The Zande State Author(s): E. E.

Evans-Pritchard Source: The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 93, No. 1 (Jan. - Jun., 1963), pp. 134-154 Published by: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2844339 Accessed: 01/12/2010 13:58
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The Zande State

Memorial Lecture, TheHuxley I9631 E. E.
EVANS-PRITCHARD,

F.B.A.

I DEVOTE THIS LECTURE to a discussion ofZande political Classicalanthroinstitutions. from researchamong peoples without pologicaltheory was verylargelyconstructed and for a longtime thepolitical institutions ofprimitive developed political organization in Africa deserves. It is particularly it thatrelatively peopleswas notgiventheattention and muchadvancehas alreadybeen made large-scale political societies can be studied, in thisdepartment ofsocial anthropology. The Azande are a specimen, and myintentionis to giveyou a summary ofwhatgeneral conclusions have beenreachedaboutthe nature oftheir political institutions and,in doingso,to drawattention to thecomplexity ofthematerial presented bysocieties ofthekindand also theneed,in treating it,to take intoconsideration whathistorical data are available. For somesocieties suchdata are showtherehas been little lackingor,in so faras theyexist, changein theperiodthey cover,but the politicalstateof affairs among the Azande whichthe first European had in someimportant come travellers to their country observed respects onlyrecently about and was in thesucceeding yearsto undergo further changes. In thecourseofthis review I can scarcely avoidfrequent references to myownresearch, conducted between 1927 and I930, mostly in the old kingdom of Gbudwe in the Sudan. In the published is given full acknowledgement has been made of the accountsto which reference observations ofothers. A description ofZande politicalinstitutions has to be to someextent a reconstruction,forthoughI foundthat,in general, social lifehad not,so faras could be ascerthesetting-up ofEuropeanadministration, this was not tained, changedmuchfollowing and the so for had beenweakened The poweroftheruling political institutions. princes and services privileges which wentwith it had correspondingly diminished. Courts were maintained but the military companies whichonce had theirbarracks therewereno moreto be seen. Tributein kindand in labour was on a smallerscale and so consequentlywas courthospitality. Princely oracleswere stillconsulted but theirverdicts in theeyesofEuropeanofficers carried no weight who alonie coulddetermine penalties. Princes ruledtheir provinces as before buttheparamount ruler, theking, to whomthey had formerly had been replacedby the District paid allegiance, Commissioner. Howifmuchhad gone,muchremained, the ever, sufficient to enableone to observe directly traditional evenifin partialdecay,forin the area in whichI did myresearch system, had beenslight administration tilla fewyears before. Then,myinformants weremostly and had been whohad grown persons up in,and had vividrecollections of,theold order in close touchwithcourts ofkingand princes before the Europeanera; and habitsof can survive when the institutions in whichtheywere formed are no longer thought Oral traditions all the more activeas before. about their past history werealso useful, so in thattheAzande taketheir ofhistorical as we do, in thesuccession points reference,
I34

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and in support material for reconstruction ofthepolitical system Further rulers, oftheir the invaluable records taken down by at thebeginning is provided traditions ofhistorical Hutereau (I909; I922), and CzekaCalonne-Beaufaict (I92I), by de century of this nowski(I924), and laterby Mgr Lagae (I926), Vanden Plas (I92I), Major Larken years.We are further takeus back somesixty These evidences (I926; I927) and others. visited bya number was Zandeland century of last half the second during that fortunate and Casati,residedfora long threeofwhom,Piaggia,Junker of Europeantravellers, descriptions also,lengthy us,as has Schweinfurth timeamongtheAzande and have left i873; JunkerI890; I89I; I892; of theirway of life (Antinorii868; Schweinfurth to be usedwithcritical have,it is true, Casati I89I; Piaggia I941). The earlyaccounts as I have triedto showin myrecent doubtful, is sometimes caution.Theirreliability and i 960a). But theygiveimportant paperon 'Zande Cannibalism'(Evans-Pritchard about the political circumstances in the main accurate information undoubtedly matters the in all important and theyconfirm obtaining at thetimetheywerewritten take us back to a century These records by muchlaterobservers. traditions recorded in the timeof theirauthors current ago, but in so faras theycontainoral traditions and back intothe eighteenth yetfurther of Zande history theyextendour knowledge centuries. ofthenineteenth thefirst half and slavesfrom Zandelandforivory Arab caravansbegan to tradein and through By I870 caused disturbances. round about i86o and in some areas immediately added to theconhad appearedon thesceneand greatly forces government Egyptian these in the Sudan by theDervishes ofthatgovernment fusion, and on theoverthrow southa and chaos ofthetimes.In the extreme to the cruelty made theircontribution added Zanzibarand theeastcoastofAfrica, from fourth and slavers lotofArabs,traders able thanlessorganized werebetter The Zande kingdoms their shareto theconfusion. and to avoid theexploitation oftheintruders thepressure to resist peoplesoftheregion but theirhistory weresubjected, and enslavement to whichsome of theirneighbours and warsbecame enrivalries and dynastic was muchcomplicated by Arab activities, At theend origin and development. had a different which and events forces tangled with the westand lastly Frenchand Belgiansfrom of the century the Europeansarrived, but each Great the Dervishes, theywere fighting fromthe north.Ostensibly British oftheothers, at theexpense domains itsAfrican to extend Powerwas also endeavouring Theirlandswereeventually in thesituation. becameinvolved and theAzandeinevitably was thelast Gbudwe'skingdom colonialempires. three and dividedbetween conquered It lostit in I905. tokeepitsindependence. and disa confused Arab and Europeancame to add to thecon'fusion Long before feuds, is one ofwarsand dynastic Zande history stateofaffairs alreadyexisted. turbed of theirVongara A considerable body of the Ambomupeople, underthe leadership from their century, royalhouse,moved,probablyabout the middleof the eighteenth in whatis now the Central homelandin thevalleysofthe Mbomu and Shinkorivers, theBelgian intowhatwas tillrecently direction African Republic,in a south-easterly into the Sudan. In the and also northwards southwards, Congo and theneastwards, or bringthem before driving vastterritories, course ofthese movements they conquered were in varying peopleswhosedescendants a numberof foreign ing into subjection the the resultant amalgam forming to theirMbomu conquerors, degreesassimilated

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Zande people as we know them to-day.To these almost ceaseless wars against peopleswere added wars betweenthe Vongara kingsand princesover the foreign spoils. butbefore ofthis doingso expansion ofsomeoftheconsequences I shallspeakbriefly different in historical of experience I would emphasizethat,owingto the diversity ofthe a history to write taskto attempt ofZandeland,it wouldbe a formidable sections as few as number to estimated been 750,000 variously Azande as a whole.They have whichon a or evenmore.Theyoccupya territory millions, and as manyas twoor three miles.It to square ioo,ooo 6o,ooo between is probably indeed veryroughestimate To south. the in rain-forest tropical dense north to in the forest savannah rangesfrom local of a series write to first necessary is therefore it people of this writethe history and not that of the The people of each area only knowtheirown history histories. of on the succession based scale time own their have and they areas, peoplesofother kingdom one in events collate us help dating to of system is no there and kings, their been undertaken, notablyby de withthosein another.This taskhas to some extent of of the kingdom a history in short contribution my added I have and Calonne; tohistorical texts relating ofvernacular I 956a) and in a series Gbudwe(Evans-Pritchard in spiteof (Evans-Pritchard eventsand politicalinstitutions I955-57). Nevertheless, appearto havebeeneverywhere institutions political diversity and historical oecological thesame. fundamentally seemsto have been the and migration ofthesewars,movements, One consequence of their say thatthe authority of powerof the Avongara.Azande themselves growth followers oftheir in the number by war and by theincrease leaderswas strengthened intermingling has been ethnic consequence them.Another brought each new conquest peoples (one cannotbe more foreign I have listedover twenty of greatcomplexity. to the Zande who have contributed precisein the absenceof adequate information) stocks yet otherforeign representing amalgam and thereare in it manyindividuals butitis certainty with origins ethnic (Evans-Pritchard I958a). It is noteasytodetermine offoreign ofYakpati,persons probablethat,exceptin the area ruledby the dynasty the Ambomu,and even in thatarea, to whichthe largest descenteasilyoutnumber 33,oooand a censusofbetween oftheAmbomuare said to have migrated, proportion percentofthe showedthattheAmbomuare onlytwenty-nine 34,000 ofitsinhabitants underVongarahegemony, communities, peoplesstillform listed.Some foreign persons theirown languagesas well as Zande: Sudanic,Bantu,and Nilotic.In the speaking sevenor Sudan alone, in additionto Zande, thereare stillspokenin Zande country souththeAzande werepressed weremorebefore and there languages, eightdifferent wardsby the Arabs; and in my day therewere stillold people who spokeyetother and in thefinalstageof by wholepeoplesnow dispersed once spoken tongues tongues, maybe foundat all stagesranging elements These foreign assimilation. totalcultural both political to total assimilation, but culturalautonomy politicalabsorption from and cultural. was of thisprocess.Wherethe mass of the population We may note some results house theruling ofexpansion, theperiphery as tendedto be thecase thenearer foreign, theAmbomu a subordination and aloof,exacting seemsto have been moreautocratic ofa colonialpolicy.It was the was thegrowth result Another wouldnothave endured.

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policyoftheAvongaranotonlyto leave a submitted peoplein their but also territory to entrust authority overthemto their own chiefs, demanding onlyacknowledgement oftheir paramountcy and tribute in labourand produce.Then prominent commoners of Mbomu or assimilated stocks wereencouraged to settle in the conqueredterritory, thusmaking for further dispersal oftheir clansand for intermingling ofclansin general. Thesecolonists withtheir kinsmen and others whogathered aroundthem formed nuclei fromwhich were disseminated theirspeech, mannersand customs,and political institutions tillin courseof time,exceptwheretheyformed large and in one way or another geographically isolatedcommunities, theforeigners became indistinguishable from theAmbomu themselves and thought ofthemselves together withtheAmbomu as Azande.At somepointor other a scionoftheroyalhousewouldsetup hiscourt in their midstand encouragethemto participate through it more fullyin politicalaffairs, thereby accelerating theprocess ofassimilation, whichwas made easierby thefactthat therewas no markeddifference in the standard oflifeto whichbothconquerors and subjects wereaccustomed. In theSudan at anyratethere wereno attempts on thepart oftheconquered peoplesat rebellion, and their lot was by no meansharsh.Soon they weretaking partin new conquests in Zande armies.Had it not been forthe barriers presented by theArabsand thentheEuropeans theprocesses ofconquest, colonization, and absorption might have continued tilloecological zoneswerereachedwhichwould have compelledthe Azande to abandon theirtraditional way of life,fortheyhad a politicalorganization superior to thatof mostof theirneighbours. We may also note thattheethnic admixture produceda noteasilydefinable classdifferentiation between Ambomu and persons offoreign descent, theAuro,whichmanifested itself in differences ofvalues,habits and speech. A manofMbomudescent considered himself tobe superior in such matters, and particularly on accountof his frequent visitsto princes'courts. However,there was so muchmovement from place to place, so muchsocial mobility, and so muchintermarriage thattheclassdifferentiation becamelessmarked witheach generation. It follows from whathas alreadybeen said thatone of theresults oftheVongaraMbomu expansion, and evidence ofit,is thewide scattering oftheMbomu clansand, in manycases,oftheclansofthesubjugated peoplesalso. It maynotbe entirely true, as Azande like to think, thatin ancienttimesthe Mbomu clans lived as moreor less separatecommunities, each in its own territory and underits own elders, and thatit was not untilthe Avongarabecame theirrulersthat the clans became everywhere mixedup, butit is significant thattheyentertain theidea, holding thatthedispersal of theclansand theconsequent atrophy oftheir hereditary leadership facilitated therise to politicalpre-eminence of the Avongara. Certainlythe clans are to-daywidely dispersed. Membersof the main Mbomu clans are foundeverywhere in thatpart of Zandelandwhichis in theSudan,and someofthose oftheassimilated peoplesalso; and such information as is available forthe Zande kingdoms whichlie outsidethe Sudan shows that they are distributed throughout the whole area of Zande occupation It is notmerely thata largenumber ofdifferent clansare represented in each kingdom and each province of a kingdom but the same is the case on the neighbourhood level.In onetypical of263 adultmales(thirty local community percentbeingAmbomu)

(Evans-Pritchard I959).

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sixty-three clanswererepresented; in another offifty-four adult males (seventeen per centbeingAmbomu)twenty-six clanswererepresented; and in a third ofninety-nine adult males (thirteen per cent beingAmbomu) thirty-seven clans were represented. Zande local communities are therefore to-day in no senseclan groups. A fairnumber of sucha community maybe connected bykinor affinal tiesofone sort or another, but as a groupit is a politicaland administrative unitowingcommon allegianceto a kingor provincial governor through hisresident deputy. This is whatgivesthecommunity its unity and distinctness and in thatsenseonlycan we call it a local groupat all (EvansPritchard I 96ob). I shouldadd that it is claimedbyAzandethattheAmbomu aremost strongly represented in provinces onceruledoverdirectly bykings inperson, becausethey like to retaintheirtraditional relationship withmonarchy as descendants of the first followers oftheVongararoyalhouse.Whether it can be demonstrated thatthis is really thecase byanalysis ofthecensus figures hasyettobe determined. It is possible thatthis farand widedispersal oftheclansmayto someextent account for the large numberof clans. Azande say that clans were brokenup and then their fragments broken up again and thatsomeofthesebitsand pieces,individuals as well as groups, lost touchwithothermembers of theirclan and started new descent groupsor attachedthemselves to Mbomu clans or largeforeign clans,so thatit is no longercertain who belongs to theparentstemand who does not. It was foundthatin thecensusthere was I88 clansrepresented by at leasttwenty-five recorded adult male members. There were manymorewitha smallerrepresentation. They have not yet been counted, butifwe takethatfactintoconsideration and also thatnotall Sudanese Zandelandwas covered by theinquiry and further thatwe have evidence thatin other partsof Zandeland,wherethe constituent ethnicelements are different thosein from theSudanesekingdoms, there are clansnotfound in theSudan, we mayconcludethat theremustbe severalhundredZande clans. The foreign originof manyof themis evident in their names,whichAzande sometimes attempt to explainby a story which might accountforthe meaning theyappear to have whenthe syllables ofwhichthey are composed are assimilated toZande sounds(Evans-Pritchard I956b). The numberof clans and theirscattered distribution present some confused and complex historical problems whichare made nonetheeasierwhenwe find thatpersons ofthesameclan maygivedifferent totems. Azande explainthisbythehabit,to whichI have referred, ofindividuals and groups attaching themselves to somewell-known clan. Some clansare thusspokenabout as kpamiakpamia, conglomerate, clans.Whatever the explanation maybe, it is a factthatevenmembers ofthesame clan in thesame local community may give different totems.I have listedfor the Sudanese Azande I27 totems:fifty-seven mammals,twenty-two one crustacean, birds,thirty-four reptiles, and thirteen in which insects(Evans-Pritchard I 956c). Now,outof a sample forty-two ofthebestknown oftheclan clanswererepresented in onlyone case did all members give the same totem.Examplesof people who claimedmembership of the same clan different giving totems are theAgitiand theAbakpuro.Out of289 Agiti225 gave the rungbu snake(snakes are thecommonest Zande totems, especially oftheMbomuclans), thethunder-beast theleopard, forty (Azanderegard thunder as a creature), twenty-one twotherungbura snake,and one thetreesnake.Out ofsixty-two sixgave the Abakpuro rungbu snake, one thethunder-beast, five theleopard, forty-eight a wildcat,and twothe

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indication genet.This is another of the unimportant role played by clanshipin the oftheAzande (Evans-Pritchard highly I 961 ). organized political society tothis thecounterpart ethnic As we might expect, amalgamis a composite culture, culture. The originalMbomu economy and Azande so regardtheir musthave underor two. Some of the main Zande gone greatchangesin the courseof thelast century the tobacco plant-are all of crops-manioc, sweet potatoes,maize, groundnuts, and could nottherefore have reachedZandelandbefore thesixteenth American origin and probably nottilltheseventeenth, or evennineteentlh century eighteenth, century, from and inevitably wouldhavebeenborrowed African someother they people as their The evidence also totheAmbomu spreadpreceded Europeanpenetration. points having ofthebanana,and eventheir borrowed theculture staplecropofto-day, eleusine;also the Ficus from theinnerbarkofwhichtheymanufacture theirloin-cloths; also their mainpulses.All this, and other thatbefore theAmbomubegantheir evidence, suggests wereprimarily hunters withagriculture migrations wherethey as a subsidiary interest, as to-daythe Azande are predominantly This consideration, a mobile agricultural. makes iteasiertounderstand economy, their migrations. It alsohaspolitical significance, forthepoliticaldevelopment in thecourseof territorial whichundoubtedly occurred the increasein power and administrative expansion, organization of the Avongara and theassimilation offoreign peoples, maywellbe connected withthegreater stability i 960c). on cultivated dependence wouldhavebrought crops about (Evans-Pritchard In other respects also Zande culture is a thing ofshreds and patches.I hopesoonto publishpapersshowing thatsome of theirartsand crafts and a large sectorof their material and also someoftheir culture, important weretakenoverby the institutions, Ambomu from foreign peoplesthey assimilated orneighboured. What gave coherenceand stability to thisheterogeneous amalgamof ethnicand culturalelements was the superior politicalorganization of the Avongara-Ambomu which enabled them to impose theirlanguage and institutions on the subjugated I shall now examine.Traditionally peoples. It is thisorganization Azande lived in isolatedhomesteads spreadoverthecountryside withseveral hundred yards, and sometimesgreater ofbush betweenthem.Early travellers distances, through theircountry notedthateventually theycame to a breakin thisdistribution ofhomesteads and for severalmilesnone wereto be seen,and theydiscovered thatthisindicatedthatthey werecrossing from thedomains ofone kingto those ofanother. Thesekingdoms appear tohaveall beenofthesamepattern. In thecourseofZande expansion theconquests came to be ruledby severaldynasties,thoughthe different royalhouseswere all closelyrelatedmembers of the same or clan,theAvongara. family I leaveoutofaccountherethefactthattheAzandein the extreme westoftheir territory are,together withtherelated Nzakarapeopleto thewest ofthem, ruledby a clan ofquitedifferent ethnic origin, theBandiya.M. de Dampierre has recently made a study ofthisregion and has putme right on thismatter, in whichI had been led astray by following earlier authorities. I also leave out ofaccounta small sectionof Azande, the Adio or Makaraka, who live to the extremenorth-east of Zandeland and are not ruledby theAvongarabut come underthe authority of their ownelders. The Vongaradynasties are all descended from King Ngura,theruler ofthe Ambomu people some seven or eight generations ago, whose sons and grandsons

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themin theterritories I do notthink founded theycarvedout forthemselves. we need doubtZande statements aboutthis. in whichtheAvongarabecameleadersof What is open to question is the manner theAmbomu.It has been suggested werean intrusive thatthey foreign (non-Mbomu) stock, butthere is no evidence for thisview.The belief thatthey have a secret language of theirown receives suchfactsas are knownand is also contrary to no support from logic.It mayhave arisenfrom thehabitcultivated by smallsonsofprinces ofspeaking Zande backwards, in reversed syllables (Evans-Pritchard I954). The Azande have their own story to accountfortheorigin oftheir ruling house(Evans-Pritchard I957a), and, in spiteof some improbableeventsrelatedin it, I thinkit providesthe mostlikely explanation: thata certain man calledBasenginonga, or bysomeother name,achieved His pre-eminence among a divided people by his wise judgmentsand hospitality. descendants thenincreasedtheirauthority and power,Azande say, in the courseof and wars. That manyindividualshave gained a following migrations and founded dynasties is a plain factofhistory, and examples could be quotedfrom Africa:Chaka, and others. Sebotoane,Moshesh, Cases closerto theAvongaraare theruling housesof thealreadymentioned Bandiyaand theMangbetu, overa cluster ofpeoples bothruling withsimilarpoliticalinstitutions to thoseof the Azande, whomtheyneighbour. But onlyin thelattercase does theevidenceseemconclusive thatthe establishment ofthe ruling dynasty was due to theinitiative ofone man (whowas possibly a Vongara). The line ofdescent from Basenginonga to Ngura is uncertain, but thereis every reasonto acceptthelinesofdescent from Ngurato thepresent dayas substantially correct. The descendants ofNguraestablished sixdynasties have been and their genealogies recordedby a numberof observers, and de Calonne has mapped out the carefully territories ruled by them.Scions of each dynasty as rulersof established themselves independent kingdoms, thenumber ofwhich variedfrom timeto timewiththefortunes of war; and it cannoteven be said withprecision how manytherewereat any given and also because,fora reason time,bothon accountoflack of adequate information whichwillsoonbe apparent, thedefinition has to be in ofwhatconstitutes a kingdom ifwe define relative terms. However, it as an area whoseinhabitants acknowledge one man to be their and he acknowledges sovereign theoverlordship ofno other man,then roundabout i88o there wereprobably somefifteen kingdoms. Theyvariedin size but all stretched forseveraldaysjourneyon foot.Gbudwe'skingdom was, at a veryrough approximation, io,ooo squaremiles.We have to guessat thesize oftheir populations, but thereare indications thattheywerenot likelyto have been less than 50,ooo and wereprobably nearerIoo,oooin someofthelarger kingdoms, suchas Gbudwe's. However,thougha kingdom had clearlydemarcatedboundaries, designated by rivers, and can be so defined, in discussing theruler-subject relationship Azande place on personal rather theemphasis thanon tenure. It is truethatin a sensethe allegiance king ownedtheland and couldordera subject off it,and in thatsenseanyone wholived on land overwhichhe held dominion was ipso But no one was tiedto factohis subject. any particular piece ofland or district. The country was thinly populated, perhapsten to the square mile,or even fewer, and people settled verymuchwheretheypleased, their frequently moving homesfrom one place to another. Landed property had little in a political context. importance Therewas no suggestion oftribute and services being

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paid as rent.Furthermore, if a Zande was dissatisfied withhis lot in one kingdom he could moveto another. He might have to use discretion in doingso, but it was done; and he thentransferred his allegianceto the rulerin whoseterritory he wentto live. That the relationship was thought of in terms of personalallegianceratherthan of tenure, ofleadership rather thanofpossession, is illustrated by thefactthatthepeople of a kingdom weredesignated by reference to a personrather thanto a territory. The people of one kingdom were avuru Wando, the subjectsor followers of Wando, the people ofanother wereavuruMalingindo, thesubjects or followers ofMalingindo, and so on. This designation ofthepolitical community might be compared to thatobtaining in Europebefore theidea ofpossession gainedprecedence, butwhereas in Europeitwas defined in relation to thepeople-King oftheFranks, Duke ofthe Normans, King of the English-amongtheAzande it was in relation to their ruler.In speaking about a kingdom Azande do not have so much in mind its boundariesas the relationof a community ofsubjects to a person;and it was morefollowers thanland thatthe kings wishedto gain in their struggles forpower,theterritory seizedbeingincidental to the acquisition ofnewsubjects. Also,as we shallsee,a kingdom had no territorial longevity. On thedeathofthesovereign it broke up intoseparate kingdoms ruledoverbyhiselder sons, and the inhabitants of each then became the subjectsof independent rulers, whereas before theserulers had acknowledged theparamountcy oftheir father. Consequently one cannotspeakof a Zande kingdom in thesensethatone can speak of,for example, thekingdom ofBunyoro, where there has beena succession ofmonarchs whose authority can be clearly defined in territorial terms, as can thesuccession ofdynasties in England.Perhapswe maysee in theZande modeofdesignation for, and their confrom their thetimeoftheir ception political communities a heritage past,from of,their greatmigrations, whenwhole populations moved,as did our Germanancestors, and thetie between was a personal theleadersofthesemigratory bands and their followers one and couldnotadequately tract ofcountry. be thought ofanyparticular ofin terms The modeofspeechsuggests also thattheVongararoyalhousehave notalwayshad the exaltedpositionthe first to theircourtsfoundthemto possessbut Europeanvisitors rather thatthey reachedit in thecourseofthesemovements and attendant wars,which is what theAzande themselves say and otherevidences pointto: that'war begat the theterritorial king'.It is onlyin a historical, or looking back,sensethatAzande stress a of when be a aspect kingdom, theyrefer to whatused to king'sdomains, e.g. kumbo of(ortheheritage of) Ezo. Ezo, whatwas thekingdom I describe Before theorganizational to structure ofa Zande kingdom it is necessary decideon theterms we are to use, especially in translating theZande gbia.This word can be usedforthesuperior in anyrelationship on one side person involving authority and subordination on the other, whichforthe Azande meansall social relationships, We have, of the Vongara clan, the nobility. thoughits first meaningis any member to distinguish in thenobility. A kingwas rulerof a between however, gradesofstatus in the sensealreadydefined. kingdom I speak of 'princes'in a politicalsenseonly,to denotethosemembers as represenofthearistocracy ofa kingdom whoruleda province ofitsmonarch, tatives by whomtheywereappointedand to whomtheywereresponthe sible.I speakof 'nobles'in reference ofthearistocratic to all members clan,giving worda socialrather and princes werealso thana political all kings foralthough sense,

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of the clan have in recenttimesheld no, or very in thissensenobles,mostmembers have social minor, politicaloffice, though they alwayshad, and stillhave, a superior When a kingappointeda commoner to position withwhichwentcertainprivileges. I speakofhimas a 'commoner rulea province whenit is necessary to makea governor' who were commoners and thosewho were nobles,the distinction betweengovernors princes. Azande often in contrast to use theword'Azande' in thesenseofcommoners in thebroadercultural sensewhichdenotes thewhole nobles,but I shall use theterm the descendants of theiroriginalMbomu followers, people: the Vongara aristocracy, theAuro. and thedescendants oftheconquered peoples, A kingdividedhisrealmintoprovinces, a large between river boundaries, keeping one forhimself and establishing in each oftheothers central hisrepresentatives to rule enabledhimto be within distance from the in hisname.His central reasonable position but the reasongenerally advanced is that he was protected courtsof his governors, another whichwould first have to pass through attackfrom againstsurprise kingdom, one or moreofthefrontier timeforthewholekingdom to be alerted. provinces, giving Broadpathsled from theroyalcourtto theprovincial courts and it was thedutyofthe to see thatwhenthe grasses werehightheywerelevelledto thegroundon governors has a drawing bothsidesof them. of a man engagedin thisoperation. In the Junker would tendto be commoners foras a rule earlypart of a king'sreignthe governors but when his sons grewup-some mightbe only theirkinsmen, kingsdid not trust at the time-he gave themthe mostimportant Each governor striplings provinces. in hisprovince exercised thesameauthority overhissubjects as thekingdid in his,and it was onlyin degreethathisfunctions differed and their from wereconcourts theirs; on thesamemodelof,and runon thesamelinesas, theroyalcourt.Neverthestructed a governor ofhisoffice less,a kingcoulddeprive at willand he did nothesitate to do so ifhe suspected or for hisloyalty cowardice or maladministration, and he couldtranslate himfrom one province to another to suithisconvenience. In thekingdom ofGbudwe, of which I have made a detailed analysis(Evansof the administrative structure Pritchard his own,twenty-six ig6od), thereappear to have been circa I900, including provinces, ruledby hissons.The number mostly in a kingdom ofprovinces variedfrom timeto timeand provincial boundaries werechangedif the kingthought fitto alter them.They variedalso in size and to someextent in theirdegreeof autonomy. That ruledoverbyGbudwe'ssecondsonMange to theeastoftheSueh river was so largeand from hisfather's populousand also so farremoved court thathe was almost an independentmonarch he formally and, though hisfather's recognized authority, he keptwell him. awayfrom The administrative in each province arrangements wereon thesamepattern as that ofthekingdom as a whole.Each was a kingdom in miniature. The prince in hisprovince was likethekingin hisrealm.He placed hiscourt in a central position, thusprotecting it from raids and makingit easilyaccessibleto his agents.These agentsor deputies in the kingdom, of provinces to the governors correspond thoughtheylacked their ofthevarious powerand authority. Theyhad charge districts intowhicha province was dividedforadministrative and thegovernor purposes ruledthrough them.They were responsible to himfor good order, payment oftribute in kindand labour,settlement of as requiredhandlingby the governor disputeswhichwere not of such a character

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himself, military service, etc.Justas pathsran from theking'scourtto thecourts ofhis theprovincial provincial governors so paths,though narrower courtto ones,ran from in eachprovince. thehomesteads ofthegovernor's deputies The questionof succession or fiefs-I use the word without to these provinces thefeudalfiefs prejudice:theylittleresembled of Europe-scarcelyarose. If a prince in his place, and thoughhe might chosea younger died thekingput another uterine of the dead man he could nominatewhom he pleased. He sent one of his brother ruler to presenthim to his subjectsand they men-at-court with the new princely him to formally acceptedhim aftersome of themhad made speechesadmonishing A princecould,ifhe so wished, govern wisely. allow Theyhad no choicein thematter. or older son to exerciseauthority over part of his territory a younger brother while tohim-a sortof'parage'. The kingwouldraiseno objection. As remaining responsible the fief faras he was concerned was undividedand he dealt onlywiththe princein ifitsruler Whenthekingdied thefief, chargeofit. A princecould notalienatehisfief. an independent was a noble,notifhe was a commoner, becamedefacto realmand the ifhe survived prince itsking, theinternecine strife whichthentookplace. It mustbe emphasized thatthough theroyalauthority was recognized everywhere in thekingdom, and theprovincial noblesand commoners governors, alike,werecarefulto pay thekingtribute, to visithimevery month or so (Mange was an exception), and to avoid givinghim any cause fordissatisfaction, the kingretained nevertheless, control overonlya portion oftherealmand had to delegateto others direct powerin into the therestofit. Effective hands ofhis poweroverthesubject consequently passed and particularly ofhiseldersons;and they in their turn had to delegate some governors ofit to their to a farlesser deputies, though degree.Giventhesize ofa Zande kingdom of communications and the simplicity therewould seem to have been a limitto the ofan area,and ofitspopulation, extent overwhicha mancouldexercise direct personal control. The system of provinces could be described as a complexsegmentary structure in whichtherewas a certaindegreeof opposition betweenprovince and province. This was expressed in terms of thejealousy and enmity withwhichprincesviewed each thoserulingadjacent provinces, other,especially and thisoccasionally led to fights, wereunlikely to be morethancasual affrays, though for they thekingtookthelinethat all alikewerehissubjects and wouldpunish theoffender. Therewas an element oflocal particularism whichtended topersist in spiteofchangeofgovernors, for thesamepeople continued to havea common tietowhomsoever at anytimeheldoffice. It was expressed in and through thelocal ruler. The peopleoftheprovince ofGbudwe'ssonRikitawere not onlyavuru Gbudwe,subjects of Gbudwe. They were also avuru Rikita,subjects of from Rikita,as distinct the subjects of otherprinces, and it was Rikita,and not his withwhomthey father, had personal contactand to whomthey fulfilled suchdutiesas subjectowes to ruler.The rivalry, however, was betweenprinceand princeand not between and king, prince whowas toopowerful to be overthrown byanyone ofhissons, forhe had a powerful force at his immediate commandand could relyforsupport on his othergovernors, toojealous of each otherto combineagainsthim. Consequently, it is true,as was thecase in Europein feudaltimes, though thatthesubject was bound to his immediatelord by ties stronger, because more personal,than those which
K

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attached himmoreremotely to theking, he was notputin a position ofhavingto chose between twoallegiances. In every Zande kingdom about whichwe have sufficient information tojudge, the A kingplantedout his sonsin provinces. processwas the same and repetitive. Even during hislifetime theeldersons, theearliest plantedoutand withthelargest provinces, monarchs were almostindependent rulingautonomous statesin theirown right.On and set out to enlarge the king'sdeath theseeldersonsachievedcomplete autonomy theirpatrimony at the expenseofneighbouring weakerbrothers. peoplesand of their oftheir thusgainedkingdoms own they in their turnplantedout their sons Whenthey and so the process was repeatedgeneration after generation. There can be no doubt in detailby severalhands,mostnotably about thefacts. They have been recorded by de Calonne. The evidenceinclines one to believethatin the periodof rapid expansion, up to in somefour orfive whofound themselves generations ago,in themaintheelderprinces oflargetracts ofthepatrimony on their possession father's deathenlarged their domains offoreign ofwasting in fighting for at theexpense peoplesinstead their energy eachother As themomentum ofexpansion dominance. sloweddownand itslimits werereachedin so thattheterritories ofthevarious oftheroyalhousebecame mostdirections, branches stabilized, the domainsof a princecould be enlarged onlyby conquestof thoseofhis Civilwar and theelimination ofall but a fewwas theonly brothers or other kinsmen. alternative tofractionization intoeversmaller fragments. I turnnow to ask whatweretherelations rulers and ruled,between between king, and howbothviewedthem. or hisrepresentative, and subject, The mainroyal functions as seenfrom oftheorigin oftheVongara bothsidesare in partpointedtoin themyth and economic orfiscal; clan:judicial,military, and we mayadd to them administrative. had thesamefunctions in hisprovince As each ofthegovernors as thekinghad in hisit thatwhenI say thatthekingdid thisor that,thisis shorthand for mustbe understood unless theking orhisgovernors, otherwise. specified All casesofanyimportance, crimes and torts or compensation involving punishment at theking'scourt,usuallyby thekingin person, who on any scale,had to be settled in accordwithcustom and imposed and precedent. He came gavejudgments penalties twoor three outfrom hisprivate quarters every daysto sitinjudgment withhismen-atin a semi-circle in front ofhim.As mostZande cases concernwitchcraft courtsitting in whichevidence and adultery was either or circumstantial had to be lacking thefacts to thepoisonoracle(Evans-Pritchard determined and while byputting questions I937), hisownoracleabouthisaffairs, oracleor thatof a anyonecouldconsult onlytheking's orwithhisconsent had validity in law. The kingthereon hisinstructions person acting had thejudicial machinery in hishands,and thefirst fore ofhis dutieswas to entirely see thatit was properly were used,thatfairand, in Zande eyes,reasonable judgments from made to given.As thesole sourceofjusticethekingbenefited courtfeesand gifts himbysuccessful litigants. Besidesbeingsupreme oftheforces of judge thekingwas also commander-in-chief hisrealm.Therewerecompanies ofwarriors, someofsenior menand someofbachelors, each underitsownofficers, and thebachelorcompanies had barracks roundthecourt. Someoftheir members wouldgenerally be in residence ifwe may Theseregulars, there.

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so call them, werevolunteers; and a princehad no difficulty in recruiting youngmen for,among otherincentives, therewas the expectation that he would aid themin obtaining wives, whichwas often a problem formenin a society whereso manyofthe womenweretakento spouseby thenoblesand wealthier and oldercommoners. When a princecarriedout a raid acrossthe borderintoanother kingdom or therewas war between kingdom and kingdom thewholemanpower oftheprovince or kingdom could be mobilized and incorporated for theduration ofthefighting intothis skeletal organization.The menoftheraidedprovince wereunderobligation to proceedat once to the pointofattackand their resistance was consequently notin company formation. Border raids,called basapu, organized by marcher governors were,on one or other sector ofthe frontiers, annual events.If one provi-nce was attackedadjacentprovinces came to its aid, butin thecase ofraidsthere was no mobilization ofthewholekingdom. Affrays of this kindonlylasteda few hours. Theseraidsseemto havehad little purpose beyond the boosting ofa prince's renown and a demonstration ofloyalty to him.Theirsociological function, however, maybe saidtobe themaintenance ofa political system inwhich kingdomwas in balancedopposition tokingdom bykeeping theborder in a stateofturmoil, or thethreat ofit,making thephysical boundary a clearpolitical one and emphasizing on both sides allegianceto thekingand his representatives (Evans-Pritchard I957b). Large-scale warsor campaigns, between kingdom and kingdom or againstArabs and Europeans,called sungusungu vura, whichmightlast forseveraldays or even several weeks, werelessfrequent. Gbudwein thecourseof a reignofabout thirty-six yearsis recorded to have fought nineofthesecampaigns. Whenthere was fighting on thisscale the kingsentmessengers to his provincial governors ordering themto mobilizetheir a defensive forces;and shouldthe kingdom be in jeopardyand the operation one, to proceedimmediately withtheircompaniesto the scene of operations. Only the king could ordergeneralmobilization of the whole kingdom, and it was he who seems and tactics of generally to have directed, withtheaid ofhispoisonoracle,thestrategy ofthegovernor undertheorders of thecampaign, was directly though each contingent theprovince from whichit came,and each had to solveitsown commissariat problems was thusalso in the ofthekingdom (Evans-Pritchard organization I 957c). The military handsofthekingand hisrepresentatives; and it mayherebe notedthatthepeopleofa in relation to their a politicalcommunity, kingdom saw themselves as a distinct unity, thatthe in suchwarswas a demonstration kingparticularly in war,forparticipation and thiswas theonly menon either ofone kingand notofanother, sidewerefollowers Its corporate in whichthe whole of a kingdom tookpart together. activity military be defined. a Zande kingdom actionwas theclearest criterion bywhich might theupkeep In a broadsensethekingconsidered for himself responsible publicorder, He did notinterfere with ofcommunications, forthewholekingdom. and intelligence led to affrays or a unlesstheirrivalries the internal of his governors administration but he stood no nonsensefromthem and he governor proved to be incompetent, ifanything untoward expected them to keepin touchwithhimby messenger happened in personevery and to report or therewas intelligence of an attackon the kingdom on theduty He placed specialemphasis month or twoon theaffairs oftheir provinces. ofthemarcher to obtainadvanceinformation to keepwatchon thefrontier, governors and in thecase ofone to go to their through spiesand oraclesofan impending attack,

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hisdeputies in ofthethreatened at once. The kingalso,through theassistance province whichwas by farthe largest, had the same administrative his own centralprovince, had in theirs. functions as each ofthegovernors ofa court and ofadministraThe maintenance ofa military ofjustice, organization, number ofpersons tionmeantthatthere werealwaysa fair at court;theking's sonsand members of the bachelor kinsmen, visiting governors, deputiespayingtheirrespects, in barracks, companies forgifts, litigants awaitingcourtprocedure, pages,suppliants and others, and thesepeople had to be fed duringtheirresidence at court,often of duration or more,even,at thecourts ofgovernors who might severaldayscontinuous to assist ofweeks. notat thetimehave thewherewithal Otherwise could suppliants, they wouldnot,haveremained An abundanceoffoodwas therefore not,and certainly there. it otherthanby thelabourand gifts required, and thekinghad no meansofacquiring ofhissubjects. The considerable offoodsentoutto hisguests from quantities day to day wereobtainedin three were used for labour in theroyal ways.The military companies and thewivesofthesenior The companies onesin hisownprovince cultivations. cleared thebushforthe main royalcrops,weeded them,and harvested them;and theywere theclearing, aided in themostarduousofthesetasks, sentby each of by detachments ofprovinces oftherealm.Gardens so worked thecommoner governors bypubliclabour from theking's mustbe distinguished cultivated private gardens, by hiswivesand their hispersonal withsomeassistance from in theory female servants at anyrate pages,for, in themain,thecropscultivated and probably in practice wereusedfor by hissubjects and not forconsumption publicentertainment It is likelythat by his own household. each was used to supplement theother.The secondsourceof whenoccasionrequired ofhisownprovince. This couldbe regarded ofthesubjects foodwas tribute as a tax,but, somepressure to bearon persons to contribute although who mayhave been brought it was regarded attendcourt, did not regularly by Azande as morein thenatureof a from timeto timeto supplytheirrulerwiththe meansof providing for whip-round at court. The deputies in each district ownconsumption their collected from thepeople was seasonablein the gardens or bush and sentit to court,and people ofit whatever killed. also presented partofthegamethey for Again,suchtribute was notintended the If a subject wishedto contribute someparkingor hiswivesbutforpublichospitality. relished ticularly food,suchas game or beer,to theking'spersonal tablehe made him a personaland privategift.A thirdsourceof food-and thisthe paramountalone sentto him by his provincial was the annual tribute enjoyed, governors. Everyyear a portion ofthetribute caravansbrought paid to these to the governors bytheir subjects court.The labour of preparing all thisfood foreatingwas the king's paramount's It fellto his wivesand their femaleservants, ofwhomhe had therefore responsibility. I discuss later. tohavea largenumber-a matter Besidesrevenuein foodthe kingwas givenby his immediate subjectsand by his ofartand craft: various governors products baskets, hats,mats, barkcloth, stools, bowls, In thecase ofKing Gbudwe'skingpots,etc. These werefortheuse ofhishousehold. in somepartsoftherealmwerescarceor notto be found common dom,products in his own provinceand were therefore doublywelcome.From the same sourceshe was withspearsand othermetal artifacts, presented and he obtainedquantities of these and court in fines valuableobjects from thespoilsofwar,and in other fees, ways.Some

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he usedfor marrying wives, buthe had to distribute many, perhaps most, ofthem to his warriors and to suppliants who came to beg his aid, notonlyfrom hisownprovince but from thoseofhisgovernors also. Prisoners ofwar,girlsand boys, weresentto theking, and these, or someofthem, he also gave away. He also gave away to hiscourtiers and to those whohad served in hismilitary companies women for wives;and these appearto havebeen,besides captives ofwar,women paid in fines or seizedfrom thehomes ofmen whohad incurred royaldispleasure. I cannotsayhowmany, or howoften, women were princes' rewards to their subjects, but I fancy thatthey werefewand seldom, although thegiving ofthem was spoken aboutby Azande and their princes alikeas thesupreme exampleofprincely munificence in thepast. Now, in a subsistence economy without money or markets there is nothing mucha rulercan do withsurplus foodor suchobjectsas hatsor barkcloth exceptto givethem away,and although spearscould be exchanged forwivestheymusthave been mainly givento subjects, for it was impossible fora kingor prince to refuse a suppliant, though he might keephimwaiting a longtimebefore giving them. We might saythatwhathas beendescribed is a form ofgift exchange, butthis, though trueup toa point, wouldleave out of consideration some important features. The subjectgivesto the rulerand the rulergivesback,but thepsychology is different in thetwotransactions. The subjectis performing a dutyand thekinggraciously his tribute. He confers in receives a favour acceptinga giftand also in dispensing largesse;in both he places the subjectin an inferior it was an uneven one. Mostofthose position. it was an exchange Also,although who gavereceived did notfrequent in return becausethey thecourts. The food nothing and other whoserved his theking at court:hisbodyguard, gifts gave awaywentto those his pages,his deputies, and otherretainers. kinsmen, his governors and their retinues, The peopleas a wholeweremaintaining thecourt. wereleft Then,thekingand princes offoodand other witha surplus. thatby distribution We have to bear in mindfurther the rulerswere able to maintaina politicalorganization whichthey gifts through to win favour, accumulated etc. They were the wealthiest wealthin fines, fees,gifts was tobe seenin their dress(though members ofthesociety, and this better than simple, in the abstinence thatofcommoners), in their well-fed appearance,and in particular oftheir and sometimes from whichexceeded, manuallabourand in thenumber wives, farexceededwhat even the mostprosperous commoners could attainto; and in an ofthiskindwomenare thereal wealth-theirlabourand child-bearing, their economy The morewivesa man had the greaterthe and reproductive functions. productive to himself whoprovided himwith followers hospitality he couldoffer, thereby attaching more and and the the children more labour other yet services; begottenby him. rulers of wives the werealso exploitthe economic from Further, apart advantage many be and tribute alike. It could said thatall these their labour their ing subjects through ofwhichall benefited. from themaintenance This is thestate, wentto support services also trueup to a point,beyondwhichit would have to be said thatthestatedid not theAvongara benefited muchmore all equally,thattheupperrankin thestate, benefit I be a think it would mistake to view thanthecommoners. considerably Nevertheless, did notwantwealthso muchas personal terms. in purely economic thematter Royalty liked likedriches becausethey prestige; or,perhapsone shouldrather say thatprinces them and in thethought towinrenown bygiving away.It was thatwhichcounted most,

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of the people the economicadvantageswere subsidiary to the powertheyservedto sustain. I must at this was a purely pointmakeit clearthattheZande kingship secular office, or functions as such; kings werepowerful lacking or magicalattributes religious enough to have no need of them.The ruler-subject was a matter-of-fact one in relationship was recognized and given on bothsides.The waytheAzande ofservice whichmutuality hischildren-subjects. saw it was thatthekingwas father-ruler to hispeopleand they In and he on his part gave hospitality payinghim tribute theyshowedhim respect, to as caredtovisit their rulers commoners suchguests him.In discussing often tellone that theythemselves and unruly are a quarrelsome people and thatifit werenotfortheir forthey wouldnotobeyone ofthemselves; and noblemasters there wouldbe no order, I thinktheyare right.They recognizethat theremustbe a finalauthority whose decisionsare not to be disputed,and that is why theyobey theirrulers;and they acceptedin thepast thatin the last resort thekingmustexercise force ifhis decisions were questionedor his ordersnot carriedout or if someoneacted contrary to law, The kinghad the forceat his hand in his military and good manners. comcustom, hisdeputies, and in general He instructed themen-at-court. them panies,hisretainers, to execute, or mutilate hishome,and it was not a man and seizehiswivesand destroy If a disputed thathe had a right to do so. However,therewas a curb on despotism. his subjects, princetriedto exact too muchfrom wentafter theirwives,or was cruel there weresanctions theycould apply.Theycould cease to visithimat court, isolating him,and ifthey foundthatthey wereno longerable to feelsecurein personand promovedtheir homesto another and transferred their perty they to its province allegiance An unpopular governor. princewould also findthatwhenit came to civilwar on the deathofhis father he would not receivethesupport ofhis subjects. Then there was a curbthanfearoflosing further, and perhaps moreimportant, or their subjects support. Zande kingdoms werein Montesquieu's of thoseofwhichthe principle was category honour. Kingsand princes felt obligedto behaveaccording to thetraditional of pattern theirstatus, to be courteous to theirsubjects and not to go beyondwhat custom prescribed All in all we maysay thatthough forthem, to do nothing shameful. theroyal powermightappear to have been unlimited, as in theory it was, in practiceit was limited by thefactthata ruler had to exercise it through and theseothers others, could it if theyretainedthe confidence onlyexercise of thoseover whomtheyrepresented royalauthority. It was remarked by earlytravellers thatthere was a big gap between appearanceand reality, theking in thelastresort beingunableto gethisfollowers to do whatthey weredetermined nottodo. The secret ofsuccess oftheZande administrative organization seemsto me to have beenthedeputing ofauthority. A kingor prince ruledthrough hisrepresentatives at all levels:governors, deputies, leadersof military companies. Without themhe was helpless.He seldomleft hishome,wherehe spentmostofhistimewithhiswivesand small He was notonlya remote children. but also a lonely figure, and he wouldhave had no idea ofwhatwas goingon,farlesshave beenable to control it,ifit had notbeenfor the loyaltyof thosehe appointedto office;and thesemen passed the king'sauthority downwards to others so thata largenumber ofpersons enhancedtheir self-importance in it. The king's bysharing in theend dependedon itsdistribution authority right down

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ofroyalauthority was largely itsenjoyment theenjoyment thescale. In short, by those whomit was exercised, and theycould sometimes circumvent it or use it in through and fortheir own prestige. Much was done in theking'sname that owninterests their in hisname hearabout.Peoplewereevenexecuted never he had notordered and might is thatunderlying theapparent of Whatwe are saying but notat hisbehest. despotism whichserved theroyalpowerfor itsownsake,forthe thesovereign was a bureaucracy in it,for eventhough theloveofpower, ofsharing privilege delegated power.This they whichmostpeople did nothave,by frerelations withtheruler, achievedby personal quent attendanceat court; and I now say a few wordsabout court arrangements (Evans-Pritchard I957d). likea queenbee in a hive.His court ofhisrealm, A king livedin thecentre consisted ofthree an inner or harem.In the parts:an outercourt, court, and theprivate quarters and administration was conducted caseswereheard,warsweredeclared, outercourt by. be present; or in his absenceby one ofhissonswho might and food thekingin person in attendance, themembers ofcompanies, was sentout dailyforthose and all deputies, to court;for made them visitors thosewhoseambitions regular ordinary persons, unless tendedto keepawayfrom had somespecialbusiness theview they there, court, taking that thoughit mightoffer also had its rewards-office, gifts, being-in-the-know-it ofwitchcraft, and adultery withtheking's hazards: accusations sorcery, wives,and the Most people,especially dangerofbeingbewitched byjealous rivalsforroyalfavours. to stayat homeand mindtheir ownbusiness. theforeign elements, preferred Theytook in their as they haveto theking's Between theouter suchtroubles might district. deputy was a smallinner court called 'theplace ofsecrets', at the courtand theprivate quarters huts.Here foodwas served to nobles, sideofwhichtheking's whoate by pageshad their and to senior office-holders. A page summoned themfrom the outercourt themselves, whenthebowlsand potsoffoodhad beencarried from theprivate to thisinner quarters withhis moreimportant court.There also the kingcould discussaffairs reprivately the generalpublic.A path ran from thiscourtto the royalharem tainers away from as theking had many coveran extensive each wife had her which, wives, might area,for and garden;and in thevicinity own homestead werealso the main crop cultivations. The wiveshad to growand preparefoodforthemselves and their children and also to in thetwocourts. preparefoodfortheking'ssubjects The kingappointed one ofthem hiscook,and shealone prepared hismeals.At thecourt ofa kingor ofa wealthy prince thewiveswereorganized intocompanies on themodelofthemilitary each companies, with whomwe maydub a queen.The royalpubliccultivations itsmistress, wereworked and their tribute was paid to thenameofone or other bythesubjects, ofthequeensand the produceof the cultivations, she distributed and the foodpaid in tribute, to her followers to prepareforconsumption in the courts.The queens were givenservants, as were also sometimes usuallyyounggirls,by theirmaster, otherwives,and these servants the moreonerous performed household tasks.Sooneror laterthekingwould have relations withthem-it is said secretly for fearofcomment from hiswives-and if theyborehimchildren theyweregiventheir own homesand henceforward rankedas
wives.

One ofthemostimportant features oftheZande royalhouselacking in themonarchieswithwhichwe are familiar in mostofourhistorical was thelargefamilies reading

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a ruler had dozensofwives.In practice wives.Somekings numerous begatbytheir they and, for her bridewealth he paid though any unmarried of girl, coulddemandthehand royal the among their daughters have to glad men were thatconsideration, apartfrom it. A kingdid not, comefrom might in thisand favours was someprestige wivesas there to showhis.The was expected a commoner deference the with hisin-laws treat however, one. father-in-law to son-in-law the by affected not was relationship king-to-subject it how see can we readily wives many his all with relations marital Since a kinghad census In the Zandeland. in the largest is now probably clan royal the that came about 1,382 adult,or near numbering takenin the Sudanese part of it it was the largest, be over I0,000 there other in might scale parts this on If it is represented adult,males. back descent their trace all that they of all ages. Considering and sexes both of Avongara astonishing an is this back or seven eight generations some lived who to King Ngura, other from withfigures one; and it is comparable but it is not an improbable figure; the of houses the of in royal membership the increase example for me, to known societies polygamy where in Cyrenaica and als6 oftheSanusifamily and Anuakpeoples, Shilluk of amongtheAzande has led to theformation by Koraniclaw. This increase is limited but and subjects rulers between casteor class,notjust a differentiation an aristocratic of the greatmajority gradeofpeoplewho,even though ofa privileged theemergence status. They avoid,in so faras theycan, a superior themhold no officehave by birth and the situation manual labour,but mostofthemcan no longeravoid it altogether, they in number increase As they in each newgeneration. for them difficult more becomes to livemoreand moreas exceptforthefew, and wealthand are forced, losein prestige and an aristocratic between princes do. So to-daywe have to distinguish commoners in I speakofwhatwas happening politicalauthority. but lacking class,nobleby birth was years ago. In the past the situation Zandeland when I was thereover thirty back we go. Also such The Avongaramusthave been fewerthe further different. werelesspowerful. whenthey livedlesslavishly thatthey evidenceas we have suggests and royalsonscould territories their Then in thepasttheAzande werestillenlarging and rulerand to ruleso thattheywerespreadmorethinly withprovinces be provided ofthemmust We mustbear in mindtoo thatlargenumbers nobleweresynonymous., turn. soon a pointtowhichI shall in warsand byassassination havebeeneliminated commoners. of homelifethansons and lessintimate had a shorter Sons ofprinces They werethentold by the puberty. before tillshortly mothers They livedwiththeir near the to leave theharemand buildhutsforthemselves elderbrothers kingor their the haremagain. They onlysaw thattimetheyneverentered outercourt,and from saw thatthey and it was onlyoccasionally theoutercourt, whenhe entered father their homestead. the of royal the edge metthemat they whenby arrangement mothers, their whata nowon had to endure from they werelittle whenthey them spoilt father If their made brothers older their and hungry, Theywereoften son did notsuffer. commoner's promptly duties their out not did carry ifthey a hiding and gavethem them fagfor them and shaped their inculcatedself-reliance This educationundoubtedly and properly. and princes Zande kings known have who Most Europeans respects. in other characters and them. to Cunning tribute paid have theirpowerwas broken in the days before just to were if they be survive, to had and been, mayhave theVongara rulers ruthless in Machiavelli'stimehad to be, but what Europeantravellers as the Italian princes

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ofbearing, unostentatious pride,courteous admired in themweretheir naturaldignity (Evansintelligence, prudence, and so forth manners, cordiality, composure, reserve, evenshyness and in somecasesnervous Pritchard aloofness, 195 7e). Prideand reserve, shrewdness ofjudgment, polished manners, simplicity ofadornment, and a highdegree werecharacteristic ofmostoftheprinces ofintelligence, poise,and an air ofauthority I One could pick themout among met, and even of the nobility who lacked office. commoners at a glance. teens, father, sometimes whilestillin their The eldersonswereplantedout by their ifthey to rule provinces underthe guidanceof a trusted courtier ofthe realm,at first wereveryyoung;and sooneror laterall sonsreceived thought fiefs unlesstheir father themincompetent. The relations were of mutual of theseprinceswith theirfather betweenthem,imposing a screenof reserve. Court etiquette inhibited any intimacy to theirgrown-up sons of trying shyness. The fathers seem alwaysto have suspected seduce theirwives,suspicionresting on oraculardisclosures ratherthan on factual and though againsttheir fathers-some caseshave been evidence, they seldomrebelled hands. and also assassination bysorcery at their recorded-thefathers feared disloyalty I return after a few words aboutroyaldaughters. to therelation between brothers though especially those in highpositions, Therecan be no doubtthattheAvongara, in marriage to commoners, on thewholedisliked theysometimes gave their daughters werenotsolitheidea oftheir daughters; and suchmarriages subjects possessing their and unstable. unsatisfactory cited by the husbandsand seem to have been generally havingbeen Husbandshad little control overwivesofroyalblood,and theprincesses, ofa commoner's tolead thehardand busylife brought up in idleness, werenotprepared in theknowledge thatthenobles housewife. Nor werethehusbands at all comfortable so thata manwhocame to regularly had incestuous relations withall butthefullsister, visit hishalf-sister withhertheadultery for whichhisresidence or cousinmight commit and a noble as a guestgave himopportunity. father theson ofa commoner Moreover, mother had a somewhat by statusin society and was liable to be thought ambiguous commoners and noblesalike to be putting on airs. Consequently, thoughthisis very difficult to determine, seemin thepast,and evenwhenI was living girls ofnoblebirth a to cement to kinsmen, sometimes amongtheAzande,to have been givenin marriage and by theirfathers friendship, or more commonly to have been kept as mistresses and with withtheir owndaughters brothers, for noblesdid nothesitate to have congress likethe their sisters on thespear-side. Otherprincesses becamemoreor lesscourtesans, Shilluk manto man,commoners and noblesalike,whotook princesses, wandering from their and probably harem,though it wouldbe diffifancy, endingup in someprince's cultto say in whatcapacity, whether or paramour or both.Theywould as kinswoman thenhave been givenservants to labourforthemand could live a lifeofease, and, so Azande say,theyweremuchgivento Lesbian practices. As womenin Zande society forthemto have a subordinate highly improper position it would have been thought havehad a political theexercise ofauthority overmen. status which required in I return to theroyalsons.The rulesofsuccession to royaloffice mustbe sought historical actualities rather for there doesnotappearto havebeen thanin anyprinciple, ofprimogeniture orderofsuccession. Indeed,we maysay that any theory or anyother there at all. It stands to reasonthattheeldersons was,properly speaking, no succession

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werein a better position to gain their father's personalheritage at his death thanhis younger sons,forthey werealreadyfirmly rootedas rulers whichwere ofprincipalities of almost autonomous states. Whenthey wereable in thepastto expandat theexpense foreign peoplestherewas littleincentive to tryto annex one another's domains,but there couldbe bitter competition to acquirethepersonal royaldomainwiththeprestige and largepopulation thatwentwith it. The issuewas fought out,thecompetitors being was likely to supported by thepeopleoftheir provinces; and I was toldthatthevictory go to the princewho had the confidence of his late father's immediate subjects, their backingbeingthe deciding factor. Thus Gbudwe,who had no province or notone of any importance at his father's death nevertheless obtainedcontrol over his personal demesne becausehe was thechoiceofitswarriors. thatthiswas a It willbe appreciated a prince powerful sanction for to act correctly inhisdealings with commoners. Provincial had onlypersonal to them governors loyalty to relyon. Theirpeoplewerenotattached nor by traditional allegianceto a particular lineofdescent associated withthelocality, link as representatives ofa local clan predominant in thearea, northrough a maternal withtheprincipality, norin other waysfound in someAfrican polities;whichwas also another reason whyprinces had no inducement toopposetheking. led Dynastic rivalries have,at anyratein laterperiods ofZande history, frequently to warsand assassinations, to whichArabsand Europeansadded their quota. The facts are beyonddispute.Zande history is verylargely a chronicle ofpatricides, fratridices, and the slaughter of sonsand cousinson a Visigothic scale (Evans-Pritchard I958b). The slaughter who, was appalling. Veryfewofthekings died a natural death,and those in ourwayofthinking, did so are thought byAzande,whoregard all deathsas brought about by human action,to have perishedby cursesor sorcery on the part of their We kinsmen. In thesestruggles forpoweronlythemostcunning and ruthless survived. of can say ofthemwhatGanshof saysofthequarrelsbetween thesonsand grandsons Clovisin thesixth ofwild century, thatthey 'resembled nothing so muchas thefighting beasts' (GanshofI952). These rivalries, the fact largely betweenbrothers, arose from of thatwhena kingdied no one son inherited hisdomains.Each becamethemonarch his erstwhile province. The weakerfoundit expedient to pay homageto thestronger, and thestronger made war on each otherto get possession of the late king'spersonal demesne;and whenthatissuewas settled theymade war on each otherbecause,as I have notedearlier, it was through war thatsubjectsdemonstrated theirloyalty to a ruler, though Azandeputthematter rather differently, saying thatkings madewarfrom prideand for honour and renown. The situation was muchthesameas for theFrankish kingship, and forthe same reason,thata kingdom was dividedamongtheking'ssons hislifetime during and at hisdeath.Foreknowledge oftheinvariable struggle fordominance and survival whichensuedat thedeathoftheir father could scarcely have failed to have colouredtheattitude and we need notthereofZande princes to one another, forebe surprised thatrivalry, suspicion, and hatredwerecommonamongroyalsons. It will readilybe understood also thatin thesecircumstances a princewould be foolhardy indeedto rebelagainst hisfather, for nonewas powerful enoughto assert himself single-handed againstthemonarch, whiletheir rivalries amongthemselves wouldhave prevented an effective combination tooverthrow theroyalauthority. I have tried to sketch a broadpicture oftheZande political system in so faras it can

THE

ZANDE

STATE

I53

be reconstructed, and especially oftheplace ofthekingship in it; and I have emphasized a fewpoints whichseemto me to be significant foran understanding ofthisparin general.I have givenfew ticular people'spolitical institutions and forAfrican states details. They are containedin the books and papers listed in the bibliographical references attached to thisLecture.I do notsupposethatfurther research to-daycould I have revealdirectly muchbeyond whathas beenrecorded withregard to thematters discussed. Theyare whatAzandecall kuru or things ofthepast. I wonder pai, old things ifthere is a singleZande alive who can remember havingseenKing Gbudwe.Further research can, however, showus what changestheinstitutions have undergone during morethanhalfa century ofalienruleand so shedsomeretrospective lightupon them; and itis greatly to be hopedthatDr Reining willsoonpublish theresults oftheresearch I stillhave a he has recently carried out amongtheAzande oftheSudan. As formyself, fewsmallpapersto write aboutthetopics mentioned in thisLecture, someminor points toclearup. Then 'tomorrow tofresh woodsand pastures new'.
NOTE Deliveredin London on 27 June I963. REFERENCES
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0. i868. Viaggi di 0. Antinori e C. Piaggia nell' Africa Centrale. Boll. Soc. Geog. Ital., x, pp. 9I-I65. CALONNE-BEAUFAICT, A. DE 192I. Azande. Bruxelles.

CASATI, GAETANO I 89 I. Tenyears inEquatoria andthe return with Pasha (trans. Hon. Mrs J.Randolph Emin Clay and I. Walter Savage Landor). 2 vols. London and New York. CZEKANOWSKI, JAN I924. Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der deutschen I907-I908, Zentral-Afrika-Expedition unter Fuihrung Adolf Herzog zu Mecklenburg. Bd. 6, 2: Forschungen inNil-Kongo-Zwischengebiet. Friedrichs

E. E. 1954. A Zande Slang Language. MAN 1954, 289. E. E. 1955, 1956, 1957. Zande Historical Texts. Sudan Notes & Records, 36, pp. I23-45; 37, pp. 20-47; 38, pp. 74-99. [Others are about to appear in Kush and elsewhere.] EVANS-PRITCHARD, E. E. I956a. A history of the kingdom of Gbudwe. Zaire,Io, t. I, pp. 45I-9I; t. 2, pp. 675-7IO, 8I5-6o. EVANS-PRITCHARD, E. E. I956b. Zande Clan Names. MAN 1956, 62. EVANS-PRITCHARD, E. E. 1956c. Zande Totems. MAN 1956, I I0. EVANS-PRITCHARD, E. E. I957a. The origin of the ruling clan of the Azande. Southwest. j. Anthrop., I3,
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Leipzig.

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Witchcraft, Oracles andMagicamong the Azande. Oxford.

E. E. I 957b. Zande Border Raids. Africa, 27, PP.217-3 . E. E. I 957c. Zande Warfare. Anthropos, 52, pp. 239-62. EVANS-PRITCHARD, E. E. I957d. The Zande royal court. Zaire,t. I, PP. 36I-89,
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pp. 322-43.

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3I, PP. 95-I I8.

pp. 1-15.

30, pp. 618-9o. Quart., 1957e. Zande kings and princes. Anthrop. E. E. I 958a. The ethnic composition of the Azande of Central Africa. Anthrop. Quart., E. E. I958b. An historical introduction to a study of Zande society. Afr. Stud., 17,

EVANS-PRITCHARD, EVANS-PRITCHARD, EVANS-PRITCHARD, EVANS-PRITCHARD,

E. E. 1959. The distributionof Zande clans in the Sudan. MAN I959, 24. E. E. i96oa. Zande Cannibalism. J. R. ANTHROP. INST., 90, pp. 238-58. E. E. I 960b. Zande clans and settlements.MAN I960, 2 I3.
E. E. Ig6oc. A contribution to the study of Zande

culture. Africa, 30, pp. 309-24.

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HUTEREAU,A. I909. Notes surla vie familiale et juridique de quelques du Congo Belge.Ann.Mus. populations
HUTEREAU, A. I922. Histoire des peuplades del'Ueleetdel'Ubangi. Bruxelles. theyears A. H. Keane). JUNKER, WILHELM I 890. Travels inCentral Africa during I 875-I 878 (trans. theyears I 879-I883 (trans. JUNKER, WILHELM I 89 I. Travels inCentral Africa during A. H. Keane). I 882-I886 (trans. during theyears A. H. Keane). JUNKER, WILHELM I 892. Travels inCentral Africa LAGAE, C. R. I926. Les Azande ou Niam-Niam. Bruxelles. Notes & Records, 9, pp. 1-55. LARKEN, P. M. I 926. An accountoftheZande. Sudan LARKEN, P. M. 1927. Impressions of the Azande. SudanNotes & Records, 1O, pp. 85-I34. di G. Alfonso Pellegrinetti. Florence. PIAGGIA, CARLO I941. Le memorie diCarlo Piaggiaa cura SCHWEINFURTH, GEORG I873. The HeartofAfrica(trans. E. E. Frewer). 2 vols. London. VAN DEN PLAS, V. H. I 92 I. La langue historico-glographique. desAzande:vol. I. Introduction Ghent.

PP. 5-37. ofZande office-holders. MAN I 960, I 4 I. EVANS-PRITCHARD, E. E. I 96oe. The ethnic origin EVANS-PRITCHARD, E. E. I96I. Zande clans and totems. MAN I96I, 147. GANSHOF, F. L. I 952. Feudalism(trans. Philip Grierson), p. 3. London.

of a Zande kingdom. Cahiers Africaines, E. E. I96od. The organization d'L9tudes 4,

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