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UNIT II UNIT II
ELECTRICAL ELECTRICAL
AND AND
ELECTRONICS INSTRUMENTS ELECTRONICS INSTRUMENTS
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MEASURING INSTRUMENTS MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
instruments which is used for measurement instruments which is used for measurement
Necessary requirements of measurement Necessary requirements of measurement
Circuit condition and the quantity to be measured should Circuit condition and the quantity to be measured should
not be altered, if measuring circuit is connected. not be altered, if measuring circuit is connected. not be altered, if measuring circuit is connected. not be altered, if measuring circuit is connected.
Power consumption by instrument for their operation Power consumption by instrument for their operation
should be small should be small
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Instruments used for measure Instruments used for measure
Voltage Voltage voltmeter voltmeter
Current Current ammeter ammeter
Power Power -- wattmeter wattmeter Power Power -- wattmeter wattmeter
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CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Indicating instruments Indicating instruments
Recording instruments Recording instruments
Integrating instruments Integrating instruments
Indicating instruments: Indicating instruments: Indicating instruments: Indicating instruments:
Instruments used for indicating or pointing the unknown Instruments used for indicating or pointing the unknown
quantity with the help of pointer or dial. quantity with the help of pointer or dial.
example: voltmeter, ammeter, etc., example: voltmeter, ammeter, etc.,
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Recording instruments Recording instruments::
It gives a continuous record of electrical quantity to be It gives a continuous record of electrical quantity to be
measured over a specific period. measured over a specific period.
Examples: XY Examples: XY-- plotter plotter
Readings are recorded by drawing graph. Readings are recorded by drawing graph.
Pointer of such instrument is provided with pen or pencil Pointer of such instrument is provided with pen or pencil
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INTEGRATING INSTRUMENTS INTEGRATING INSTRUMENTS
to measure the total quantity of electricity delivered over a to measure the total quantity of electricity delivered over a
period of time. period of time.
Example: energy meter Example: energy meter
It consists of dials and pointers It consists of dials and pointers
Counting mechanism registers number of revolutions made by Counting mechanism registers number of revolutions made by Counting mechanism registers number of revolutions made by Counting mechanism registers number of revolutions made by
the disc to measure the total quantity of electricity delivered the disc to measure the total quantity of electricity delivered
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Essential requirements of indicating instrument Essential requirements of indicating instrument
Deflecting system should produce deflecting torque; Td Deflecting system should produce deflecting torque; Td
Controlling system should produce controlling torque; Tc Controlling system should produce controlling torque; Tc
Damping system should produce damping torque; Damping system should produce damping torque;
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TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS
Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC)
Moving iron Moving iron
Electro Electro dynamometer dynamometer
Hot wire Hot wire
Thermo couple Thermo couple Thermo couple Thermo couple
Induction Induction
Electro static Electro static
Rectifier Rectifier
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PMMC PMMC
Most accurate type for dc measurements Most accurate type for dc measurements
Principle: Principle:
When a current carrying conductor is placed in the When a current carrying conductor is placed in the
magnetic field produced by the permanent magnet , coil
experiences a force and moves. experiences a force and moves. experiences a force and moves. experiences a force and moves.
As the coil is moving and the magnet is permanent, this As the coil is moving and the magnet is permanent, this
instrument is called as permanent magnet moving coil instrument is called as permanent magnet moving coil
instrument. instrument.
This principle is called as D Arsonal principle This principle is called as D Arsonal principle
force experienced is proportional to the current flowing in force experienced is proportional to the current flowing in
coil. coil.
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PMMC construction PMMC construction
It consists of It consists of
Moving coil Moving coil
Magnet systems Magnet systems
Control Control Control Control
damping damping
Pointer and scale Pointer and scale
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PMMC INSTRUMENT PMMC INSTRUMENT
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MOVING COIL: MOVING COIL:
Many number of turns of fine wire Many number of turns of fine wire
either rectangular or circular in shape either rectangular or circular in shape
Moves freely in the field of permanent magnet Moves freely in the field of permanent magnet
Magnet systems Magnet systems
Control: Control:
Controlling torque is provided by two phosphor Controlling torque is provided by two phosphor
bronze hair springs bronze hair springs
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Damping Damping
Damping torque is produced by the aluminium former Damping torque is produced by the aluminium former
moving in the magnetic field of the permanent magnet. moving in the magnetic field of the permanent magnet.
Pointer and scale: Pointer and scale:
Carried by spindle over a graduated linear scale Carried by spindle over a graduated linear scale Carried by spindle over a graduated linear scale Carried by spindle over a graduated linear scale
Light eight so that it deflect rapidly Light eight so that it deflect rapidly
Mirror is placed below the pointer to reduce to get accurate Mirror is placed below the pointer to reduce to get accurate
reading to remove parallax error. reading to remove parallax error.
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TORQUE EQUATION TORQUE EQUATION
Let B = flux density in air gap Let B = flux density in air gap
N = no of turns in the coil N = no of turns in the coil
L= active length of coil in meters L= active length of coil in meters
d = average width of coil in meters d = average width of coil in meters d = average width of coil in meters d = average width of coil in meters
I= coil current I= coil current
F = force in newton F = force in newton
force acting on one side of coil =F force acting on one side of coil =F
ie F = BILN newton ie F = BILN newton
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Deflecting Torque Td = Force X radius X 2 Deflecting Torque Td = Force X radius X 2
= BILN d/2 X 2 taking = BILN d/2 X 2 taking
account force on both sides account force on both sides
= BI . L N d Nm = BI . L N d Nm
put L X d = area A put L X d = area A put L X d = area A put L X d = area A
then Td then Td --= NBAI Nm = NBAI Nm
Control torque Tc = some constant X 0. Control torque Tc = some constant X 0.
the constant depends on qualities of the spring. the constant depends on qualities of the spring.
under steady under steady state condition Tc = Td state condition Tc = Td
Therefore is proportional to I (BAN are Constants) Therefore is proportional to I (BAN are Constants)
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ADVANTAGES OF PMMC INSTRUMENTS ADVANTAGES OF PMMC INSTRUMENTS
linear scale linear scale
Low power consumption Low power consumption
High accuracy High accuracy
Torque to weight ratio is high Torque to weight ratio is high
Single instrument may be used for different ranges Single instrument may be used for different ranges Single instrument may be used for different ranges Single instrument may be used for different ranges
Errors due to stray magnetic fields are small Errors due to stray magnetic fields are small
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DISADVANTAGES OF PMMC INSTRUMENTS DISADVANTAGES OF PMMC INSTRUMENTS
Instruments are used only for dc Instruments are used only for dc
Higher cost compared moving iron instruments Higher cost compared moving iron instruments
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Errors in PMMC instruments Errors in PMMC instruments
Basic sources of errors in instruments are Basic sources of errors in instruments are
Weakening of permanent magnets due to ageing and Weakening of permanent magnets due to ageing and
temperature effects temperature effects
Weakening of springs due to ageing and temperature Weakening of springs due to ageing and temperature
effects effects effects effects
Change of resistance of the moving coil with temperature. Change of resistance of the moving coil with temperature.
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MOVING IRON INSTUMENTS MOVING IRON INSTUMENTS
Use at power frequencies Use at power frequencies
Used to measure current and voltage accurately Used to measure current and voltage accurately
There are two types of moving iron instruments There are two types of moving iron instruments
Attraction type Attraction type
Repulsion type Repulsion type
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Attraction type moving iron instrument Attraction type moving iron instrument
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Construction of moving iron attraction type instruments Construction of moving iron attraction type instruments
It consists of It consists of
Moving iron Moving iron
Scale Scale
Piston Piston
Coil winding Coil winding Coil winding Coil winding
Air damping chamber Air damping chamber
Pointer Pointer
Balance weight Balance weight
Control weight Control weight
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Attraction type moving iron instrument Attraction type moving iron instrument
Torque equation:
Force pulling the soft iron piece inward depends on
H, magnetic field strength produced by the coil.
m , magnetic pole strength of the soft iron piece
however m depends on H, magnetic field strength of the
coil
So force , F mH H
2
And deflection torque Td F H
2
Since H depends on current ,
Td I
2
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When spring control is used, When spring control is used,
Control torque Control torque angular displacement
Thus Td
At steady state deflection ,Td = Tc At steady state deflection ,Td = Tc
i.e.., I i.e.., I
22

Or I
2
Deflection (rms value)
2
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REPLUSION TYPE MI REPLUSION TYPE MI
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Comparison between attraction type and repulsion type: Comparison between attraction type and repulsion type:
Attraction type Attraction type Repulsion type Repulsion type
Lower inductance Lower inductance Higher inductance Higher inductance Lower inductance Lower inductance Higher inductance Higher inductance
Accurate over wide Accurate over wide
range of frequency range of frequency
less Accurate over wide less Accurate over wide
range of frequency range of frequency
Greater possibility of Greater possibility of
using shunt using shunt
Economical in nature, Economical in nature,
lesser possibility of using lesser possibility of using
shunt shunt
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ADVANTAGES OF MOVING IRON ADVANTAGES OF MOVING IRON
INSTRUMENTS INSTRUMENTS
It can be used for d.c and a.c(universal use) It can be used for d.c and a.c(universal use)
Less friction errors Less friction errors
Low cost Low cost
High deflecting torque High deflecting torque
Accuracy Accuracy Accuracy Accuracy
Simple in construction Simple in construction
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DISADVANTAGES OF MOVING IRON DISADVANTAGES OF MOVING IRON
INSTRUMENTS INSTRUMENTS
Scales are not uniform Scales are not uniform
Power consumption is high at low voltage Power consumption is high at low voltage
measurements measurements
Stiffness of spring decreases with rise in temperature Stiffness of spring decreases with rise in temperature
Errors are introduced due to Hysteresis and magnetic Errors are introduced due to Hysteresis and magnetic Errors are introduced due to Hysteresis and magnetic Errors are introduced due to Hysteresis and magnetic
fields fields
Changes in supply frequency cause serious errors in Changes in supply frequency cause serious errors in
reading reading
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ERRORS IN MOVING IRON INSTRUMENTS ERRORS IN MOVING IRON INSTRUMENTS
The The causes of errors in MI may be divided as causes of errors in MI may be divided as
(I) Errors when used in a.c only (I) Errors when used in a.c only
(ii) Errors when used in both a.c and dc (ii) Errors when used in both a.c and dc
Errors in a.c only Errors in a.c only
1 Change in impedance of coil 1 Change in impedance of coil
2. Change in eddy current magnitudes 2. Change in eddy current magnitudes
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ELECTRO DYNAMOMETER INSTRUMENT ELECTRO DYNAMOMETER INSTRUMENT
Used as voltmeters and ammeters at power frequencies Used as voltmeters and ammeters at power frequencies
Capable of service as transfer instrument device Capable of service as transfer instrument device
Principle: Principle:
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CONSTRUCTION OF ELECTRO CONSTRUCTION OF ELECTRO
DYNAMOMETER INSTRUMENT DYNAMOMETER INSTRUMENT
Fixed coils Fixed coils
Moving coil Moving coil
Control Control
Moving system Moving system
Damping Damping Damping Damping
Shielding Shielding
Cases and scales Cases and scales
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ELECTRO DYNAMOMETER INSTRUMENT ELECTRO DYNAMOMETER INSTRUMENT
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Torque equation of electro dynamometer instruments Torque equation of electro dynamometer instruments
Let I Let I
11
= instantaneous value of current in the fixed coils ;A = instantaneous value of current in the fixed coils ;A
II
2 2
= instantaneous value of current in the moving = instantaneous value of current in the moving coils; coils;
Force or torque on a moving system Force or torque on a moving system flux x current
Air gap flux is directly related to I since fixed coil is air Air gap flux is directly related to I
1
since fixed coil is air
cored.
Then deflecting torque Td I
1
I
2
in voltmeter I
1
= I
2
= I say
I
2
In ammeter, I
1
I
2
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Advantages of electro dynamometer instruments Advantages of electro dynamometer instruments
Free from hysterisis and eddy current errors Free from hysterisis and eddy current errors
Accuracy Accuracy
Used for both a.c and d.c Used for both a.c and d.c
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Disadvantages of electro dynamometer instruments Disadvantages of electro dynamometer instruments
Low torque/weight ratio Low torque/weight ratio
Low sensitivity Low sensitivity
Increased frictional losses Increased frictional losses
More expensive than PMMC More expensive than PMMC
Sensitive to overloads and mechanical impact Sensitive to overloads and mechanical impact Sensitive to overloads and mechanical impact Sensitive to overloads and mechanical impact
Non uniform scale Non uniform scale
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INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
transformers used in conjunction with the measuring transformers used in conjunction with the measuring
instrument for measurement purpose are called instrument instrument for measurement purpose are called instrument
transformers. transformers.
Transformers used for measuring current are called current Transformers used for measuring current are called current Transformers used for measuring current are called current Transformers used for measuring current are called current
transformers. transformers.
Transformers used for measuring voltage are called potential Transformers used for measuring voltage are called potential
transformers. transformers.
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CURRENT AND POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER CURRENT AND POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER
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Advantages Advantages
The readings do not depend upon the values of (R,L,C) and The readings do not depend upon the values of (R,L,C) and
also number of instruments connected in the circuit. also number of instruments connected in the circuit.
Very cheap moderate rating can be used for measurement of Very cheap moderate rating can be used for measurement of
high voltages and current. high voltages and current.
Replacement of these transformers are very easy Replacement of these transformers are very easy Replacement of these transformers are very easy Replacement of these transformers are very easy
Measuring circuit is isolated from the power circuit Measuring circuit is isolated from the power circuit
Low power consumption Low power consumption
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Ratios of current transformers Ratios of current transformers
Transformation ratio: Transformation ratio:
It is the ratio of the magnitude of the primary phasor to It is the ratio of the magnitude of the primary phasor to
the secondary phasor. the secondary phasor.
R = primary phasor/secondary phasor R = primary phasor/secondary phasor
For C.T , R = primary winding current/secondary winding For C.T , R = primary winding current/secondary winding
current current
For P.T, R = primary winding voltage/secondary winding For P.T, R = primary winding voltage/secondary winding
voltage voltage
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Nominal ratio Nominal ratio
It is the ratio of the rated primary winding current (or voltage) It is the ratio of the rated primary winding current (or voltage)
to the rated secondary winding current (or voltage). to the rated secondary winding current (or voltage).
For C.T , For C.T ,
Nominal ratio Kn = rated primary winding current / rated Nominal ratio Kn = rated primary winding current / rated
secondary winding current secondary winding current secondary winding current secondary winding current
For P.T, For P.T,
Nominal ratio Kn = rated primary winding voltage/ rated Nominal ratio Kn = rated primary winding voltage/ rated
secondary winding voltage secondary winding voltage
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Turns ratio Turns ratio
Turns ratio for C.T, n = number of turns of secondary Turns ratio for C.T, n = number of turns of secondary
winding/number of turns of primary winding. winding/number of turns of primary winding.
Turns ratio for P.T, n = number of turns of winding primary Turns ratio for P.T, n = number of turns of winding primary
/number of turns of secondary winding. /number of turns of secondary winding. /number of turns of secondary winding. /number of turns of secondary winding.
Ratio correction factor: Ratio correction factor:
The ratio of correction factor is the transformation The ratio of correction factor is the transformation
ratio divided by nominal ratio. ratio divided by nominal ratio.
transformation ratio = ratio correction factor x nominal ratio transformation ratio = ratio correction factor x nominal ratio
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Current transformers Current transformers
Connected in series with line current to be measured. Connected in series with line current to be measured.
Primary winding consists of very few turns and no Primary winding consists of very few turns and no
appreciable voltage drop. appreciable voltage drop.
Secondary winding has large no. of turns Secondary winding has large no. of turns
Ammeter or wattmeter directly connected across the secondary Ammeter or wattmeter directly connected across the secondary Ammeter or wattmeter directly connected across the secondary Ammeter or wattmeter directly connected across the secondary
winding. winding.
One of the secondary terminals earthed for protection of One of the secondary terminals earthed for protection of
equipment and insulation breakdown in the auto transformer. equipment and insulation breakdown in the auto transformer.
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Construction of current Construction of current
transformers transformers
Classification Classification
Wound type Wound type
Bar type Bar type
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Effect of secondary open circuit Effect of secondary open circuit
If secondary is open circuited, If secondary is open circuited,
Large voltage is induced in the secondary winding Large voltage is induced in the secondary winding
It is dangerous to the transformer insulation and the
It is dangerous to the transformer insulation and the
person who has opened person who has opened
Eddy current and hysterisis losses are more due to that Eddy current and hysterisis losses are more due to that Eddy current and hysterisis losses are more due to that Eddy current and hysterisis losses are more due to that
transformer overheated and damaged. If not core transformer overheated and damaged. If not core
become permanently magnetized and this become permanently magnetized and this
Will give appreciable ratio and phase angle errors. Will give appreciable ratio and phase angle errors.
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Potential transformers Potential transformers
Primary winding is connected across the line carrying voltage Primary winding is connected across the line carrying voltage
to be measured. to be measured.
Voltage circuit is connected across the secondary winding Voltage circuit is connected across the secondary winding
Normal secondary voltage rating is 120 V. Normal secondary voltage rating is 120 V.
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Difference between C.T and P.T Difference between C.T and P.T
POTENTIAL POTENTIAL
TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER
CURRENT CURRENT
TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER
Parallel transformer, operating Parallel transformer, operating
under nearly open circuit under nearly open circuit
condition condition
Series transformer, operating Series transformer, operating
under under
Virtual short circuit condition Virtual short circuit condition
condition condition
Virtual short circuit condition Virtual short circuit condition
Primary winding current in C.T Primary winding current in C.T
is independent of secondary is independent of secondary
circuit condition. circuit condition.
Primary winding current in P.T Primary winding current in P.T
is dependent of secondary is dependent of secondary
circuit burden circuit burden
Exciting current varies in Exciting current varies in
restricted range. restricted range.
Exciting current varies over Exciting current varies over
wide limit range under norma wide limit range under norma
operation. operation.
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CONSTRUCTION OF P.T CONSTRUCTION OF P.T
It consists of It consists of
Core Core
Windings Windings
Insulation Insulation
Bushings Bushings Bushings Bushings
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High voltage P.T High voltage P.T
Recently Potential transformer are designed which has resulted Recently Potential transformer are designed which has resulted
In considerable reduction and cost of transformers. In considerable reduction and cost of transformers.
Two designs developed to eliminate high voltage lead in Two designs developed to eliminate high voltage lead in
bushings . bushings .
Bushing elimination leads reduction in size and cost of Bushing elimination leads reduction in size and cost of
transformers. transformers.
Bushing elimination leads reduction in size and cost of Bushing elimination leads reduction in size and cost of
transformers. transformers.
These designs are intended to measure line to ground voltages These designs are intended to measure line to ground voltages
in three phase system. These desgns employ: in three phase system. These desgns employ:
Insulated casing Insulated casing
Moulded rubber potential transformer Moulded rubber potential transformer
Cascaded transformer Cascaded transformer
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Measurement of frequency and phase Measurement of frequency and phase
Types of frequency meters: Types of frequency meters:
Mechanical or resonant type Mechanical or resonant type
Electrical or resonant type Electrical or resonant type
Electrodynamometer type Electrodynamometer type
Weston type Weston type Weston type Weston type
Ratio meter type Ratio meter type
Saturable core type Saturable core type
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Mechanical resonant type frequency meter Mechanical resonant type frequency meter
(vibrating reed type) (vibrating reed type)
Consists of number of thin metal strips called reeds. Consists of number of thin metal strips called reeds.
When the frequency meter is connected across the supply, When the frequency meter is connected across the supply,
whose frequency is to be measured, the coil of electromagnet whose frequency is to be measured, the coil of electromagnet
carries a current I which alternate at the supply frequency. carries a current I which alternate at the supply frequency.
The force attraction between the reeds and the electromagnet The force attraction between the reeds and the electromagnet The force attraction between the reeds and the electromagnet The force attraction between the reeds and the electromagnet
is proportional to i2 and therefore this force varies at twice the is proportional to i2 and therefore this force varies at twice the
supply frequency. supply frequency.
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Advantage of vibrating reed type meter Advantage of vibrating reed type meter
Indication is independent of waveform of supply voltage. Indication is independent of waveform of supply voltage.
Indication is independent of magnitude of applied voltage. Indication is independent of magnitude of applied voltage.
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Disadvantage of vibrating reed type meter Disadvantage of vibrating reed type meter
Cannot be used for precision instruments Cannot be used for precision instruments
Reliability of readings depend upon the accuracy Reliability of readings depend upon the accuracy
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Electrical resonance type frequency meters Electrical resonance type frequency meters
Types : Types :
Ferro dynamic frequency meter Ferro dynamic frequency meter
Electro dynamometer type frequency meter Electro dynamometer type frequency meter
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MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS
Requirements in magnetic measurements are: Requirements in magnetic measurements are:
Measurement of magnetic field strength in air Measurement of magnetic field strength in air
Determination of B Determination of B--H curve and hysterisis loop for soft H curve and hysterisis loop for soft
ferro magnetic materials. ferro magnetic materials.
Determination of eddy current and hysterisis losses for soft Determination of eddy current and hysterisis losses for soft Determination of eddy current and hysterisis losses for soft Determination of eddy current and hysterisis losses for soft
ferro magnetic materials subjected to alternating magnetic ferro magnetic materials subjected to alternating magnetic
fields. fields.
Testing of permanent magnets Testing of permanent magnets
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Types of tests Types of tests
Ballistic tests Ballistic tests
A.C testing A.C testing
Steady state tests Steady state tests
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Ballistic test Ballistic test
Used for Used for
Measurement of flux density Measurement of flux density
Determination of B Determination of B--H curves H curves
Plotting of hysterisis loop Plotting of hysterisis loop
Measurement of flux density: Measurement of flux density:
Can be done by winding a search coil over the specimen. this search Can be done by winding a search coil over the specimen. this search
coil is known as B coil. coil is known as B coil.
Coil is connected to a galvanometer or flux meter. Coil is connected to a galvanometer or flux meter.
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Measurement of value of magnetizing force Measurement of value of magnetizing force
It can be measured by using ballistic galvanometer and a It can be measured by using ballistic galvanometer and a
search coil. search coil.
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Magnetic potentiometer Magnetic potentiometer
Device for measurement of potential difference Device for measurement of potential difference
Basis of magnetic potentiometer Basis of magnetic potentiometer
Line integral of magnetising force H produced by a coil of N Line integral of magnetising force H produced by a coil of N
concentrated turns carrying current I isaround any losed path of the concentrated turns carrying current I isaround any losed path of the
linking coil. linking coil.
Hdl = NI Hdl = NI
This is called circuital law. This is called circuital law.
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Magneto potentiometer consists of Magneto potentiometer consists of
1m long flat and uniform coil(2 or 3 layers) 1m long flat and uniform coil(2 or 3 layers)
Wound on a strip of nonmagnetic material Wound on a strip of nonmagnetic material
Coil ends are brought out at middle of strip Coil ends are brought out at middle of strip
This is connected to ballistic galvanometer This is connected to ballistic galvanometer This is connected to ballistic galvanometer This is connected to ballistic galvanometer
Let Let
A = are of the strip A = are of the strip
n = number of turns of the strip n = number of turns of the strip
H1 = tangential component of the magnetising force H1 = tangential component of the magnetising force
R = resistance of the galvanometer circuit R = resistance of the galvanometer circuit
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Determination of B Determination of B--H curve H curve
Methods to find: Methods to find:
Method of reversal Method of reversal
Step by step method Step by step method
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Method of reversal Method of reversal
Thin tape is put on the ring and search coil insulated by Para Thin tape is put on the ring and search coil insulated by Para
finned wax is wound over the tape. finned wax is wound over the tape.
Another layer of tape is put on the search coil and magnetizing Another layer of tape is put on the search coil and magnetizing
winding. winding.
Procedure: Procedure: Procedure: Procedure:
Set the magnetizing current value to lowest test value Set the magnetizing current value to lowest test value
Close galvanometer key K, the iron specimen is brought into Close galvanometer key K, the iron specimen is brought into
reproducible cyclic magnetic state by throwing the switch S backward reproducible cyclic magnetic state by throwing the switch S backward
and forward by 20 times and forward by 20 times
Open the key K ,measure H by reversing the switch S Open the key K ,measure H by reversing the switch S
Value of flux density is calculated for corresponding value of H Value of flux density is calculated for corresponding value of H
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Step by step Step by step
Circuit diagram is shown above Circuit diagram is shown above
Construction: Construction:
Magnetizing winding is supplied through potential divider Magnetizing winding is supplied through potential divider
Potential divder is having no . Of tappings Potential divder is having no . Of tappings
Specimen before testing is magnetized Specimen before testing is magnetized Specimen before testing is magnetized Specimen before testing is magnetized
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Procedure for Step by step method Procedure for Step by step method
Close Switch s1 set S2 in tapping 1. Close Switch s1 set S2 in tapping 1.
Throw of the galvanometer, note the value of B1. Throw of the galvanometer, note the value of B1.
Calculate H1 from the current flowing in magnetizing winding Calculate H1 from the current flowing in magnetizing winding
at tap1.for the corresponding value of B. at tap1.for the corresponding value of B.
Set S2 to tap 2 to increase H1 to H2. Set S2 to tap 2 to increase H1 to H2. Set S2 to tap 2 to increase H1 to H2. Set S2 to tap 2 to increase H1 to H2.
Determine B from the throw of the galvanometer. Determine B from the throw of the galvanometer.
Calculate B2 corresponding H2 is B1 + B Calculate B2 corresponding H2 is B1 + B
Repeat the process until H reaches maximum value. Repeat the process until H reaches maximum value.
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Determination of hysterisis loop Determination of hysterisis loop
Step by step method Step by step method
Same procedure is followed until H reaches maximum Same procedure is followed until H reaches maximum
point at tap 10 as explained before. point at tap 10 as explained before.
Reduce the magnetizing current in steps to zero by moving Reduce the magnetizing current in steps to zero by moving
tapping to 9,8,7,..,3,2,1. tapping to 9,8,7,..,3,2,1. tapping to 9,8,7,..,3,2,1. tapping to 9,8,7,..,3,2,1.
After magnetizing current to zero, to obtain negative H After magnetizing current to zero, to obtain negative H
Reverse the supply of potential divider Reverse the supply of potential divider
Move the switch S2 up in the range again 1,2,.,10 Move the switch S2 up in the range again 1,2,.,10
Note down the values of B and H and draw the loop. Note down the values of B and H and draw the loop.
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Determination of hysterisis loop Determination of hysterisis loop
Method of reversals: Method of reversals:
Note the value of +Bm to lower value Note the value of +Bm to lower value
Iron specimen is passed through the remainder of the cycle Iron specimen is passed through the remainder of the cycle
of magnetization back to flux density Bm. of magnetization back to flux density Bm.
Cycle of magnetization is preserved. Cycle of magnetization is preserved. Cycle of magnetization is preserved. Cycle of magnetization is preserved.
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Method of reversal Method of reversal
Procedure: Procedure:
1. 1. Connections are given as in circuit diagram. Connections are given as in circuit diagram.
2. 2. R1, R2 and R4 are resistances in magnetizing winding R1, R2 and R4 are resistances in magnetizing winding
3. 3. R3 = variable shunting resistance connected across R3 = variable shunting resistance connected across
magnetizing winding magnetizing winding magnetizing winding magnetizing winding
4. 4. Form the B Form the B--H curve as explained earlier. H curve as explained earlier.
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Measurement of Iron loss Measurement of Iron loss
Three types of methods Three types of methods
Wattmeter method Wattmeter method
Bridge method Bridge method
Potentiometer method Potentiometer method
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Wattmeter method Wattmeter method
Most common used method Most common used method
Material to be tested is assembled in the form of square. Material to be tested is assembled in the form of square.
There are two forms of forming square There are two forms of forming square
Epstein square Epstein square
Lloyd fisher square Lloyd fisher square Lloyd fisher square Lloyd fisher square
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www.rejinpaul.com
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Epstein square Epstein square
Four stacks of strips Four stacks of strips
Stacks are bound and insulated Stacks are bound and insulated
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www.rejinpaul.com
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Lloyd Lloyd-- fisher square method fisher square method
Most commonly used magnetic square Most commonly used magnetic square
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www.rejinpaul.com