 9V 3V 9V T 9V 9V
is called the vorticity vector. Now, since ^ ^ 9V X V = i( ^ ^9y 3V 3V^ ^) + tf ^ 9z ' ^ ^^9z 3V^ _ ^ 9V 3V 1\ + t( Z ^\ f o i \ 93r^ + ^^alT " 9^^ ' ^^1)
V* = ^(V X V) .
(22)
curl V = V XV .
(23)
From the theory developed in Chapter III, if the flow is irrotational, V* = |(curl V) = ^ ;
then
18
V X V = ? .
Euler's equations of motion, as developed in Chapter III, consist of three scalar equations or one vector equation. The scalar form can be written as follows: 9V 9V 9V 9V T . ^ v ^ + V^, ^ + V ^ ^ + ^ = X - i ^ X dx y oy z 3z 9t p 9x 9V 9V 9V 9V T . V ^ ^ + V ^ + V ^ + ^ = Y-1|P x 9x y 9y z 9z 9t P 9y ^^z + V -r^ ^^z + V ,7-^ ^ \ + -^ ^^z = z - 1 4^ 9P VX TT-^ 3x y 3y z 9z 3t p 3z
(24a)
(24b)
(24c) ^ '
Consider the left side of Equation (2 4a) , the Euler equation for the x-direction: 3V 3V 9V 9V V ^ + V ^ + V ^ + ^ X 9x y 9y ^ ^z 9z ^ 9t 9V 9V 9V 9V (25) 9V
Since 1 9V 1( _ J L 2^ 9x 9V^ ^ 9y
19 T 9V 9V X z X 2^ 9z ~ 9x ^
1^/
represents rotational velocity about the y-axis, the middle two terms on the right side of Equation (25) have coefficients that are merely twice the rotational velocities about the axes perpendicular to the direction of flow. left sides of Equations (24b) and (24c) can be written similarly. Therefore, for irrotational flow. Equation (24a) reduces to
3V
The
1 9 , 2 2 2, X 1 9p . _ ^ (V + V + V ) + TTT^ = X - - ^ . 2 9x ^ X y z' 9t p 9x Similarly, Equations (24b) and (24c) become, respectively. 3V 13 f2 , v2 2 y - Y - ^^ P 2 9? ^^x " * ^y ^ ^z^ ^ 9t ^ P 9y and 3V 2 9z X y z' 9t P 9z
CHAPTER VI NAVIER-STOKES EQUATIONS In the preceding derivations friction forces have been ignored. Friction between one fluid element and
another and between the fluid and its container must be considered if a truly general fluid flow equation is to be developed. That property of a real fluid which causes shearing (friction) forces is called viscosity. A fluid whose flow
is affected by viscosity is called a viscous fluid. Incompressible Fluids Consider, first, simple parallel flow of a viscous incompressible fluid, illustrated in Figure 4. In Figure 4(a) the fluid is at rest, fluid element E^ lies atop fluid element E^, and viscosity has no
effect.
In Figure 4(b), however, the fluid is in motion. E, has scalar velocity v, and E2 has scalar
As shown, velocity
v + dv. T,
unit area,
is defined as follows:
dv
I ^c\
T = y ^ 20
(26)
21
where
(a) y
^ -^ T
v+dv
E,
Cb)
Fig. 4.Viscous fluid elements, (a) at rest, and (b) in motion.
The quantity
between ideal (nonviscous) fluid flow and viscous fluid flow in a pipe is illustrated in Figure 5.
22
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5.A diagrammatic comparison of one-dimensional (a) nonviscous flow and (b) viscous flow in a pipe.
Consider Figure 6, which illustrates the three dimensional case of viscous incompressible fluid flow. figure shows both normal, or direct, stresses (i. e., stresses due to pressure) and shear stresses (i. e., stresses due to friction) that affect a parallelepiped of infinitesimal volume dxdydz. Note that, in viscous fluids, The
even the normal stresses are dependent upon the orientation of the axes, as shown by the subscripts x, y, and z on p.
23
Q(x,y,z)
in the
fluid, and they are shown for only five sides of the parallelepiped.
Z
A
dx
Q(x,y,z)
^T
^x
9p^ 9x
T - --2SZd^--^y--^x-xy 9x / zy zy 3z zx / 3z dz
/ /
9T ' xz, T - T: dx XZ 9x T
z
/ / / / / /
yz
/
T
yx
V^x
T9P.
kiz P^" z 3z
24
7P
/ ^x
T P
xy
T
xz
yx W_.. zx
^y T zy
yz P ^z
^xy = V x '
^xz = ^zx'
The differential force in the positive x-direction is formulated as follows: 9p [Px- (P, - 33^dx)]dydz
9T
^x=
+ [T - (T yx yx + [T - (T zx zx 9p 9T F = (_ii + - ^ ^x 9x 9y
9T
^ 9y
9T
dy)]dxdz ^ dz)]dxdy
^ 9z
+ _2X)(jxdydz 9z ^
(27a)
+ - ^ ) dxdydz 9x
(27b)
25 9p
9T 9T
^z = ^JT*
- ^ " - - l ^ )i^Ay^z.
(27c)
The relationships between shear and normal stresses will now be developed. As already mentioned, in a viscous fluid the normal and shear stresses depend upon the orientation of the coordinate axes. The stress system can be divided into the p and any additional normal and
hydrostatic pressure
tangential stresses that cause only deformation of the fluid by the action of viscosity. For plane flow, three terms with coefficients and c, a, b,
represents half the angular rate of deformation betv/een the two edges of the plane rectangular fluid element. These
rates of deformation must be proportional to the extra normal and tangential stresses; the constant of proportionality is 2y, where the 2 is required for agreement
between Equation (26) and Equations (18) . Therefore, for the three-dimensional case, the additional normal stresses caused by the action of viscosity are 9V Px = ^^-^' 9V Py = 2 ^ - ^ ' , 9V^ P- ^ ' " " ^ '
^^^
(28a)
(28b)
The shear stresses are related to the velocity of angular deformation (cf. Equations (17)) as follows: 3V ^ ^ ^ 3x 3V 9y (29b)
xy
yx
(29c)
^^z
^^X
27
rearranging.
s\
9x
d\
9y 3V
d\
9z
9V
3V
If
F^
x-direction, 2 2 2 9 V^ 9 V 9 V + u( - + - + - )
^^ ^ 2 ^ . 2 ^ ^ 2^
F'
r, = - ^
dx
(30a)
dx ^ ^ ^ 3y 9 ,^^x ^ ^^z 3z ,
Corresponding substitutions give the following expressions for force per unit volume in the y- and z-direction: 2 3 V
y ^y 3x2
2 9 V
9y2
2 3 V
3z2 (30b)
and 2 3 V
= " ^^
3x2
2 3 V
3^2
2 3 V^
3^^
(30c)
28
However, for incompressible fluids, the equation of continuity states that 9V 3V 3V ii + - J : 4 - ^ = 0. 3x 3y 3z Therefore, Equations (30) become 2 2 : ? cs^ 3 V 3 V 3 V 3 3 F" ^ ^ ^ 2 ^ T + ^ ^' (31a) 9x 3 y 3z 2 2 P a^ 3 ' ' V 3 V 3 V -|f ^ ^ ( i ^ ~ ^ i ) dz^ ' ( 3 1 b ) ^ 3x^ 3y^ 2 2 ? : ^ r . 9 V^ 9 V 3 ^ V
(31C)
^x
and
^ y= ^
< - - % - ^ ^ - \ - - \ ^ - \ ^ -
3x
3 y 3z
A rearrangement of Equation (15), the scalar Euler equation for the x-direction, gives 3V 3V 3V 3V
^X-Sl + \-af + ^ z ^ + ^ = ^ - f If
(32a)
The Euler equations for the y- and z-direction arranged in the above form are, respectively, then, 3V 3V 3V 3V T ^^ V _ Z + v - ^ + V - ^ + - ^ = Y - l | P X 3x y 3y z 3z 3t P 9y and
(32b)
29
9V 3V 3V 3V T ^^ V - ^ + V - ^ + V - ^ + - ^ = Z - ^ | ^ . X 3x y 9y z 3z 3t p 3z
(32c)
Substituting - -^f - ^/
F', and
F', - ^,
and
F'
respectively, gives
3V 3V 3V 3V V - + V r ^ + V T^ + r^ X dx y 3y z 3z 3t , , P 9y and 3V 3V 3V 9 9 ' ^ V 3^2 3V 2 9'^V^ 3^2 2 9 ' ' V ^ g ^ z i (33c) 2 3 V .^2 3x 2 3 V .2 3y 2 3 V 3z 2 (33b)
^x^ ^ ^ ^
n . P 9z
^ ^ z ^ ^ -Tt
Equations (33) are the scalar Navier-Stokes equations for incompressible fluids. become In vector notation. Equations (33)
(^.V)^ + ll = 6 - ivp + ^V
(34)
30
Since
i l = (^-v)^ . Il ,
Equation (34) can also be stated as follows
|V = g _ 1 dt p
y^2^ p
(35)
Compressible Fluids To obtain the Navier-Stokes equations for compressible fluids. Equations (33) must be modified slightly. term proportional to 3V 3x 3V 3y 3V 3z A
(36a)
(36b)
31
) .
(37)
Px + Py + Pz = -3P
(38)
by Equation (1) . Assuming Equation (3 8) holds for compressible fluids. Equation (37) becomes 3V 3V 3V 3p = -3p + (2y + 39) ( ^ " ^' 3x 3y 3z
Solving for
G,
e = -I y .
(39)
3V and
9V
9V
9V^
Py = -P + 2p 33^ - I y ( ^ + a / + g / ) ,
(40b)
32 9V 3V 3V^ 3V
Since Equations (29) are unaffected by compressibility, substituting Equations (40a), (29a), and (29b) into Equation (27a) gives
9V
3V^
3V
3V
8V
3V
3V
8V
9V,
3V^
3V
3V
F' ^x
(41a)
Corresponding substitutions give the following expressions for force per unit volume in the y- and z-direction:
33
(41b)
2 3 V
Z ,
2 3 V
Z ,
2 9 V
F_ = - ^ + y( 2 "^ = ^ ^^ 3x'^
2 * 3y'^
5" ^ 3z^
(41c)
and
y -|^,
3V * ^ z ^ ^
.. P ^^
3V X dx
3V y 9y
3V z 9z 9
3V 9t 2 2
n .
P ^y P
9V
3x2
9X
3^2
^ ^v
3^2
34
and 3V 3V 3V V ^ + V - + V + X dx y 3y z 3z 3t 2 2 1 : ^ r . n 3 V^ 3^V^ ^ 3x 3y 9V
2 3^V 3z
3 p 3z ^ 3x
3y
3z ^ *
Equations (42) are the scalar Navier-Stokes equations for compressible fluids. become In vector notation. Equations (42)
(v-v)v . Il = g - i vp . ^ v^^ . i ^ v ( ^ . %
But, using the definition of the divergence of V,
.^
(43)
Again, since
dV ^ g _ 1 ^ + y v^V + i ^ V(div V) . dt p ^ p 3 p
(44)
CHAPTER VII BERNOULLI'S EQUATION The preceding chapters have shown the development of increasingly more general equations describing fluid flow. This and subsequent chapters will show how a multitude of assumptions are used to reduce the general equations to an equation frequently used in industry to calculate the rate of flow of natural gas. To obtain the first relationship, Bernoulli's equation, irrotational flow will be assumed; that is,
V""x ^ = "5,
(45)
as discussed in Chapter V.
V(v-V) = 2V.VV + 2V X (V X V)
(46)
/ V.d? = 0,
(47)
35
36
}> denotes the line integral around any c and dr is the infinitesimal vector can be shown to hold whenever Equa-
[3] , p. 295) . A trivial consequence of Equation (47) , as proved in [6], pp. 264-265, is that
V-dr
i s i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e p a t h t a k e n from p o i n t
P^.
to point
that
function
V-dr = d<t> .
(48)
1 ^ . . .
V-dr = <^{V ) - (})(PQ)
(49)
P ^0 Since
^^ = ^ 9^ ^ ^ 97 ^ ^ y l '
37
V,.d-r = |i dx . |i dy . |i d.
or
V(j)-dr = d ( J ).
(50)
V-dr - V(t).dr = 0 ;
therefore
(V - V ( | ) ) .dr = 0 .
This implies that the vector in parentheses is orthogonal to the vector dr. But, since dr is arbitrary,
V - V(t) = "5 ,
or V = V ( j ). (51)
Equation (46) can now be greatly simplified using the assumptions and Equation (51). By Equation (45), Equation
38
(46) becomes
V(^-V) = 2V-VV .
(52)
V = 1 ^ 1 = (^.^)^/2
(53)
Now Equation (53) can be s u b s t i t u t e d i n t o the v e c t o r form of E u l e r ' s e q u a t i o n s . Equation (13), t o obtain
(54)
V(|v2) ^ ^ ( V * ) + ^ = i 5 ;
that is.
39
V ( | v2 + | 1 + E) = ^ .
(55)
Since t h e quantity of p o s i t i o n ,
in parentheses
i s evidently of time o n l y .
independent Therefore,
i t must b e a f u n c t i o n
1 V^ + II- + / ^ = f ( t ) .
^
(56)
<3t
'
Equation (56) is a very general form of Bernoulli's equation. For steady (time independent) flow, the relationship
collapses to
1 v2 + / ^
2
^ P
= c,
(57)
where
is a constant.
1 v2 + E = c .
2 P
1 v2 + gz + H = c,
(58)
where
40
CHAPTER VIII FLOW EQUATIONS FOR THE ORIFICE METER Further understanding is best served at this time by describing the setup for the standard orifice type differential meter used in the natural gas industry. Figure 7 is a cut-away schematic drawing of an orifice type differential meter in which a manometric liquid is used to measure differential pressure. The fluid to be
Direction of flow
TD
42
measured, flowing from left to right, is partially obstructed by a metal plate. A, in which a concentrically-located hole has been bored. The purpose of this metal plate, called an The greater
pressure is sensed at location 1, called the upstream pressure tap; the lower pressure is sensed at location 2, called the downstream pressure tap. Because of their loca-
tions, the particular pressure taps in Figure 7 are called flange taps. The upstream and downstream pressures are
relayed to a U-tube manometer, B, filled with mercury or some other suitable manometric liquid. The method of transformation of Equation (58) into a form that utilizes data from the orifice meter to obtain a flow rate will now be outlined. pp. 51-52, and [1], pp. 78-79. Assume that density, p, is constant. Then, for For details, see [5],
pressure tap locations 1 and 2, 2 2 ^1 Pi ^2 P2 ^ + z , + - i = ^ + z ^ + , 2g 1 Y 2g 2 y where y = P^ ^^ specific weight. For horizontal pipe,
(59)
(60)
43
V^=
(^V,)^,
V2 =
1/2 (2g( ^ ^
^))^^^
(61)
C I- 4
D Because the development has been oversimplified, the experimental constant inserted, giving C, called the coefficient of discharge, is
V2 =
(^2)
j - ^ ^^ renamed
K.
(1 - 4
Equation (62) then becomes D Pi - P2 1/2 V2 = K(2g(-i^-^))^/^
Q,
through the
44
orifice is the product of the velocity of the fluid and the cross-sectional area. A, of the orifice.
(63)
(1 - 4
D measurement. Pi ~ P9 The quotient = is the differential head, h, of
the flowing fluid in feet at the average specific weight at the orifice. Equation (63) therefore becomes
Q = KA(2gh) 1/2^
(64)
45
where each quantity has the units designated above. Equation (64) is very unhandy to use practically; therefore, it will be changed to the form that is used almost everywhere in the United States to calculate natural gas flow across an orifice plate:
<">
\ I I I i
i
Q, = hourly fluid flow rate at stated base conditions of temperature and pressure, h^ = differential pressure across the orifice in inches of water column, P_ = absolute static pressure in pounds per square inch (psia) at a designated tap location, and C' = orifice flow constant. To change Equation (6 4) into the practical form. Equation (65), several substitutions must be made:
(66a)
(66b)
where
46
Y = actual specific weight of the natural gas in pounds per cubic foot at flowing conditions;
A = - ^ , 4(144) where d = diameter of the orifice in inches; and P Y = 0.08073 ^ i|^ G , 14.7 " f where
(66c)
(66d)
0.08073 = specific weight of dry air at 14.7 psia and 32F., T^ = flowing temperature of the natural gas in degrees Rankine (R.), and G = specific gravity of the flowing gas, where the specific gravity of dry air is taken to be 1.000 Substituting Equations (66a) through (66d) into Equation (64) , ,2 h (62.37)(14.7)T . Q = K( " ^ ^ ) (2(32.17) {^ ^))^^''. 4(144) 12(0.08073)P^(49 2)G
(67)
47
Q^,
would be
Qf = 3600 Q ,
where the subscript "f" denotes that the flow rate is based upon flowing conditions. Equation (67) therefore becomes
^ h T. 1/2 Q^ = 218.44 d ^ K ( ^ ^ ) .
(68)
Using the ideal gas law, the combined laws of Charles and Boyle, the hourly flow rate, base temperature T, Q^, at base pressure P ^ ^ and
is obtained as follows:
= 218.44 d^K ^ ^b
(T^)^^^.
(70)
^f
(71)
To make computations easier. Equation (71) is, in practice, subdivided into factors, as detailed in [1]. The principal factors are listed below: (1) Basic orifice factor, F, .
2 ^b = 2 1 8 . 4 4A \
' ^ b 1 ^ (^)
D f
^/2
(72a)
where values
K^
The
G = 1.000 are assumed. Equation (72a) then becomes F^ = 338.17 d^KQ. (72b)
(2)
= 1 +
(Vf)
B , ,^ ^ ,1/2 '
(72c)
49
where
is calculated from a set of empirical equations F is to allow for the difference between F, in Equation (72b), and K,
used to calculate
used in Equation (71) . (3) Expansion factor, Y. This factor allows for the change
in specific weight of the gas across the orifice plate. (4) Pressure base factor, F , .
F ^ = M ^ Pb PK where (5) P^
(72d)
(72e)
(72f)
g . (72g)
F = ( ^ ) g G
50
(8)
Using the symbolism of the eight factors above. Equation (71) becomes
C- = F^F^YFp^F^j^F^^F^Fp^ .
(73)
Q^, at T, and
Pj_^,
(74)
Three additional factors, not in universal use in the natural gas industry, are also developed in [1]. These factors are (1) the manometer factor, F ; (2) the location factor, F.; and (3) the orifice thermal expansion factor,
CHAPTER IX SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Starting with the most fundamental relationships, the Navier-Stokes equations, which allow for friction, were developed; several assumptions were then made to reduce these very complicated partial differential equations to a form used in the calculation of gas flow across an orifice plate. The assumptions, several of which are cited and
discussed in [5], pp. 52-55, are listed below: (1) (2) The gas flow is irrotational. See Equation (45) . That is, the
velocity of the fluid is the same at all points across the diameter of the pipe, and no energy is lost as the gas passes through the orifice. This assumption results from
the use of Euler's equations in the derivation of the "hydraulic" equation. (3) Fluid flow velocity is not time dependent. See Equa-
tion (57) . (4) (5) Gravity is the only body force. Compressible fluid flow across an orifice is incompres-
sible; that is, the specific weight of the fluid does not
51
52
This assumption
is required to obtain Bernoulli's equation. (6) The velocity at the upstream pressure tap is related to
the velocity at the downstream pressure tap as the orifice area is related to the cross-sectional area of the pipe. This assumption is made to derive the "hydraulic" equation. (7) (8) Suction or impact effects at the pressure taps are nil. The acceleration of gravity is 32.17 feet per second
per second. All of these assumptions are at least partially incorrect. However, as discussed in [5] , the effects of
the assumptions are either negligible or are corrected by the construction of the piping upstream and downstream of the orifice plate or by factors in Equation (74).
LIST OF REFERENCES 1. American Gas Association. Gas Measurement Committee Report No. 3. Orifice Metering of Natural Gas. New York: American Gas Association, 1969. Aris, Rutherford. Vectors, Tensors, and the Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962. Hildebrand, Francis B. Advanced Calculus for Applications . Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: PrenticeHall, Inc., 1962. Kaufmann, Walther. Fluid Mechanics. Hill Book Company, Inc., 1963. New York: McGraw-
2.
3.
4. 5.
Spink, L. K. Principles and Practice of Flow Meter Engineering, 8th Ed. Norwood, Massachusetts: The Foxboro Company, 19 58. Wrede, Robert C. Vector and Tensor Analysis. York: John Wiley & Sons, 19 63. New
6.
53