MASS BALANCE IN FLUIDS: Derivation of Continuity equation

If in a steady-state system a fluid flows from section 1 to section 2 then it follows from the conservation of mass that the mass flow through 1 is equal to the mass flow through 2. From this we obtain: M = mass flow M M 1 2 Q = volume flow 1Q Q 1 2 2 1u1 A1 2 u 2 A2 (This is called the continuity equation) Special case: 1 2 :

u1 A1 u 2 A2

ENERGY BALANCE IN FLUIDS: Derivation of Bernoullis equation

Bernouillis equation is based on the conservation of energy. The energy may be: Potential energy -results from differences in height gh rate of potential energy flow: M Kinetic energy -results from velocity of fluid 2 rate of kinetic energy flow: 1 2 Mu Pressure energy -results from movement against pressure
P rate of pressure energy flow: M

pendulum

Work done by piston to move against pressure P over distance dl: Fdl PAdl Rate of work: PAdl / dt PAu M Since Au Q PM Pressure energy =

Internal energy -results from heat, reaction etc. Rate of internal energy flow: U Work Work can be either done by the fluid (turbine) or on the fluid (pump). Rate of Work done: W If there is no work done by or on the fluid (W = 0), no frictional losses (heat production) or reactions in the fluid (U1 = U2), then the sum of potential, kinetic and pressure energy is constant. For a flow through two planes:

2 2 gh 1 M u2 M P1 M gh 1 M u2 M P2 or Z h 1 u1 P1 Z h 1 u 2 P2 M 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 g 1 g g 2 g (sum of potential head, velocity head and pressure head = total head = constant)

Applications of Bernoullis equation: Flow Measurement

Venturi meters and orifice plates Both devices work on the same principles. The flow is constricted, and the increase in velocity leads to a decrease in the pressure. The pressure difference is measured, often with a manometer. Orifice plate The streamline coinciding with the wall upstream of the plate cannot follow the abrupt change at the orifice and the flow breaks away to form a jet downstream of the plate. The jet first contracts to form the vena contracta, and the pressure tapping is located near the minimum flow area. The jet then expands to fill the tube. Highly turbulent energy dissipating eddies form outside the jet and cause a permanent pressure loss. Venturi meter The Venturi is designed with a low angle of divergence to gently contract the flow, so breakaway is avoided and no jet formation occurs.

Comparison Cost Adaptability (change area ratio) Precision Permanent pressure loss CD

Orifice Plate Cheaper Versatile Less accurate High 0.61-0.65 typically

Venturimeter More expensive Fixed area ratio More accurate Low 0.96-0.98 typically

Both devices are covered by British Standard BS1042. To adhere to the standard there must the devices must be installed in a straight line of pipe and there must be no bends etc. 30D upstream and 5D downstream (60D upstream if bends are in different planes causing a swirling motion of the fluid).

Applications of Bernoullis equation: Pitot tube

u1

2( F ) gh

The Pitot tube consists of 2 concentric tubes, of which the inner one faces the flow and is open at the front, and the outer is closed except for one or more small holes in the side. An increase in the pressure occurs in the tube facing the flow relative to the one not facing the flow. From this increase the velocity of the fluid in front of the Pitot tube can be obtained. The Pitot tube is used to measure local velocities, and unlike the Venturi or Orifice plate does not directly give the volumetric flow rate.