TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF BUDAPEST

Faculty of Architecture

DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING ENERGETICS AND SERVICE SYSTEM


Andrs T. Majoros
Ph.D., Dr. Habil.



BASIC DAYLIGHTING
FOR ARCHITECTS





1998



2

CONTENTS page
PREFACE ..................................................................................... 3
SYMBOLS .................................................................................... 4
VISUAL ENVIRONMEN AND LIGHTING .............................. 5
ELEMENTS OF LIGHTING .......................................................... 6
The characteristics of light ............................... 6
The quality of human vision ............................... 7
The principles of using light ............................... 8
THE REQUIREMENT OF LIGHTING ............................................. 12
THE SOURCE OF NATURAL LIGHT ............................................. 13
The characteristic features of sunlight .................. 14
The characteristic features of diffuse sky light .... 18
The characteristic features of the environment .... 24
OPENINGS ..................................................................................... 27
Sidelights .......................................................... 30
Windows ............................................ 32
Transparent walls ............................... 32
Toplights .......................................................... 32
Linear toplights ............................................ 33
Sawtooth type toplights ................. 33
Horizontal type toplights ................. 34
Monitor type toplights ................. 35
Pitched type toplights ................. 36
Spot-like toplights .............................. 37
Dome type toplights ................. 38
Pyramid type toplights ................. 38
Prism type toplights ................. 39
THE UTILIZATION OF NATURAL LIGHT ............................... 40
The effect of the location of the opening ................. 40
The effect of the slope and orientation ................. 41
The effect of the structure of openings ................. 43
Transparent surfaces ................. 43
Structural obstruction ................. 46
Reflecting surfaces ................. 46
The effect of the interior ............................................. 49
THE DAYLIGHTING OF INTERIOR ............................................ 51
Lighting systems ............................................. 51
The quantitative characteristics of daylighting .... 51
Uniformity in space ............................................ 55
Permanency in time ............................................ 60
Glare ....................................................................... 63
The direction of light and the effect of shadows .... 63
Colour appearance ............................................. 64
Colour rendering ............................................. 64
THE DESIGN OF NATURAL LIGHT ............................................. 65
Designing illuminance ............................................. 65
The restriction of glare ............................................. 71
Design the direction of light and shadow .................. 72
Good colour appearance ............................................. 72
Good colour rendering ............................................. 72
NEW TECHNOLOGIES .......................................................... 73
METHODS ...................................................................................... 76
Window sizing ............................................................ 76
example .............................................. 88
Dimensioning of toplight .............................................. 89
example ............................................... 92
Grn method ............................................................ 92
examples .............................................. 97
INDEX ....................................................................................... 99





3
PREFACE


Lighting is one of the most important requirements of interiors, as the visible environment is an
essential condition of our activity. Although nowadays there are two possibility to meet the
demands - with natural or artificial lighting - the two options are not equivalent.
Being able to design the artificial lighting of interiors for permanent quantity and quality is
undoubtedly favourable, however features of daylighting are advantageous in the following
respects:.
- Quality of daylight is best, in spite of the fact, that it changes permanently. It is best first of all,
because human vision developed by natural lighting.
- Its quantity enables it to provide larger and preferred illuminance than that of artificial lighting
during daytime in a considerable part of the year. We may enjoy an illuminance of a
thousand lux or larger in rooms where level of artificial illuminance is only a couple of hundred
lux.
- Daylighting works with renewable energy, daylighting is the most friendly available usage of
the Sun and sky radiation.
- The luminous efficacy of daylight is very good, only the best artificial light sources can
compete with it.
- Well designed daylighting able to meet required illuminance in 80-90% of the daylight hours,
so give a possibility to save a considerable part of energy consumption of artificial lighting.
- Daylighting is more than simple lighting: making the environment visible. It ensures more or
less connection with the external environment, external radiation. We need this connection.
While the light spectrum of external radiation ensures vision, other parts of it provide our
bodies with further information to react. The best known of these connections is the visual
connection to the exterior.
- The continuous changing of quantity of daylighting is supposed to be advantageous because
of its stimulating effect.
The effect of adequate or poor daylighting of a dwelling on its price illustrates the above facts
very well.

Designing of daylighting is completely the job of architects. Designing of daylighting needs a lot
of expertise. The present note intent to introduce the reader to the essential characters of
daylighting:
- the sources and features of natural light,
- different openings and their characteristics,
- the characteristics of daylighting by different openings,
- the connection between external condition and internal lighting,
- how requirements may be met,
- the method of design for the most common cases.


4
SYMBOLS

a width of the room (m)
A relative area of the window ( %)
A
Rw
required relative area of the window
( %)
b depth of the room (m)
d length of lights way through the
opening (m)
e daylight factor (%)
e
av
average value of daylight factor along
the working plane (%)
e
min
minimal value of daylight factor along
the working plane (%)
e
P
daylight factor at point P (%)
e
R
required average daylight factor on
the working plane (%)
e
Rmin
required minimal daylight factor on
the working plane (%)
E
e
external illuminance, i.e. illuminance
from the sky on a horizontal
unobstructed surface (lx)
E
eD
design extenal illuminance ( lx)
E
R
required average illuminance on the
working plane (lx)
E
s
illuminance from the Sun on a
horizontal unobstructed surface (lx)
F area of opening through which the
light penetrates to interior (m
2
)
h headroom (m)
K luminous efficacy ( lm/m
2
)
L luminance (cd/m
2
)
L
z
luminance of the zenith (cd/m
2
)
L
q
luminance of sky at q above horizon
(cd/m
2
)
m high of opening (m)
p width of window or toplight (m)
q height of window or length of toplight
(m)
r height of working plane above the
floor (m)
t length of time during a day (h)
S
wR
required area of window (m
2
)
S
TR
required area of toplight (m
2
)
T length of time during a year (h/year)
T
c
colour temperature (K)

(alpha) orientation of opening (
0
)
azimuth (
0
)

s
azimuth of the Sun (
0
)
(gamma) horizontal angle of
obstruction (
0
)
(delta) slope of opening (
0
)
(epsilon) vertical angle of obstruction (
0
)
(theta) angle of high above
horizon (
0
)

s
sunheight (
0
)

o
(eta) efficiency of the opening (-)
(kappa) angular distance of particular
point from the Sun (
0
)
(lambda) wavelength (nm)
(rho) reflection factor (-)

c
reflection factor of ceiling (-)

f
average reflection factor
of floor (-)

g
reflection factor of ground (-)

o
average reflection factor of
obstruction (-)

tw
reflection factor of toplight's
wall (-)

w
average reflection factor of
walls (-)
(sigma) angular distance of zenith from
the Sun (
0
)
(tau) transmission factor for parallel
light (-)

diff
transmission factor for parallel
light (-)
(phi) incident angle of light (
0
)
(phi) luminous flux (lm)

e
radiant flux (W/m
2
)

ext
luminous flux irradiated on
transparent surface of the
opening from exterior (lm)

int
luminous flux entering the
interior through opening (lm)
(psi) uniformity of illuminance along (-)



5

THE VISUAL ENVIRONMENT AND LIGHTING


Human life has a very close connection to the visual or visible environment, it depends on it. We
get nearly 90% of our sensory information by vision, our activity is also connected more or less
to vision.

The visual environment is a three dimensional pattern of brightnesses and colours of our
surroundings. It has two components: a passive component i.e. the natural or artificial
environment without light; and an active component: light itself. Lighting makes the environment
visible.

The visual environment is a result of the multiplication-like relationship between the passive
environment and active light. It follows from the foregoing that
-a given environment may be a different visual environment depending on lighting,
-good lighting itself does not necessarily produce an optimum visual environment.

In everyday practice, lighting may be divided into natural and artificial lighting on the basis of the
light that has been used.
The distinction may be justified by differences in the characteristics, tools and working of the
two kinds of lighting.

Although the visual environment may come into being as a result of natural and/or artificial
lighting, the quality of interiors has so far been mainly determined by natural lighting. The
reason for this is not only that our wakefulness is connected to daylight, but our vision has been
developed by natural light, so natural light is our base of comparison from the point of view of
vision.

Moreover, natural lighting is much more than lighting alone /e.g. artificial lighting/, because it
provides a connection between the interior and the exterior. This connection is partly a visual
connection and partly a connection to global radiation. These connections are limited, but they
satisfy very important psychological and physiological needs.
Consequently, natural lighting is a determining factor of the quality of interiors.

The passive part of the visual environment in the interior is the room without lighting. The
characteristics of a given building are determined
-by lighting i.e. by the quantity and quality of light used
-and by the relative size and position of luminaries in comparison to the surfaces of the room.
Consequently, natural and artificial lighting differ greatly for the following reasons:
While the quantity and quality of light of artificial lighting is comparatively permanent, these
characteristics of natural light keep changing.
While artificial lightsources and luminaries are inside the room and their dimensions are much
smaller than that of the room, the natural lightsource and "luminaire" are outside the room and
their dimensions are far greater than that of the interior.
As a consequence, the particularities of natural and artificial lighting are very different.

The two kinds of lighting also differ because natural lighting is designed by an architect, and
artificial lighting is designed by an expert of artificial lighting.




6
ELEMENTS OF LIGHTING


The object of lighting is to create an appropriate visual environment. In order to do this, we
should be acquainted with the characteristics of light, the special quality of vision as well as with
the characteristics and the principles of using light.


The characteristics of light

Light /
e
/ is the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum between the wavelengths
of =380...780nm. Every wavelength corresponds to a given colour. Colours at smaller
wavelengths are called cool (colours like purple and blue), colours at longer wavelengths are
called warm colours (like orange and red).
Fig. 1. The quality of white light.

The visual environment is a result of so called white light. Light is called white light if the
intensity of radiation is nearly the same at every wavelength. Every non coloured light is white
light.

The quality of white light may be different depending on the ratio of the different colours. So
white light containing a lot of blue is called cool white, white light containing a lot of red is called
warm white.
The quality of white light may be given with help of its spectral distribution curve
e
().
The quality of white light may be characterized in practice, simple, with the help of colour
temperature. Colour temperature T
c
in Kelvin of a given light is the temperature of the black
body, at which the sprectal distribution of its radiation is nearly the same as that of the given
light.
Light is always a part of some electromagnetic radiation. Light is characterized from the point of
view of energetics by the luminous efficacy K, which is the ratio of the sense of light /luminous
flux/ and the electromagnetic radiation belonging to the light. Its unit is lm/W.



7
The quality of human vision

Human eyes can see nearly half of a sphere, but we are able to perceive exactly only a
relatively small part of it, at the axis of our field of view. The rest provides background
information.
Fig. 2. The field of view.

The sensitivity of the human eye depends on the wavelength /colour/ of the perceived light
according to the spectral luminous efficiency, V

//.

Fig. 3. The sensitivity of the human eye.


It follows that light seen by the eye, as a physical effect, is not the same as the sense of light.
The sense is important from the point of view of vision, therefore what is essential from the point


8
of view of lighting technics is the luminous flux , which exhibits the property of radiant light in
that it produces a visual impression. Its unit is lumen /lm/.

Fig. 4. Connection between light and luminous flux.

Spectral luminous efficiency is different by day and by night, that is to say in dark and in bright
environments. We can see colours only in a bright environment.

The human eye can change its sensitivity to light. This process is called adaptation. Adaptation
does not mean that we see in dark and bright in the same manner. Visual ability, - the accuracy
and speed of our vision - varies. The brighter the environment, the better our visual ability. A
brighter environment means a higher level of adaptation.
The exactness of our vision, the right perception of the details of our field of view, which may be
measured by visual accuracy, contrast sensitivity and the speed of vision, is better if the
environment is brighter.
Improving visual ability by increasing the brightness of the environment is practically limited.
Neither visual accuracy nor contrast sensitivity can be increased over a given limit.

Our eyes need time to adapt from bright to dark or from dark to bright environments. The time
required for full adaptation is nearly an hour.

Our ability to see clearly objects at various distances is called accomodation.


The principles of using light

The visual environment in the interior is a result of light either generated inside the room or
penetrating the room. This light is then reflected and dispersed until the various surfaces absorb
it. In order to understand and influence this process, it is necessary to clarify some details and
basic ideas.
A surface becomes visible when light irradiates it and it in turn reflects and transmits light in the
direction it is viewed from. The following ideas are connected to three circumstances of this
process.



9
Illuminance E, whose unit is lux /lx/, is the luminous flux collected by a surface. This is an effect
the surface is exposed to. A given surface may be brighter or darker depending on its
illuminance, but how it is seen is not determined by illuminance alone. The illuminance of a
letter and that of its surroundings on a page of a book are practically the same, and still they are
seen differently.

Fig. 5. Illuminance.

In the case of a given luminous flux, the greater the angle of incidence, the smaller the
illuminance.
Illuminances from different sources may add up.

Surfaces change the characteristics of light in the following way:
- Every surface reflects a part of the luminous flux, and it transmits another part of the
- luminous flux if the surface is transparent.
- Surfaces change the direction of light ###in most cases they disperse it.
- Coloured surfaces change the quality of light.

The ratio of reflected luminous flux is characterized with the reflection factor.

The ratio of transmitted luminous flux is characterized with the transmission factor.

Fig. 6. The quality of reflection and transmission.


10

Light dispersion may be characterised with the help of I luminous intensity, which is a luminous
flux emitted in a solid angle. Its unit is candela /cd/.
Fig. 7. Luminous intensity.

The change of the direction of light depends on the quality and roughness of the surface.
The reflection of mirrors, shiny and mat surfaces, or the transmission of normal glass, sand
blown and milky glass differ greatly.
Fig. 8. The spread of light.

As the illustration shows
- in the cases of mirror and normal glass, point "R" may only be seen from direction
"B".
- in cases of shiny and sand blown glass, point "R" is darker from direction "A", than "B",
that is to say the brightness of point "R" depends on the direction of looking.
- in cases of mat surface and milky glass, the brightness of point "R" is constant, it does
not depend on the direction of viewing, because the virtual size of surface "R" and the



11
luminous flux radiated in the given direction change in the same way.
The observer usually sees a surface of the field of view at an angle, whose virtual size /A*/ is
smaller than in reality. The observer percieves the luminous intensity I* from the surface. What
one sees is the luminance L , whose unit is cd/m2.

Fig. 9. Luminance.

What we see is the luminance and the colour of surfaces. The greater the illuminance and the
greater the reflection of a surface, the greater its illuminance, namely

L =
*
E

In other words, what we see is a result of an architectural quality // and an effect of the
quantity of lighting / E /

The level of adaptation, i.e. the accuracy of vision depends on the average luminance of the
field of view, which may be influenced by architecture // and lighting /E/.
Fig. 10. The variation of visual ability with luminance of field of view.




12

THE REQUIREMENTS OF LIGHTING


The goal of lighting is to produce an adequate visual environment. An environment is adequate
if it ensures visual comfort, and if it serves the visual tasks required by the function of the room.
Visual comfort is a condition of the mind which means satisfaction with the visual environment.

An interior space meets these requirements if its parts may be seen well without any difficulty.
Of course, visual comfort may be ensured to different degrees and at different levels. Visual
comfort is connected to the whole visible sphere.
Like thermal and acoustic comfort, visual comfort is a part of complex comfort.
Serving the visual task required by the room's function means that lighting makes the details of
the reference plane visible correctly, quickly and free from discomfort. Of course, these
requirements may vary greatly in practice.
This requirement is connected to the reference plane that is to say to a well defined, given part
of the environment.

It follows from what has gone before, that lighting has to provide visual comfort at all times, and
additional requirements beyond this have to be met only in cases of specifically defined
functions.

The following characteristics are generally specified for providing suitable visual environment in
everyday practice:
-average illuminance on the working plane,
-uniformity of illuminance on the working plane,
-ratios of luminances in the room,
-the allowable level of glare,
-the direction of the light and the effect of shadows
-colour temperature T
c
and
-colour rendering.
It goes without saying, different levels or values of practical requirements are connected to the
different functions.

The question "How far can the requirements of lighting be met with natural lighting?" may be
answered only with full knowledge of the natural light-source and the circumstances determining
the changes of natural lighting.



13

THE SOURCE OF NATURAL LIGHT


The Sun is the source of natural lighting. Its light arrives into the interior space directly or
indirectly, scattered in the atmosphere, and reflected on the natural or artificial environment.
The function of the Sun is similar to that of an incandescent lamp, a fluorescent tube, etc. in
artificial lighting.

The luminair of natural lighting is the exterior space which lets the Sun's light into the interior
space by transmitting, scattering or reflecting it. This includes the sky, as well as the natural and
artificial external environments. The function of this external environment is very similar to a
luminair without light-source in artificial lighting.

The "luminair" of natural lighting of interior spaces is basically the exterior space, which allows
natural light into the room, namely the part of the exterior which the room can "see", which may
be seen from the room.
Consequently the Sun, the sky, the surface of the earth, the plants, another building and so on
may serve as a "natural luminair". The function of these elements in daylighting may vary widely
from time to time and from one case to another.


Fig. 11. Different natural luminairs.

In one extreme alternative there is no obstruction in front of the opening, and daylighting
comes from the Sun, the sky and the ground.

Another extreme alternative is a built up area, where the sky and the ground may not be seen
from the room, so daylight is a result of light
reflected from the buildings standing opposite.
Usually, the Sun, the sky, natural obstructions /plants, the terrain/ and artificial obstructions
/buildings, constructions/ contribute to a different degree to the natural lighting of interiors. This
degree keeps changing partly because the Sun moves and the cloud cover of the sky changes,
and partly because the plants' foliage and the ground's reflection change with the seasons (e.g.
due to snow cover).



14
Although the above mentioned parts of exterior space may let light into the room in any ratio,
their function in changing the quality and quantity of natural lighting varies according to the
following:

Natural lighting is based on sunshine, which reaches the Earth's atmosphere in amounts that
change seasonally according to the Sun-Earth distance. The average value of the specific
power of this nearly parallel radiation is 1377 W/m
2
, and the colour temperature of the light is
5760 K. The average value does not change considerably during the year.
The Sun, as the light-source determines the essential characteristics of the available natural
light, namely the length of the days and its seasonal changes, as well as the character of
changing during the day. These characteristics are closely connected to the Earth's movement
and to the angle of the Earth's axis. Because of these, the essential characteristics of the
natural light-source depend on geographical location.

In the quantitative characterisation of the natural light-source or "luminair", the total light
irradiated on the surface of the Earth is irrelevant from the point of view of daylighting, as
interiors can only use a very small portion of it. What is relevant is how much of this is available
at a given geographical location.
Accordingly, it is illuminance on an unobstructed horizontal surface that can be used to
characterise the quantity of the natural ###luminair###.


The characteristic features of sunlight

Direct sun radiation may reach the surface of the Earth through the atmosphere if clouds do not
obstruct it. One part of the sun's radiation is absorbed passing through the atmosphere.
Direct sunlight is characterised with
- its always changing direction,
- its probability,
- the illuminance (the luminous flux collected by a unit of
surface) it creates on an unobstructed horizontal surface,
- its colour temperature T
c
(the temperature of the black body,
at which the spectral distribution of its radiation is nearly the
same as that of the given light) and
- its luminous efficacy K,(is the ratio of rated input of lamp and
luminous flux it produces)
in the following way:

The direction of the Sun's radiation may be characterised with the angle of
s
azimuth and
s
sunheight.
The direction of sunshine keeps changing in the course of the days and the year. The daily
change of these two angles may be given with the help of the so called sun-path curve. Each
sun-path curve refers to two days of the year /except the shortest and the longest day/.
Although, the sun-path changes daily, the changing of sunshine during the year may be well
illustrated with the help of two curves per month, that is to say with 11 curves. This group of
curves is the so called sunpath diagram.



15

Fig. 12. Sunpath diagram.
(this example refers to latitude 48
0
, the Northern hemisphere,)

Of course, different sun path diagrams refer to different geographical places.

The probability of sunshine is the function of the clouds to be expected, so it also depends on
the geographical location. It may be well characterised with the length of time of sunny hours
expected at 50% probability. This is the so-called probable value of sunshine.
The representation of the 50% probability of sunshine in one hour intervals connected to the
sunpath diagram gives a good survey of sunshine during the year.



16

Fig. 13. The expected length of sunshine
( this example refers to Budapest, Hungary, - latitude 48
0
, Northern hemisphere-.)

The values of illuminance created by the Sun on an unobstructed horizontal surface - E
s
- may
be expected between 0 and approximately 50 000 lx, depending mainly on the height of the Sun
and the cloud cover.

The probable values of E
s
during the year can be illustrated well with the help of the so-called
isopleth. Its curves show the point of time when E
s
exceeds certain values at 50% probability.
The area inside the curve shows the period of the year in which external illuminance E
s
is
greater than the value indicated by the curve.








17
Fig. 14. The point of time when illuminance from the Sun (E
s
) exceeds certain values.
(this example refers to Hungary,- latitude 48
0
, Northern hemisphere-.)

The colour temperature T
c
of direct sunlight is about 3000K when the Sun is near the horizon,
and approximately 5800K when it is near the zenith.

The luminous efficacy K of sunlight depends on the height of the Sun. Its value starts at nought
at the horizon, and it uniformly increases until
s
= 20
o
. Over this angle, its value is nearly 100
lm/W.

The use of direct sunlight for natural lighting is limited by the following circumstances:
Sunshine may only be expected in part of the period between sunrise and sunset, because of
the obstruction of clouds. For example this portion is between 20 and 70% in Europe.
Because of the continuous movement of the Sun, insolation of an interior depends on the
relative position of the Sun and the opening. For example, during a 14-hour clear day the period
of insolation is
- 12 hours, through a window oriented to the equator,
- 7 hours, through a window oriented east or west,
- 2 hours, through a window oriented opposite to the equator,
- 14 hours, through a horizontal opening.
Direct sunlight illuminates only a part of the room in any case. There is a sharp dividing line
between the insolated part and the rest of the room. The insolated area is highly illuminated in
contrast to the rest of the room. For this reason, the illuminance of the interior is very irregular
and the very bright surfaces may cause glare.
If the Sun is visible from the room and it is in the field of view, it causes glare.
Because of the undesirable effects of direct sunlight on the visual environment, insolation may
be permitted only in some cases.
At places of work, where the use of the room is defined, insolation is not be permitted during
working hours.
If the use of the room is undefined, e.g. in a corridor or a living-room, insolation may be allowed
from time to time, or permanently.


18
After all, the use of direct sunlight for the natural lighting of interior spaces is rather limited. In a
considerable portion of cases we have to provide protection against the discomforting effects of
insolation.


The characteristic features of diffuse sky light.

The atmosphere of the Earth is similar to a more or less translucent surface of a hemisphere
which is transilluminated by nearly parallel sunlight. The central point of this hemisphere is
always the room which it illuminates. Considering that the dimension of the atmosphere is much
greater than the dimension of a room /their ratio is about 1:1000/, every single point of the room
may be considered the central point of the hemisphere. The transparency of every element of
the surface of the hemisphere changes continually.


Fig. 15. Sky model.

One extreme possible sky condition is a totally clear, cloudless sky. This corresponds to a
transparent hemisphere that disperses light only to a small degree.
Another extreme possible sky condition is a uniformly overcast sky which corresponds to a
translucent hemisphere that disperses light to the highest degree.
All other sky conditions may be regarded as situations between these two extremes. Either the
cloud cover gets thinner and thinner, or parts of the sky are clear and other parts are overcast.
Fog is another condition of the sky, when the clouds extend to the ground.
While sunshine passes through the atmosphere
- it is scattered on its elements and
- its spectral distribution changes.
These effects depend very much on the condition of the sky.
If the sky is absolutely clear, scattering is relatively small, the quality of light differs from the light
of the Sun, this is what ###blue sky###refers to.



19
If the sky is overcast, scattering is very strong, the quality of sky light is different from that of the
Sun: it is colder, but the difference is not very great, ###grey sky###describes this condition.
Fig. 16. The effect of the atmosphere on radiation f
e
.

The luminous flux (is the part of radiant light that produce a visual impression) reaching the
surface of the Earth from the sky depends very much on the height of the Sun
s
and on the
condition of the sky. As the atmosphere changes according to the laws of meteorological-
statistics, the characteristics of the diffuse light of the sky changes accordingly. The amount of
natural light potentially available at a given geographical place and at a given time of the year
changes from year to year. Consequently, it can only be characterised with a probability value.


Fig. 17. Changes of luminous flux of the sky on a certain day of the year throughout a great
many years.

This value may be one of the extreme values or the value which has a 50% probability, this
latter being the so called expected value.
These characteristics are basically lighting-meteorological characteristics.
The sky, as a luminaire may be described
- with its luminance distribution or with the help of the illuminance created by the sky on
an unobstructed horizontal surface,
- with the length of time during which light may be used,
- with the colour temperature of light T
c
and



20
- with the luminous efficiency of light K
as follows.

From the point of view of quality, the sky, as a luminaire may be accurately characterised with
its luminance distribution. This can be used to calculate its effect inside a room.

There are two problems about this manner of characterisation. On the one hand, there are
innumerable possible distributions and only three of them can be described by a mathematical
formula; on the other hand, the values of luminance are statistical variables, so its values with a
given probability may be a result of measurements over several years. Such a collection of data
has only been started at a few locations of the Earth. These automatic sky scanners collect data
of 145 elements of the sky every few minutes.

In spite of this, this manner of characterisation is very important, because it enables us to define
two extreme and an intermediate sky condition as follows:

- the luminance distribution of a uniformly overcast sky is








L L
z

=
+ 1 2
3
sin








- the luminance distribution of a foggy sky is





L

= constant











21
- the luminance distribution of a clear
sky is





L L
e e
e
z

=


+ +
+ +

1
032
091 10 0
0 091 10 0
3 2
3 2
,
sin
( , ,45cos )
,274( , ,45cos )




where, L
z
is the luminance of
zenith, is the angle of the height
above the horizon of the investigated
point, is the angular distance of the
particular point from the Sun, and is the zenith distance from the Sun.


These functions give only ratios, not absolute values. They show that
- the zenith is three times brighter than the horizon if the sky is overcast,
- the brightness of the sky is the same independent of direction in foggy weather,
- the brightest parts of the sky are around the Sun and at the opposite side; the horizon
may be brighter than the zenith if the sky is clear.

In addition, it is true that the luminance of the sky depends on the height of the Sun both when
the sky is overcast and when the weather is foggy. It is also true that the sky is darker in the
morning than at noon and it is lighter in summer than in winter.
These distribution functions are important because two extreme and an intermediate sky
condition may be determined with their help.
If we know the luminance distribution of the sky -L(,), the illuminance on an unobstructed
horizontal surface, E
e
may be calculated.


22


Fig. 18. Illuminance from the sky.

The sky, as a luminaire may be characterised as a first approximation with the effect that is
proportional to the lighting of the interior space This effect is the illuminance on an unobstructed
horizontal surface E
e
, the so-called external illuminance.

This manner of characterisation is not as exact as the former one, because it does not take into
account which part of the sky the effect originates from. In this way, the same external
illuminance may be created by an overcast or a foggy sky, while the horizon is darker when the
sky is overcast than when it is foggy. Consequently, the illumination of the interior will be
different in these cases.

In spite of this, this manner of characterisation is widely used because it is simple, and it needs
one datum instead of 145. Its inexactitude is negligible compared to this advantage; and it can
be corrected to satisfy practical needs.

The reliable values of the external illuminance E
e
may be provided by several /15-20/ years###
collection. Although no measured values of illuminance are available, values of the external
illuminance may be determined with good approximation from radiant meteorological data.

This is a considerable practical advantage, because the values of radiant energy have been
recorded in a number of countries for decades.

The daily changes of E
e
, the external illuminance, is similar to that of a distorted sinus curve.





23

Fig. 19. Changes of external illuminance throughout a great many years.

The amplitude of distorted sinus curve is in direct proportion of the sun high at noon. So the
smallest curve belongs to the shortest day and the largest curve belongs to the longest day of
the year.
As above figure shows the real value of external illuminance at a given time of a given day of
the year may vary in a very wide range. Values of external illuminance may be occurred in a
range of t expected value about 50%.

The expected value of E
e
, the external illuminance may be well illustrated with the help of an
isopleth. Its curves show the points of time when E
e
exceeds certain values at a 50%
probability. The area inside a curve shows the period of the year in which external illuminance
E
e
is greater than the value denoted by the curve.


Fig. 20. Point of time when illuminance from the sky (E
e
) exceeds certain values.
(this example refers to Hungary - latitude 48
0
, Northern hemisphere-.)







24
The duration curve tells us what portion of the year we may expect various E
e
illuminance
values.
Fig. 21. The duration curve of illuminance from the sky (E
e
).
(this example refers to Hungary,- latitude 48
0
, Northern hemisphere-.)

Sky light is available for 4400 hours a year in such a way that the length of time between
sunrise and sunset changes in the course of the year.

The quality of sky light first of all depends on the condition of the atmosphere.
The colour temperature of the light T
c
of an overcast sky changes between 4500 and 7000 K.
The colour temperature of the light T
c
of a clear sky may be 10 000.-40 000 K.
In intermediate sky conditions the colour temperatures may be expected between the two
extreme values.

The luminous efficacy K of sky light depends less on the height of the Sun. Its value varies
between 115 and 130 lm/W.

Further, the following characterise the sky as a luminaire from the point of view of illuminating
interior spaces as well:
- The sky surrounds buildings like a huge hemisphere, so the use of its light may only
be reduced by some external obstruction in daytime.
- The illuminance created in interior spaces by diffuse sky light is generally free from
unbearable inequality, from a sharp dividing line and consequently it does not cause
glare.
- The sky, when seen from the interior space, only rarely causes unpleasant glare.
- Skylight is available continuously and safely during the day.

Based on the above, the sky plays a decisive role in natural lighting.


The characteristic features of the environment

The natural and artificial environment may play a role in the illumination of interior spaces by
reflecting the light of the Sun and of the sky. In this way, they play a passive role. The quantity
and the periodic change of light reflected from the environment are basically determined by the
light of the Sun and the sky. The reflection of the environment has a secondary effect on the



25
amount of available light. The colour of the surfaces of the environment may modify the quality
of reflected light to a large degree.

The natural and artificial environment seen from the interior space may be considered as
obstruction or ground. It is an obstruction if it hinders the direct illumination of the working plane
by the Sun or by the sky.

Whether a given element of the external environment is an obstruction or ground can be
determined in relation to a given point of the working plane of a given room. For example, the
same building may be obstruction for a point of a room while it is ground for another point of the
room or for another room.

The effect of obstruction on illumination is twofold: it partly hinders the effect of part of the sky
and it may preclude the possibility of insolation part of the time. On the other hand, it may reflect
light from another part of the sky into the room.

Fig. 22. The effect of obstruction on lighting.

As a result of geometrical position, a given external surface may present a different obstruction
viewed from different points of the room .


An obstruction of a given point may be characterised
- with the solid angle at which it is seen or approximately with
the (
1
+
2
) horizontal and vertical angles which form its
boundary viewed from the point and
- with its average reflection factor
o
.







26


Fig. 23. The characteristics of obstruction.

The effect of the ground on natural illumination is of secondary importance, because its light
may only reach the working plane after repeated reflections. It may be characterised with its
reflection.



27

OPENINGS


Natural light enters the room through transparent surfaces. Constructions which involve
transparent surfaces are called openings.

An opening is always a constructional part of the building and in addition to its function in
daylighting, it has to meet a number of other specifications. It follows that, although its main
purpose is daylighting, its form is influenced by other essential considerations.

An opening, as a unit of building construction, may be a window, a window in the roof, a
transparent wall or a ceiling as well as some other transparent envelope of space.

The constructional elements of openings are divided into three parts from the point of view of
lighting, namely
- transparent surfaces,
- constructional obstructions and
- light-reflecting surfaces.

Openings are characterised from the point of view of natural lighting by the following:
- their location,
- their nominal dimensions,
- their angle of slope and orientation,
- the way of light transmission,
- their character of distributing light in space,
- their efficiency and
- their ageing.
In addition to this, the possibility of visual connection is a very important quality.

An opening may be either in a wall or in the roof.

The nominal dimension of an opening is the dimension of the surface of the wall, the ceiling or
some other envelope of the interior which involves the opening as a constructional unit. In side-
lighting, the size of the transparent surface is not much smaller than the nominal opening, in
top-lighting, however, the size of the transparent surface may be far smaller than that of the
opening.

The slope of opening is the angle between the transparent surface and the horizontal plane,
the orientation of the opening is the angle between the projection of the normal vector of the
transparent surface to North clockwise.






28



Fig. 24. The characteristics of natural lights.






29
The way of light is transmitted depends on the quality of the transparent surface, which may be
transparent, like normal clear glass or more or less translucent, like mat glass.


Fig. 25. The effect of the quality of transparent materials on the way of light.

The distribution of light in space can be characterised with the illuminance distribution in the
direction of typical change on the working plane. It is determined by the location and
construction of the opening.

The efficiency of the opening
o
is the ratio of the luminous flux entering the interior and the
luminous flux irradiated on transparent surface/s/ of the opening. It characterises the
effectiveness of the resultant transparency of the opening.


Fig. 26. The efficiency of openings.

The surfaces of openings gather dirt. This effect is in direct proportion to the pollution of the
environment and time, but it also depends on the form of the structure of the opening.
Furthermore, there are materials whose transparency and/or reflectancy change over time.
These jointly result in the ageing of openings and in reducing their efficiency.




30
The pollution of openings disperses light a bit on the originally clear glass, which thus gets more
or less translucent.


Fig. 27. The reduction of transparency because of dirt.


Sidelights

The transparent surfaces of sidelights are almost always vertical, their slope is = 90
o
, their
orientation may be optional.
Location limits the possibilities of their forms. Sidelights may be windows, doors, or fixed
transparent parts of walls.

Their transparent surfaces may be transparent or translucent glass /clean-, milky-, sand blown -,
ornament glass/, glass block, profile glass and so on.

The construction of windows is essentially determined by their other functions beyond lighting.
/thermal insulation, noise insulation, visual connection, etc./

The lighting characteristics of sidelights may be very different. They are influenced by
- quality of glass,
- the number of envelopes,
- the pollution of the glass,
- their location, form and relative size,
- their construction,
- the thickness of the wall surrounding them and the manner of connection,
- their orientation.
An important feature of the illuminance distribution of side-lighting is that it rapidly decreases as
we move away from the window.
In side-lighting, the degree of possible insolation depends on the orientation of the window.



31
Fig. 28. The characteristics of illumination by sidelighting.




32


Windows

The efficiency of illumination depends mainly on the glazing, the number of its envelopes, the
construction, the thickness of the wall surrounding the window and on pollution.
The efficiency of ordinary, clean 2-5 m
2
double glazed windows set in walls of 35 cm is 0.4
...0.5.
A reduction of efficiency may be expected because of greater wall thickness or pollution.
Commonly, reduction due to thicker walls may be about 10% and due to pollution it may
amount to 30% .
The effect of various constructions on the above mentioned efficiency is about 15...20 %.

The efficiency of windows increase only to a small degree with increased size.


Transparent walls

The approximate values of the efficiency of transparent walls in clean condition:
- in single clear glass approx. 0.7
- in double clear glass approx. 0.6
- in glass block approx. 0.3

Pollution may reduce these values by 25-30%.


Toplights

Windows in the roof (toplights) are characterised by the fact that they are located above the
plane of the ceiling.

Theoretically the size of windows in the roof is only limited by the size of the ceiling.

The slope of the transparent surface may vary between 0 and 90
o
at will, its orientation is
optional.

The transparent surface may be clear or more or less translucent.

The form and construction of windows in the roof may vary greatly. These determine both their
light distribution and their efficiency.
They may be classified into two groups, namely the group of line-like and the group of non-line
like openings.
Line-like windows (linear toplights) in the roof are characterised by the following:
- the hole on the ceiling is rectangular, and its length is several times greater than its
width,
- their typical vertical section is constant along its length.

The non line- like group (spot-like toplights) is characterised by the fact that the hole in the
ceiling is a square, a circle, a symmetrical polygon or some other similar form.

The above similarities in geometrical features of windows in the roof (over and above similarities
in architecture and construction,) result in similar characteristics of lighting.


33


Linear toplights


Fig. 29. Illuminance distribution by linear toplightings.

The most common type of linear toplights grouped on the basis of similar geometrical form are:
- sawtooth ,
- horizontal
- monitor,
- pitched.

Similar geometrical shapes mean that their typical sections are similar to a certain extent, and -
as a consequence - this makes lighting provided by them similar.
They usually provide natural lighting for the interior placed in several, parallel rows. As a
consequence, toplights may obstruct each other, thus limiting the direct effect of the sky. In
monitor, horizontal and pitched types the obstruction is mutual.


Sawtooth type toplights

They are characterised by a typical sawtooth section.
They have one transparent surface, whose slope is theoretically optional, but in practice, it is
generally no greater than 45
o
. The usual material for its transparent surface is clean glass or
glass that disperses light to a small degree. In slopes smaller than 90
o,
safety-or wired glass is
used.
In sawtooth toplighting, illuminance distribution by the typical section is asymmetrical. The forms
of reflecting surfaces do not affect the character of distribution significantly. Illuminance at a
right angle to the above-mentioned direction changes to a small degree.



34


Fig. 30. Illuminance distribution by sawtooth lightings.


Depending on glazing, their efficiency is the following:
- at a 90
o
slope 0.1...0.2
- at a 60
o
slope

0.2...0.25
- at a 30
o
slope 0.3...0.4

It is an advantage of sawtooth type toplighting that insolation may be eliminated with opposite to
the equator orientation and an angle of slope equal to the highest possible angle of the Sun at
the given geographical location. This advantage is usually exploited in practice.


Horizontal type toplights

Formally, they are characterised by curved transparent surfaces, which can practically "see" the
whole sky.
Their transparent surface is a clear or more or less translucent artificial material, occasionally
safety glass.
In horizontal toplighting, illuminance distribution by the typical section is symmetrical.







35
Fig. 31. Illuminance distribution horizontal lighting.

Illuminance at a right angle to the above-mentioned direction changes to a small degree.
The quality of lighting is influenced more by the characteristics of the transparent surface than
by its form.
Their efficiency is between 0.25 and 0.45 depending on the transmission factor of the
transparent surface.
In the case of clear transparent surfaces insolation may occur. It is very difficult to provide
protection against it, as orientation cannot be changed.
In the case of transparent or mat surfaces, direct sunlight penetrates the interior without casting
sharp shadows.


Monitor type toplights

They are characterised by two transparent surfaces joined by a non transparent structure.
The angle of the slope of the transparent surfaces is usually greater than 60
o
. They may be
symmetrical or asymmetrical.
The material of the vertical transparent surfaces is usually normal clear glass, in other slopes
wired glass or safety glass.
Illuminance distribution by the typical section is symmetrical in symmetrical monitor lighting and
asymmetrical in asymmetrical. Illuminance at a right angle to the above-mentioned direction
changes to a small degree.

















36
Fig. 32. Illuminance distribution by monitor lightings.

Depending on their form and glazing, their efficiency is the following:
- in symmetrical, vertical glazing 0.1.. 0.2
- in asymmetrical, vertical glazing 0.15..0.2
- at other slopes the expected value is greater.

Insolation can occur, and it cannot be eliminated by orientation. Protection against insolation
has to be taken care of separately.


Pitched type toplights

They are characterised by two sloped symmetrical transparent surfaces that can "see"
essentially the whole sky.
The angle of the slope of their transparent surfaces are generally about 45
o
.
The material of the transparent surfaces are usually wired glass or, in some cases, safety
glass.

Illuminance distribution by the typical section is symmetrical in pitched lighting. Illuminance at a
right angle to the above-mentioned direction changes to a small degree.






37
Fig. 33. Illuminance distribution by pitched lighting.

Their efficiency depends mainly on the glazing, and it may be expected between 0.3 and 0.4.
Insolation can occur in pitched toplighting. Protection against it is rather difficult, it cannot be
solved with the help of orientation.


Spot-like toplights

The most common forms of spot-like toplights are
- dome,
- pyramid and
- prism.
Spot-like toplights are located in the roof along a net. Their effect on one another and mutual
obstruction is negligible.

Fig. 34. Illuminance distribution by spot toplight.
Dome type toplights



38

They are characterised by the fact that their prefabricated transparent surface as a unit abuts on
the usually circular or quadrate superstructure.
The material of their transparent surface is clear or more or less translucent artificial material.
Illuminance distribution is turning-symmetrical in circle plan toplights, and it has multiple axes of
symmetry in square plan toplights.


Fig. 35. Illuminance distribution by dome toplighting.

Their lighting characteristics are mainly determined by the transparency of the dome, and by the
form and reflectancy of the building surrounding it.
Their efficiency is expected between 0.2 and 0.4, depending on the above mentioned.
In clear dome toplights, insolation can occur limited by the well effect /ratio of depth and area of
the opening/. Protection against insolation has to be taken care of separately.
In translucent dome toplights direct sunlight penetrates into the interior in diffuse form.


Pyramid type toplights

They are characterised by a pyramidal form, which is made up of four transparent coincident
triangles.

The angle of the slope of transparent surfaces is usually 45
o
.
The material of their transparent surfaces is wired glass as a rule.
Their illuminance distribution is symmetrical to several axes.








39
Fig. 36. Illuminance distribution by pyramid lighting.

Their lighting characteristics are determined by the transparency of glazing, as well as by the
geometrical ratios and reflectancy of the building construction surrounding it.
Their efficiency is 0.25...0.35 depending on the before mentioned: the greater the angle of
slope, the worse the efficiency.
If wired glass is used, insolation is restricted only by the well effect.

Prism type toplights

They are similar to sawtooth toplights in form, the only difference being that their plane is
quadratic rather than rectangular.
They are similar to sawtooth toplights in their construction as well.
Illuminance distribution in one direction is similar to that of sawtooth and different in the other
direction.

Fig. 37. Illuminance distribution by prism lighting.

Their efficiency is worse than that of similar sawtooth toplights.
Insolation may be eliminated with the help of orientation opposite the equator.








40
THE UTILIZATION OF NATURAL LIGHT


The utilization of natural light is daylighting interior spaces.
The quantitative and qualitative features of daylighting interiors is influenced by direct sunlight,
diffuse skylight, the external environment and the architectural design of the interior.
Direct sunlight, the diffuse light of the sky, the natural and artificial external environments are
potentials. They surround the architecturally created interior space.
When planning daylighting, the interior space has to be fitted into the given exterior in a way
that it should have natural lighting that meets existing requirements. This can be achieved if we
know, on the one hand, the characteristics of the given external environment and, on the other
hand, we should know how the form and the characteristics of the interior space affect natural
lighting. We should also be aware of what requirements natural lighting can be realistically
expected to meet.
Daylighting is influenced by the following specific features of the interior:
- the location of the opening,
- the slope and orientation of the opening,
- the construction of the opening and
- the size and reflections of the opening.


The effect of the location of the opening

The essential goal of illuminating the interior is to provide adequate illuminance on the working
plane. Most commonly, the plane of the tabletop is used as a working plane, located horizontally
at a height of about 85 cms above the floor. When examining the efficacy of the opening, this
fact has to be taken into account.
The relative position of the opening to the working plane may vary depending on which part of
the envelope of the room it is located in.
In the overwhelming majority of cases, when the interior space is bounded by walls and ceiling,
the opening is part of the walls or the ceiling. It is called side-lighting or top-lighting,
respectively. In cases, when there is no sharp borderline between the walls and the ceiling, this
classification may prove inexact.
Openings are accordingly classified into sidelights or toplights. Sidelights are usually windows.
Illuminance of a given point of the working plane depends on the location of the opening
because of the following:
- Openings of the same size may be seen bigger or smaller depending on their relative
position and on where they are viewed from. The greater the surface of the opening
looks from a point, the greater portion of the sky /the external environment/ illuminates
the point, and the greater the illuminance of the point.
- The illuminance of a surface depends on the incident angle of light. The greater the
angle of incidence, the smaller the illuminance.
The result of these effects is that an opening provides maximum illuminance for a point of the
working plane if it is just above it.

It follows from the foregoing that there is a great difference between the efficacy of side-lighting
and that of top-lighting. Top-lighting is 3..5 times more effective than side-lighting.

Furthermore, it is the place and the orientation of the opening that determines which parts of the
external environment may be regarded as obstruction and which parts as ground.

The effect of slope and orientation


41

It depends on the slope and the orientation of an opening to what degree the various elements
of a given exterior space (e.g. the Sun, the sky, the natural and the artificial environment)
contribute to the natural lighting of the interior.

The slope and orientation of an opening jointly determine the hemisphere of the external
environment that may be seen from the interior. This is what illuminates the room directly.
The sunpath curves belonging to the shortest and longest days determine which part of the sky
the Sun moves in during the year. The slope and the orientation of an opening determine which
part of the sky may be seen from the interior. These two together determine whether and how
long the interior is insolated.
The smaller the slope of an opening, the longer the expected duration of insolation.
Insolation is largest in horizontal openings and smallest in vertical openings /at a given
orientation/.
Insolation is the largest in equator facing orientation /on the Northern hemisphere =180
o
on
the Southern hemisphere =0
o
/ and smallest in orientation opposite the equator. The duration
of insolation decreases gradually /at a given slope/ as the orientation moves away from the
equator.

The slope and the orientation of an opening determine the part of the sky that, in the absence of
obstructions, contributes to the illumination of the interior. The effect of the slope is more
important in this respect.
In horizontal openings /=0
o
/, the whole hemisphere, in vertical
/ =90
o
/ openings, only half of the hemisphere may contribute to the illumination of the interior.
The effect of a diffuse sky light decreases as the angle of the slope increases.

The effect of the sky is influenced by orientation because its diffuse radiation is asymmetrical.
This asymmetry may be calculated on the basis of annual radiant energies of different vertical
direction. The degree of asymmetry for the average value may be expected between -20 and
+50 %.
The diffuse light of the sky is greatest in equator facing orientation. There is no great difference
between opposite to equator, easterly and westerly orientations, all their values are below the
average value.



42
Fig. 38. The effect of the orientation and slope of opening on the selection of the active
hemisphere.
(this example refers to latitude 48
o
, the Northern hemisphere.)

The orientation and the location within the interior of an opening determine which parts of the
external environment act as obstruction.

The degree to which ground influences the daylighting of an interior depends on both the slope
and the orientation of the opening. Its slope determines how much ground the interior "can see".
The more ground it ###can see###, the greater effect ground will have on daylighting an
interior. The effect of the ground is maximum in vertical transparent surfaces



43
/ =90
o
/. There is no effect of the ground if the transparent surface is horizontal.
Finally, the pollution of transparent surfaces also depends on their angles of slope. The smaller
the angle of slope, the greater amount of dirt the opening gathers in a given time, and the more
its transparency and efficacy is reduced.


The effect of the structure of openings

The structure of an opening connects a single or multi-layered transparent surface to the
enveloping (wall or ceiling) of the building in such a way that it becomes part of the building
architecturally and structurally.
Fig. 39. The effects of structure on utilizable light.

Openings can only be evaluated together with the structure enveloping them. When
characterising sidelights, the connecting wall should be considered; while toplights should be
characterised in relation to the ceiling.

Transparent surfaces

From the point of view of illumination, the transparent surface is the most important part of the
opening. It is generally characterised by the following:
- the number of envelopes,
- the transparency of the envelope and
- the manner the envelope spreads light.

Number of envelope is determined by energy requirement of heating. If its demand is small
single envelope is enough, if its considerable two or more envelopes are needed.

Transparency may be characterised with the transmission factor ( the ratio of transmitted
luminous lux to the incident one). The value of the transmission factor depends on
- the quality and thickness of the material and the quality of its
surface
- the angle of incidence of light .




44
Fig. 40. Glass transmittance for parallel light.

When sunlight is parallel, the transmission factor of various materials can be calculated by the
// function.
Clear glass is the most commonly used material. Its transmission factor is almost constant
between the incident angles of 0
o
and 60
o
. It gradually decreases as the angle increases. It is 0
for parallel light. /=90
o
/.
Between 2 and 6 mm, the effect of thickness may be ignored in normal clear glass, and the
value of may be obtained from the given curve.

A transparent surface transmits diffuse, multi directional light from different directions at different
intensity. The transmission factor for diffuse light is the weighted average calculated on the
basis of incident angles, intensity and // .

The calculating the effects of the sky, the ground and obstructions, the transmission factor of
diffuse light has to be taken into account. The value of
diff
depends on the following features
of the above:
- the proportion of the sky and the ground the transparent surface ###can see###
- the luminance distribution of the ###visible###hemisphere,
the condition of the sky /L=f(,)/, and finally,
the transmission factor of the ground /
g
/.

The measured values of
diff
in normal clear glass may be obtained from the given diagram.



45


Fig. 41. Glass transmittance for diffuse light.

The resultant transmission factor of several envelopes may be calculated as a product of the
transmission factors of the envelopes. The value obtained this way is smaller than the actual
value.

A transparent surface may be clear or translucent from the point of view of light dispersion.




46
Light passes through clear surfaces without changing direction. Consequently, such surfaces do
not distort the picture of the sphere behind them. Translucent surfaces disperse light. As a
consequence, the picture of the sphere behind such surfaces is fuzzy or it may not be seen.
The greater the light dispersion of the material, the fuzzier the picture is behind it.

Materials dispersing light following Lambert###s law have the greatest dispersion, e.g. milky
glass. The light dispersion of glass sand blown on one side is smaller, all the same, it satisfies
practical demands. It is unnecessary to sand blow both sides of the glass.

A material may be translucent
- because the material itself is opaque, like milky glass,
- because its surface is not smooth /mat/, for example sand
blown glass,
- or it is structurally heterogeneous, for example ribbed glass,
glass brick, ornament glass, cell plastic.

The transparency of translucent materials vary in a very wide range.
Trancparency greatly depends on thickness if the material itself is opaque.
The thickness of the material does not greatly influence transparency, if light dispersion is due
to the surface.

The value of the transmission factor depends on which side light falls on a glass of
heterogeneous structure e.g. on glass sand blown on one side or on U profile glass. In one side
mat glass the transmission factor is greater if light is received on the mat side !

The transmission factor differs for parallel and diffuse light in translucent materials, too.
Unfortunately, only one value of the transmission factor is known even in these widely used
materials, and it is not clear what kind of light that value refers to.

If a translucent surface is required, only one envelope of the construction needs to be mat. In a
combination of clear and sand blown glass, the sketched order of envelopes is the most
advantageous.



Structural obstructions

Transparent surfaces are held by some structures or frames that fix them to the wall, ceiling or
to some other envelope of the building. These structures are not transparent. They reduce the
efficacy of the opening to a greater or lesser degree by obstructing part of the hole.
The usual relative size of the structural obstruction of openings are as follows:
- single paned, timber window 25%
- double paned, timber window 35%
- single paned, metal window 20%
- double paned, metal window 30%


Reflecting surfaces

The third structural part of openings is made up of those non transparent surfaces that reflect
part of the light entering the interior from the exterior. The effect of these surfaces on the
utilization of light depends on the geometrical ratio of the opening, on the reflection factor of the
surfaces, and on the manner of reflection of the surface, in the following way:


47
The rays of light that do not fall on the reflecting surfaces of the opening enter the interior
unchanged. But the rays of light that reflect on these surfaces lose their intensity and change
their direction. The fact that the surfaces absorb part of the light is a loss, the change of
direction of light causes further losses.

The greater the distance between the external and the internal side of the opening d, the
greater the loss of the luminous flux reflected on its surfaces.
The smaller the cross-section of opening F, the greater the loss of the luminous flux reflected on
its surfaces.
The darker the surfaces, the greater the loss of the luminous flux reflected on its surfaces.
The more mat the surfaces, the greater the loss of the luminous flux reflected on its surfaces.

The F/d ratio and the form are important when designing openings. The greater the F/d ratio,
the smaller the loss of the luminous flux. The F/d ratio is only constant in some cases.

These effects can be summed up by the so called "well efficiency". The values of this efficiency
are known for simple designs and for constant F/d ratio.









48

Fig. 42. The way of light through the openings.






49
The effect of the interior

Only a part of the luminous flux entering the room through the opening arrives directly at the
working plane. The rest reaches the working plane only after one or more reflections. This is
why the ratio of the interior space, the reflection of its surfaces and the manner of reflection play
a great part in its daylighting.

The degree to which a given surface contributes to illuminating the working plane depends on
its position relative to the reference plane and to the opening. A given point is illuminated by a
hemisphere. The elements of this hemisphere contribute to the illumination of the point to the
degree that they are visible from the point.

The contribution of surfaces to the illumination of an interior depends on how many reflections
natural light needs to reach the working plane. Every reflection reduces considerably the
amount of the luminous flux available.
Consequently, the effects of the walls, the ceiling and the floor will differ considerably depending
on whether side or top-lighting is used.

In side-lighting, the effect of the two side walls and the back wall is primarily important, as they
can reflect part of the light entering through the opening and reaching the working plane after
one reflection. The effect of the ceiling is smaller, as it cannot "see" the sky, so light from the
ceiling illuminating the working plane has already been reflected on the ground or on other
surfaces. The effect of the floor is usually negligible, because - on the one hand - it is covered
by furniture, and - on the other hand - light reflected from it may only reach the working plane
after several reflections. The wall by the window plays a secondary role, too, because light from
it has already been reflected at least once.

In top-lighting, the effect of the wall may be important if it is relatively near the opening, and if it
is well illuminated, otherwise it plays a secondary part. The ceiling reflects light onto the working
plane that has already been reflected on the floor or the walls, so its effect is secondary too.
Usually interreflection between the floor, the ceiling and the working plane is important as a
secondary effect. In this case, furniture also modifies reflection off the floor.

To sum it up, the effect of internal surfaces on daylighting is greater in side-lighting, than in top-
lighting.










50



Fig. 43. Direct and indirect illuminance on the working plane.










51

THE DAYLIGHTING OF INTERIORS


Lighting systems

There are three systems of daylighting depending on which part of the envelope the light enters
the interior, namely
- side lighting,
- top lighting and
- combined lighting.
In combined lighting, there are openings both on the wall and the ceiling.
In an interior where the envelope is not definitely divided into walls and ceiling, e.g. arched
envelopes, side lighting and top lighting may be divided in the following way:
If the opening is lower than 2.5m, the system may be considered side lighting, otherwise it is top
lighting.

The illuminance of the reference plane may be direct or indirect. The ratio of light entering
directly through the opening and of indirect light reflected form the walls and the ceiling depends
on the lighting system, on the location of the opening and on the surfaces of the envelope.

In side lighting, illumination comes from the side, and this is why the illuminance of the work
plane near the window is mostly provided by direct lighting. As we move away from the window,
the value of direct illumination decreases rapidly, so the relative proportion of the hardly
changing indirect component increases. The portion of indirect illuminance is he same or 2-3
times larger than the direct one at the back wall.

In top lighting, the reference plane is illuminated directly. The proportion of indirect illumination
does not normally exceed 25%.

In combined lighting, the ratio of the direct and indirect components of illuminance is between
the above-mentioned two extreme values.


The quantitative characteristics of daylighting

The illumination of the interior is quantitatively characterised with the help of illuminance on the
reference plane. The reference plane is the most important plane in the interior from the point of
view of vision, which follows from the function of the interior. The reference or work plane is a
fictitious horizontal plane at the height of a table top /at 0.85 m/ or at the level of the floor. Of
course it may be any other plane, too, for example the vertical plane of a wall at an exhibition.

The illuminance of the reference plane may be characterised with:
- the distribution of illuminance along the plane or
- the distribution of the average values of illuminance along a given direction, along the
direction of typical changing or
- the average value and uniformity ratio of illuminance on the reference plane.

It is spectacular to characterise illuminance with its distribution along a plane, which is mainly
used to demonstrate illuminance at a point in time.


52
By characterising illuminance with the distribution of average values, we can obtain sufficient
information on illumination at a given time, and most of the practical problems can be studied in
this way.
It is simplest to characterise illuminance with its average values and its uniformity ratio. This can
help set and meet practical requirements.

Illuminance at a point of a surface of the interior E
i
(internal illuminance) is in direct proportion to
illuminance at the same place and the same time measured on an unobstructed horizontal
surface E
e
called external illuminance according to the following equation:

E
i
= [e/100]
*
E
e

where e is the so called daylight factor in percentage.


Fig. 44. External and internal illuminance.


As external illuminance keeps changing, E
i
/t/ internal illuminance has to change too, so

E
i
/t/=[e/100]
*
E
e
/t/





53
Fig. 45. The change of external and internal illuminance.

In this equation, the architectural design of the internal and external environments is
represented in the daylight factor e, while the sky as a luminaire is represented by E
i
/t/.

Since illuminance of the interior E
i
is a multiplication-like result of the architectural design of the
interior in a given environment /e/, and the effect of the sky /E
e
/, it cannot be determined how
much these components contribute to the result.

Daylight factor e is essentially the efficiency of utilising natural skylight for illuminating the
interior.

Daylight factor e tells us how far the built interior /the walls, the ceiling and the structure of the
opening/ as well as external obstructions restrict the potentially available illuminance, that is to
say e is 100% in the absence of a room or any obstruction.

Daylight factor e characterises all the effects of the interior and the exterior on the illuminance of
a given point of the interior. This way, daylight factor e is a function of:
- the place of the reference point,
-the measurements of the interior,
- the reflection of interior surfaces,
- the location, size and structure of the opening,
- the location, size and the reflection of external obstructions,
- the reflection of the ground.

At a given point of time, namely in an unchanged external environment /E
e
= constant/, the
daylight factor changes from one point to another as illuminance of the interior changes from
one point to the next, i.e. the daylight factor changes according to the distribution of the
illuminance of the interior.



54
This means, that a given distribution curve of illuminance E
e
(lx) is the distribution curve of
daylight factor e (%) on a different scale.


Fig. 46. The connection between illuminance and daylight factor.

Consequently, the daylight factor can have the following values:
- e
av
average value,
- e
min
minimal value,
- e
min
/e
av
= y uniformity ratio
which are in direct ratio to the respective values of illuminance.
In the long run, the daylight factor characterises natural illumination in an indirect way /its unit is
% and not lux/.

Although the value of the daylight factor may be considered constant only as a first
approximation, it is a very useful idea for characterising daylighting of the interior.

External illuminance E
e
varies between nought and a maximum, both during the day and
throughout the year. As a result, the internal illuminance E
i
changes with E
e
.

So illuminance at a given point of the interior may have an endless number of values throughout
a year, but none of them can characterise natural illumination alone.
However, every value of E
i
may be connected either to an E
e
or to a period of time, and these
two values together give some characterisation, so it may be said that:
- E
i
is the illuminance of a given point if E
e
is the external illuminance,
- the illuminance of a given point is equal to or greater than E
i
if the external
illuminance equals at least E
e
,
- the illuminance at a given point is at least E
i
for the period of time during a day or
during the year when external illuminance is greater than E
e

Thus, a value of illuminance of the interior provides some useful information about natural
lighting only in conjunction with another data /the external illuminance, or the length of time/.


55

Fig. 47. The connection between external illuminance and the period of time.

Natural lighting may be characterised in two ways:
Directly, with the help of the following features of illuminance E
i

- its distribution along the plane or
- its distribution along the direction of typical changing or
- its average value and uniformity ratio on the reference plane.
There is a given external illuminance and /or length of time belonging to these features in each
case. These values constantly change over time.

Indirectly, with the help of the following features of the daylight factor e
- its distribution along the plane or
- its distribution along the direction of typical changing or
- its average value and uniformity ratio on the reference plane.

It is expedient to characterise daylight indirectly, with the help of the daylight factor every time
we want to illustrate the spatial character of daylighting interiors. These characteristic values do
not change.


Uniformity in space

The uniformity of illumination in space is characterised by the inequality of illuminance on the
working plane (part of the room the visual task refers to, normally a horizontal plane 0.85 m
above the floor).
Illuminance at given points of the interior has two components, direct illuminance coming from
the external environment and indirect illuminance reflected from the surfaces of the interior.
Although, the ratio of direct and indirect illuminance on the working plane changes from one
point to another depending on the lighting system, and the two components of illuminance may
be nearly equal, still the character of the distribution of illuminance is essentially determined by
direct lighting.

Direct illuminance at various points on the working plane mainly depends on the portion of the
sky ###visible###from the points and on the average angle of incidence of skylight on the
points. Illuminances are in direct proportion to the size of the ###visible###sky and the cosines
of the angle of incidence of light.




56



Fig. 48. The connection between uniformity of illuminance and system of daylighting.

The size of the ###visible###sky and the incident angle of light alike depend on where the
opening is located in the envelope of the room, so direct illumination depends on the lighting
system.

The spatial variations of daylight can be characterised with:
- the distribution of daylight factor e/b/ along the typical direction
or
- the average value of the daylight factor e
av
and e
min
/e
av
on
the reference plane.





57
In side lighting, the points of the working plane are illuminated by decreasing portions of the sky
at increasing angles of incidence as we move away from the window. The distribution of
illuminance changes accordingly.
In side lighting illuminance necessarily shows great inequality.
The measurements of the interior, mainly its height, limits the degree to which the variation of
illuminance of side lighting can be influenced by the location and size of the window.
The architectural parameters effecting natural illumination in side lighting are the following (in
decreasing order of importance):
- the depth of the room,
- the size of the window,
- the height of the room,
- the reflection of the walls,
- the width of the window and
- the reflection of the ceiling.

It is instructive to examine the effect of the location of the window and of its various parts.


Fig 49. Effect of position of window on distribution of illuminance.

The effect of the part of the window which is below the working plane is negligible from the point
of view of illuminating the plane, as light through that part of the window is reduced by multiple
reflections and is obstructed by furniture.

The part of the window near the ceiling provides illumination mainly for the back area of the
room, while the part of the window next to the parapet illuminates the area near the window.



58
A window placed high in the wall illuminates space more uniformly than a window placed low. A
stripe window provides more uniform illumination parallel to the window than a divided window.
This effect of the structure of the window on the illumination of the working plane diminishes as
we move away from the window and it becomes negligible at the back wall.


Fig. 50. Illuminance distribution by strip and divided window.

In top lighting it is the number of toplights, the height of the interior and the design of the toplight
that determines how uniformly a toplight illuminates space.

In toplights of equal area and identical structure, the more toplights, the more uniform the
illuminance.
In toplights of identical number, structure and arrangement, the higher the interior, the more
uniform the illuminance.
The design of toplights determine light distribution, which in turn determines the uniformity of
illuminance.
Top lighting can meet any practical requirement of uniform illuminance.









59
Fig. 51. Effect of placing of top lights on distribution of illuminance.

In combined lighting, the uniformity of illuminance is determined by side lighting and top lighting
jointly. Illuminance provided by such lighting may be considered a combination of illuminance by
side lighting and top lighting.

Fig. 52. Components of illuminance in combined lighting.


Combined lighting can meet any practical requirement of uniform illuminance.





60

Permanency in time

Natural illumination necessarily keeps changing as a result of the continuous changing of the
Sun's position in the sky and of sky conditions.

The illuminance of the interior is always in direct proportion to the intensity of skylight / E
e
/ and
to the sunlight's intensity /E
s
/ if either the interior or an external obstruction is insolated.

Fig. 53. Illuminance from the Sun and the sky on horizontal surface.

The changes of natural lighting over time may be investigated in two respects: daily changes or
changes over some expected annual period. Daily changes in the illuminance of a given point of
the interior may be followed with the help of the daily changes of illuminances provided by
diffuse skylight /E
e
/ and direct sunlight /E
s
/. Both changes may be characterised by the
expected daily values and these values are different for the 365 days of the year.

Illuminance at a point of the interior on a given day of the year changes in direct ratio to a curve
which is between the curves of the daily change of E
e
/t/ and E
e
/t/+E
s
/t/ for the same day.

Disregarding the usually undesirable and occasional effect of sunlight, changes in the
illuminance of the interior follow the changes of external illuminance E
e
/t/ and its variation
corresponds to the variations of sunlight. Insolation increases this variation.

Daily changes in the illuminance of the interior may be followed with the help of the typical
distribution curve of the daylight factor e/b/ and that of the expected daily change of E
e
/t/.

During a given day, the expected values of illuminance of the interior are between 0 and
E
imax
/b/. There is a different curve of Ei/b/ belonging to each value of E
e
. At time t*, when the
expected value of external illuminance is E
e
*, the distribution of illuminance corresponds to the
E
i
/b/* curve.


61
The illuminance of point "P" changes between 0 and E
pmax
during the day, and its value is E
p
*
at time t*.

Fig. 54. The connection between external and internal illuminance.

Practical questions of daylighting are more often connected to its yearly change, which refers to
the illuminance of the interior and to the expected length of time, namely
- how large will illuminance be during a given period of the year or
- for which periods of the year can a given value of illuminance of the interior be
expected.

These questions may refer to single points of the interior, or to the average of illuminance or to
the typical distribution of illuminance.
These questions may be answered with the help of the typical distribution curve of the daylight
factor e/b/ and of the duration curve of external illuminance E
e
/T/. ( see next page)

At point "P", where the value of the daylight factor is e
p

- the value of illuminance is at least E
iP
=[e
p
/100]
*
E
e
** for T**
length of time in the year
- E
i
P
*** illuminance may be expected for T*** length of time in
the year, as [ 100/e
P
]
*
E
iP
= E
e
***

The connection between illuminance and length of time is similar in average illuminance and
typical distribution.

When investigating the changes of illuminance over time in this way, we must keep in mind that
the changes of natural light follow the laws of meteorological-statistics.

So, according to the laws of meteorological statistics, the characteristics of diffuse sky light
E
e
/t/ and E
e
/T/ and of sunlight E
s
/t/ are average values of several years, to be expected with a
probability of 50%.




62




Fig. 55. The connection between illuminance of a given interior and the length of time of
illuminance.



63
Glare

Glare is the most important problem of visual comfort and of quality of illumination. Glare is a
condition of vision in which vision is uncomfortable or visual recognition is reduced, in an
extreme case, the visual recognition of the field of view ceases partly or completely. This latter
case is described as blinding.
Glare is caused by some high luminance in the field of view. In direct glare discomfort is caused
by the visible Sun or sky, in indirect glare discomfort results from the image of the Sun or sky
reflected on a shiny surface in the field of view.

The higher the luminance, and the greater the visible size of its surface, the greater the danger
of glare. The nearer the surface of high luminance to the axis of view, and the higher the
luminance of the background, the smaller the glare.

In natural lighting, glare may be caused by the Sun, the sky or an insolated obstruction visible
from the interior, or by the insolated interior. The luminance of these cannot be controlled.
In natural lighting, glare has to be taken into account as an undesirable effect occurring with
some probability, whose features are the following:
- the degree of glare keeps changing during the year in all cases,
- not even the most disadvantageous form of daylighting causes glare all the time,
- there are forms of daylighting that provide glareless illumination.

The probability of glare from the Sun, the sky and external obstructions mainly depends on
where the opening is in the field of view, i.e. on the lighting system. The better the visual
connection between the exterior and the interior, the greater the danger of direct glare.
In side lighting, the exterior seen through the window is near the middle of the field of view, and
this is why the probability and degree of expected glare is high. Of course, the danger of glare in
these cases also depends on the orientation of the opening.
In top lighting, the visible part of the sky is to one side of the field of view, so the probability and
degree of expected direct glare is low.

Indirect glare caused by the insolation of the interior depends less on the lighting system.


The direction of light and the effect of shadows

At a given point in the space, the different illuminances of surfaces facing different directions
result in shadows. Shadows help us recognise the spatial arrangement of objects and the
quality of surfaces. Shadowless lighting and lighting with very hard shadows are equally
uncomfortable.
Hard shadows are especially uncomfortable if they reduce the visibility of surfaces that should
be seen.
The shadow effect may be characterised with the help of the ratio of vertical and horizontal
illuminance.

The shadow effect of natural lighting primarily depends on the lighting system, and secondarily
on the reflection of the interior's surfaces.
In side lighting, the shadow effect is necessarily great, as lighting is highly directed. This is
essentially impossible to change, therefore the problem of shadows can only be solved by
choosing a function that fits these circumstances optimally.
In top lighting and combined lighting, the shadow effect may be adequately influenced by
choosing the location of the openings.



64
Colour appearance

Good colour appearance is a result of harmony between illuminance and the quality of light
characterised by the light's colour or colour temperature according to the Kruithoff-diagram. The
illumination of the environment is found pleasant, if low values of illuminance are provided by
"warm" light, and high values of illuminance by "cool" light.
This harmony exists naturally in the exterior, since this demand originates from the natural
environment. However, illuminance in the interior is much lower, only one tenth to one
hundredth of external illuminance. Consequently, this harmony does not exist automatically in
the interior.
The smaller the average daylight factor of the interior, the higher the probability of unpleasant
colour appearance in part of the year.
Taking into account the most probable values of the colour temperature of natural light, natural
illumination is expected to meet this demand for the best part of the year.

Colour rendering

Human vision has been developed by natural light, so the "natural colours" of surfaces and
materials are connected to natural light. It follows from the above that the colour rendering of
the natural illumination of the interior is excellent, unless the coloured surfaces of the interior
distort the quality of light.



65

THE DESIGN OF NATURAL LIGHTING


Designing natural lighting for the interior means designing the interior architecturally in such a
way that the interior meets the requirements of illumination in a given case. These requirements
concern:
- average illuminance and uniformity,
- the degree of acceptable glare,
- shadows and the direction of light,
- colour appearance and
- colour rendering.
Of these, it is the requirement concerning illuminance that needs actual designing, the rest can
be met more or less by the suitable formation of certain details of the interior.


Designing illuminance

Every country sets standards for the values of required average illuminance E
R
and for
uniformity of artificial lighting in space e for different activities and areas. It is expedient to
design the natural illuminance of the interior on the basis of these standardised values.

Thus, daylighting is designed on the basis of the required average illuminance E
R
and
uniformity .

As the illuminance of the interior changes continuously
- if E
R
is smaller than the greatest average illuminance during the year, the natural
illuminance of the interior can be said to be suitable part of the year, when external
conditions exceed a given value;
- if E
R
exceeds the greatest average illuminance during the year, the natural
illuminance of the interior does not meet requirements all the year round.

To sum it up, it depends on the architectural form of the interior and on the exterior under what
external conditions and for what length of time of the year there will be adequate amounts of
natural light, or indeed if such external conditions are to be expected at all.
In designing natural lighting, it should be decided :
- under what external conditions or
- for what length of time during the year natural illuminance will
have to suffice.
The external conditions and length of time in the year will follow from each other on the basis of
the duration curve E
e
/T/

When defining external conditions, the condition of the sky and the intensity of E
e
should be
determined. This condition of the sky is the so-called designing sky condition.

Two circumstances should be taken into account in the course of the above:
- the three, precisely definable conditions of the sky (overcast, foggy and clear)
- which of these conditions is most typical at the given geographical location.

The design intensity of the sky is generally described by E
eD
, the so-called design external
illuminance, which is expedient to define by the percentage of the days of the year in which the
illuminance requirements are to be met by natural lighting.


66
Design strategies usually choose a value of E
eD
which makes it possible to satisfy illuminance
requirements by natural lighting in nearly 90% of the days of the year.
Greater values of E
eD
result in smaller openings and vice versa.
The intensity and the condition for design may vary for different countries or regions. The value
of E
eD
is usually standardised.
If the value of sunny hours is smaller than 2500 h/a, the preferred strategy is:
- the design sky condition is overcast sky and
- the value of E
eD
is between 5 000 and 10 000 lx.

Effective design is based on the required daylight factor e
R
, which may be determined with the
help of E
R
and E
eD
as follows

e
R
= [E
R
/E
eD
]
*
100 [%]

Natural lighting for a required illuminance is designed on the basis of the daylight factor.

The task of designing in practice is the following:
There is an interior space with known geometrical measures, the material and colour of whose
surfaces have been chosen, and the external environment is known.
The function of the room is known, too.
Taking into account the architectural conception and practical possibilities, the architect makes
decisions on
-the lighting system: whether he/she wants to use side -, top- or combined lighting,
-the form and type of light.
This is followed by the actual process of designing. In the course of designing, one has to
determine the main parameters, the number and the arrangement of the chosen type of light.

Designing for daylighting is indirect as its aim is to achieve the e
R
daylight factor.

The task is to design an interior with as many and with such lights, that the desired daylight
factor should be achieved at a given external environment and condition.

If the daylight factor of the interior is e
R
, the illuminance of the interior is equal to or greater than
E
R
when external illuminance is equal to or greater than E
eD
.

The design of daylight is different in side or top lighting.
In side lighting, the requirements of achieving average illuminance and uniformity usually cannot
be met because illumination is necessarily very unequal and this cannot be influenced
considerably. Therefore, the requirement is defined for the point of the working plane "M",
where illuminance is the smallest.




67
Fig 56. Required daylight factor at side lighting.

With such lighting systems, the interior has to be formed in such a way that illuminance at this
point be sufficient by design conditions.
If the required average illuminance for a given activity is E
R
, and the allowable uniformity ratio is
e, then the required daylight factor at point "M" is

e
Rmin
=
*
[E
R
/E
eD
]
*
100 [%]


In top- or combined lighting, the requirements of average illuminance and uniformity can both be
met, therefore in these systems, design is based on the average value of the daylight factor
according to the following equation:

e
R
= [E
R
/E
eD
]
*
100 [%]



67-100



68
Fig. 57. Required daylight factor at top lighting.

Daylighting for illuminance may be designed by
- graphical methods,
- mathematical calculations and
- modelling.

The known graphical and mathematical methods vary greatly in their reliability and accuracy.
Many of them use considerable and debatable neglections. In graphical methods daylight
factors supposed to be the sum of three components, namely
D.C direct component, effect from the sky,
E.R.C externally reflected component, effect from the external obstruction (other
buildings, mount,
etc.),
I.R.C internally reflected component, effect of walls and ceiling of the room.

Every graphical method is based on the equation can be seen in Fig.2.10. According to that,
effect of an element of the sky on a reference point is in direct proportion to its luminance L and
the area of its projection on the reference plane. If the sky is uniform (L = constant), the effect of
element of sky is depended on only its projection. It follows from this that the direct effect of a
part of the sky, may be seen from a point of the room, is in direct proportion to its projection.
Nearly the same refers to external obstruction. The different graphical methods determine the
projected area of the visible sky or external obstruction from the investigated internal point by
different way. (D.C. and E.R.C)
The internally reflected component (I.R.C) can be calculated with some other way on the bases
of internal reflection.

Advantageous of graphical methods is: the process of daylighting may be followed.
All these methods are implicite, this is a disadvantageous feature. One has to suppose an
opening (location and measures) and daylight factor at a given point can be determined for this
arrangement. Determination of the required opening for a given daylight factor is a result of
interpolation after more or less computations. Number of process is fewer in side lighting, than


69
in toplighting. Their further problem is that it results direct component only at one point, so for
determination of the average value the process has to repeat may times.
Main characteristics of the better known graphical methods are as follows:
Grn method.
Conditions of its application are:
- uniform sky,
- opening has to be rectangular,
- reference plain is optional,
- special tool is required.
How does it work:
Measure of the projected are of effected sky is determined using the
plan and section of the room, with the help of a protractor. For some
estimation protractor does not need. (see page 92.)
Result:
Only the direct component!

B.R.S. method.
Condition of its application are:
- uniform or overcast sky,
- opening has to be rectangular,
- in uniform sky reference plain is optional, in overcast sky slope of
the reference plain may be horizontal, 30
o
, 60
o
or vertical,
- special tool (B.R.S protractor) is required.
How does it work:
Measures of the projected are of effected sky or external obstruction
can be determined using the plan and section of the room with the
help of protractor.
Result: Daylight factor, as a sum of the direct and reflected components.

Waldram method.
Condition of its application are:
- uniform or overcast sky,
- vertical and rectangular opening (window)
- horizontal reference plain,
- special tools (Waldram diagram) is required.
How does it work:
The visible part of the sky or external obstruction from the
investigated point of the reference plain has to draw onto the
Waldram diagram with the help of plan and section of the room. The
direct or external reflected component is direct proportion with their
drown areas on the diagram.
Measures of the projected are of effected sky or external obstruction
can be determined using the plan and section of the room with the
help of protractor.
Result: Daylight factor, as a sum of the direct and reflected components.

Daniluk method.
Condition of its application are:
- uniform or overcast sky,
- opening has to be rectangular,
- reference plain is horizontal,
- special tools ( Daniluk polarises) are required.
How does it work:


70
The sky is divided by polarises into 100x100 units, projected area of
each unit is the same (1/10 000). Measures of the projected are of
effected sky or external obstruction can be determined using the plan
and section of the room with the help of polarises.
Result: Daylight factor, as a sum of the direct and reflected components.


Mathematical methods give directly the daylight factor. The theoretical components are not
separated. In toplighting there is direct connection between the average daylight factor and the
toplights, in side lighting there is direct connection between the minimum daylight factor and the
sidelight. The elements of methods use are equations, diagrams and data in tables.
The methods are usually explicit, the required area of openings can be calculated directly on the
basis of required daylight factor, the supposed arrangement of lighting, the structure of opening,
data the interior and the environment.
Main characteristics of the better known mathematical methods:
Efficiency method.
Conditions of its application are:
- optional sky,
- toplight what "see the whole sky", with vertical walls,
- horizontal reference plain,
- no external obstruction.
How does it work:
Necessary area of toplights and required average daylight factor can be
calculated in 7 steps on the bases of data of the room, data of the toplight
to use and environment. (see page 89.)
C.I E. nomograms:
There are separated group of nomograms for some different kind of
toplightings, for sow-tooth's, for monitors. Every group of nomograms refers
to a given kind and form toplight. Only the main features of the toplight is
taken into account.
Conditions of its application are:
- optional sky,
- horizontal reference plain at given high,
- no external obstruction.
How does it work:
Necessary area of toplights can be obtained from nomogram on the
bases of main ratios of the section of interior and required average
daylight.
Generating method:
Method developed on the bases of scale model measuring.
Conditions of its application are:
- overcast sky,
- rectangular window,
- horizontal reference plain at 0.85 m high,
- external obstruction may be.
How does it work:
Necessary area of window can be calculate in 9 steps on the bases of
data of the room data of the window to use, data of obstruction and
environment. ( see page 76.)




71
The widely used computer programs are usually suitable for calculating simple geometrical
interiors. More complicated interiors or lights require more advanced programs, which need
longer time and more expertise.

The natural lighting of interiors can be investigated most reliably by model measurements in the
so-called artificial sky. Any geometrical interior, any quality of surface, any structure or form of
light can be studied in this way. The results of this method meet practical demands.

Fig. 58 Artificial sky ( Technical University of Budapest)


The restriction of glare

If glare is to be restricted in daylighting, the following circumstances have to be taken into
account:
- Glare may be expected only in part of the time of use, and the
degree of glare changes during this time.
- Direct glare is caused by insolation.
-The danger (probability) of glare is greater in side- and
combined lighting than in top lighting.
- Although glare has to be restricted in most cases, there are
interiors without such requirement.

If glare has to be restricted, the problem may be solved with the help of some supplementary
architectural device in most cases.
It is clear from what has been said before, that devices to protect against glare are always
structurally connected to the light, completing or modifying it.

These conditions are only fulfilled by devices of glare protection whose features can be
changed automatically over time either by moving their structures or by changing their
transparency.


72
Common glare protection devices can meet the above requirements adequately only part of the
time.
Non-moveable glare protection devices reduce the illumination of the interior unnecessarily.
Moveable glare protection devices can suit requirements far better, except for the requirement
of varying degrees of restriction.
It is very important to know that perfect protection against insolation provides far from perfect
protection against glare.


Designing the direction of light and of shadows

In natural lighting, the shadows and the direction of light predominantly depend on the lighting
system.
In side lighting, illumination is highly directed. This undesirable effect may only be reduced to
some extent by increasing the reflection of the wall. In cases where there are exacting
requirements as to shadows, side lighting is not the lighting of choice.

In top and combined lighting, demands concerning shadows and the direction of the light can be
easily met by a suitable arrangement and ratio of openings.


Good colour appearance

Good colour appearance may require changing the quality of natural light from time to time.
This is practically impossible, therefore the demand of colour appearance has to be regarded as
one which is automatically met most of the time of use, while natural lighting is not good from
the point of view of colour matching in some of the time of use.
Using transparent surfaces that change the quality of natural light may increase the number of
cases and the length of time when colour appearance is not good.


Good colour rendering

The colour rendering of natural lighting is excellent. This is true for daylighting the interior too, if
the surfaces of the interior are only slightly coloured or not at all.

Consequently, in the interest of colour rendering, the ratio of coloured surfaces has be to
restricted



73

NEW TECHNOLOGIES


There have been several essential problems of daylighting to solve for a long time, namely
- the unwanted inequality of illuminance in sidelighting,
- the unwanted and disturbing insolation,
- the fact, that daylighted room has to have external wall or ceiling.

Illuminance in sidelighing is necessarily unequal, - illuminance at the window is much larger
than at the back of the room - as it was proved before at Fig. 5.5. How this feature could be
effected? For better distribution either illuminance near to window has to reduce or illuminance
at back side has to rise or has to do both. Illuminance at window is resulted mainly by the upper
part of the window ( incident angle is large) then again illuminance at the back is produced
mainly by the upper part of the window (even though incident angle is smaller), too. It seems
plausible, that light irradiated through upper part of window has to be effected, using some
devices what redirect the light from the front to the back. The following devices are the most
often used for this reason.


Light shelves are usually horizontal or near horizontal reflecting system fitted inside or
outside at the upper part of the window. Structure of light shelves may be non transparent (with
specular, diffuzing or mirrored top surface) and semi-transparent. They work well with a
headroom of minimum 3 m.
Their effect is complex, reduce the illuminance near window, provide shade below them,
obstruct the light to direct effect at the back of the room, while at the same time reflect the light
to ceiling. Ceiling becomes lighter and sends more light to the back of the room. So
illuminance in the room is formed by two opposite effects. In sunny condition illuminance may
be increased, but in cloudy condition illuminance is reduced at the back of the room. In sunny
condition their effect on illuminance change with the position of Sun.
They have two advantageous effects
- improve the uniformity of illuminance, independently the sky condition,
- reduce the discomfort caused by glare.
Their disadvantageous effect is they reduce more or less visual connection to exterior.

Louvres are divided light shelves. The different is in measures, but the ratio between
their depth and distance between each other is nearly the same. While number of light shelves
used for a window are 1 or 2, the number of elements of louvre is more. Structure of louvre may
be fix, or moveable.
Their effect is similar to that of light shelves have.




74

Fig. 59. Light redirecting systems.

Prismatic glazing redirects light by refraction. The most common prism is triangular, but
there are other shapes, different kind of quadrilateral, too. Its unit is usually a prismatic panel
inside double glazing. The panel is located into or at the upper part of the frame of window.
The effect on the illuminance is similar to that of light shelves have.
Their more sophisticated group are separated from the window and moveable, so they can be
adjusted to the Sun, insolation can be eliminated by this way.

Prismatic film is special form of prismatic sheet, its depth is smaller than 1 mm, so it
can be used put on the normal glass of window. It works on the same way, than prismatic
glazing does, consequently its effect on daylighting in the room is similar.

Holographic systems redirect light with holographic films or plates. In these systems a
microscope structures serve for diffraction. Holographic elements are used incorporating to fix
or moveable transparent units.
Their effect is similar to that of light shelves have. Besides they have decorative effects
(rainbow effect)


Light pipe systems A room without external envelope wall or ceiling can be daylighted
with help of some light pipe systems. A system has three main parts, namely


75
- the heliostat,
- the light pipe and
- the emitter inside the room.
The first question to answer is: What kind of light can be used for this purpose.
The system has to lead the external light into the room through several ten meters long way.
The light pipe can transmit effectively only the nearly parallel light beam. Because of this,
diffuse skylight much less suitable than sunlight. As a consequence these systems are suitable
for sunny climates.
Heliostat track, collect and
concentrate sunlight. Its main part is
the collector. Collector is necessary
is every case, but the shaft is short
and wide. Collector may be concave
tracking mirror, tracking Fresnel
lens, rotating double prism plate
system, etc. In less sophisticated
systems, collector does not move
consequently they are less effective.
Light pipe leads and
distributes the light. The most
common light pipe is a metal tube
with polished, high reflective inner
surface. Lenses may be used in the
tube to concentrate the light.
Tapping mirrors distribute the light to
sub-pipes. Other known types are
optical fibre, plastic pipe, hallow
core.
Emitter, like a luminaire
distributes the nearly parallel light
into the room by different manner. (
direct, semi-direct, general diffuse
semi-indirect or indirect way).








Fig. 60.
Light pipe system.

The efficiency of the system mainly depends on the transmittance of light pipe. Its transmittance
varies in a wide range depending on the length and the incidence angles of light. Therefore
concentrate and collimate the light is very important. Efficiency of solar optical systems does not
use to be larger than 25%.Adequate maintenance, cleaning of light pipe systems is very
important for the effective work.


METHODS


76


Window sizing - Generating method.

The following method was developed on the basis of measurements made in artificial sky at the
Technical University of Budapest by Prof. Andrs T. Majoros.

The method is suitable for calculation of the area required for windows S
wR
if
- the measures of the room are as follows:
width 2.5-15 m,
depth 2.5-12 m,
headroom 2.5- 5 m;
- there is an obstruction in the front of the window that
may be approximately described by horizontal and
vertical lines;
- the structure of the window to be built in is known;
- the pollution of the environment of the room is known.

Starting data: (according to Figure 61.)
1. the geometrical data of the room, (width. depth and
headroom)
2. the average reflection factor of the rooms ceiling,
3. the average reflection factor of walls of the room, on
which have no window,
4. the vertical and horizontal angles of obstruction,
5. the average reflection factor of the obstruction,
6. the type and glazing of the window to be used and its
location,
7. the environment of the building.
8. the required daylight factor or illuminance
Fig. 61. Symbols of the method.

Method step by step:




77
The essential equation of the calculation is

e
Rmin
= e
o
*
k
a

k
*
k
*
k
o

I. e
Rmin
is the required daylight factor.
Its value is obtained
-either from the standard ,
-or from the required (standardised)
illuminance for the activity in the room
with the help of following equation.
e
Rmin
=
*
[E
R
/E
eD
]
*
100 [%]
(see more on page 67.)

II. k

is a correction factor of the interiors reflection.

It can be obtained
from Figure 62.
on the bases of

w
and
c
.











F
ig. 62. Values of k

.
III. k

is a correction factor of the windows structure.

Its value can be calculated with the help of the following
equation
k

=
g*

f*

d

where :
g
coefficient of glazing,

f
coefficient of frames obstruction,

d
coefficient of reduction by dirt.
their values may be taken from following table.
Type of Glazing
g

Flat Glass, Single Layer 0,9
Flat Glass, Double Layer 0,8
Textured, Diffused Reinforced Glass 0,6
Glass Blocks Mounted in Concrete 0,6
Structure of Frame
f

Metal Window, Single Layer 0,8



78
Metal Window, Double Layer 0,65
Wooden Window, Single Layer 0,75
Wooden Window, Double Layer 0,5
Composite Window (Teschauer) 0,8
Reinforced Concrete Window 0,6
Glass-Concrete Opening 0,6
Effect of Dirt / Cleaning
d
Offtown and Suburbs/Regular Cleaning 0,9
Offtown and Suburbs/Occasional Cleaning 0,7
Residential Area/Regular Cleaning 0,8
Residential Area/Occasional Cleaning 0,6
Industrial Area/Regular Cleaning 0,7
Industrial Area/Occasional Cleaning 0,5
When it is clean 1


IV. k
o
is a correction factor of the obstruction.
Its value can be calculated from the following equation
k
o
= 1 - c[k

(k
1
- k
0
)]
c can be obtained from Fig. 63.
with the help of
o,
, (see Fig. 61.)

k

can be obtained from Fig. 64.

with the help of and h, (see Fig. 61.)

k
1
and k
o
can be obtained from Fig. 65.
with the help of and a.
(see Fig. 61.)

Fig. 63. Values of c.







79

Values of k

if 2,5 = h < 3 m Values of k

if 3 = h < 3,5 m

Values of k

if 3,5 = h < 4 m Values of k

if 4 = h < 4,5 m

Values of k

if 4,5 = h < 5 m


Fig. 64. The values of k
e
belonging to different hs.




80


Values of k

if 2,5 = a < 5 m Values of k

if 5 = a < 7,5 m
Values of k

if 7,5 = a < 15 m Values of k

if 15 = a <
Fig. 65.. The values of k

belonging to different as.

V. The left side of the essential equation can be calculated with the
determined values of e
Rmin
, k

, k

and k
o
.

VI. e
o*
k
a
(A) can be determined as follows:
On the basis of the headroom h of the room, a group of
diagrams has to be chosen from Fig. 66.a....66.e The
adequate Figures are as follows:
if 2.5 = h < 3 m Fig. 66.a
if 3 = h < 3.5 m Fig. 66.b
if 3.5 = h < 4 m Fig. 66.c
if 4 = h < 4.5 m Fig. 66.d
if 4.5 = h < 5 m Fig. 66.e
The aim is to determine the curve that shows how the daylight
factor depends on the area of window in a given measure of the
room and the location of the window i.e. e
o*
k
a
= f(A) function.
These values of pairs of e
o1
-k
a1
,e
o2
-k
a2
, e
o3
-k
a3
and e
o4
-k
a4
can be determined from
the chosen Figure (66.a...66.e) according to following diagram.


81



Determination of e
o1
-k
a1
, e
o2
-k
a2
, e
o3
-k
a3
, e
o4
-k
a4


Maximum area of window is (h-0.85)
*
a, -as the height of the working plane is generally 0.85 m -,
the maximum relative area is A
1
.





82



Figure 66.a The values of e
o
and k
a
if 2.5= h < 3 m.



83


Figure 66.b The values of e
o
and k
a
if 3 = h < 3.5 m.





84



Figure 66.c The values of e
o
and k
a
if 3.5= h < 4 m.



85


Figure 66.d The values of e
o
and k
a
if 4= h < 4.5 m.




86



Figure 66.e The values of e
o
and k
a
if 4.5= h < 5 m.



87

VII. With the help of the above pairs of values the e
o*
k
a
= f(A) curve can
be drown as follows:

Fig. 67. Drawing up of e
o*
k
a
= f(A)) curve.

VIII. The last step is to determination of required area of the window in
the given room.
With the help of the calculated value of the left side of the
essential equation
e
Rmin

k
*
k
*
k
o

and the e
o*
k
a
= f(A) curve,
the relative area of the window needs can be determined as follows:

Fig. 68. Determination of relative area of window A
wR
.

The point of intersection gives the required relative largeness A
wR
in %.

IX. After all the required area of window is
S
wR
= [ A
wR*
h
*
a] / 100 (m
2
)




88
Following example illustrates usage of the method.
Starting data:
1.a=14 m, b=6 m, h=4.1 m; 2.
w
= 55% 3.
c
=65%;
4.

= 24
o
,
1
= 25
o
,
0
=0
o
5. .
o
= 15 %;
6. structure of window: metal frame, double flat glass, upper;
7. environment: residential area/occasional cleaning;
8. e
Rmin
= 1 %;


Calculation:
I. e
R
= 1 %; II. k

. = o. 58; ( see Fig.62.)

III.
g
=0.8,
f
= 0.65,
d
= 0.6, (see pages 77, 78.)
k

=0.8
*
0.65
*
0.6 = 0.31;

IV. c= 0.92, k

= 0.58, (see Fig. 63, 64.)
k
1
= 0.6, k
2
= 0, (see Fig.65.)
k
o
= 1- 0,92(0,58(0,6-0))= 0.68;

V. e
Rmin
/ k
*
k
*
k
o
=1/(o.58
*
0.31
*
0.68) = 8.2 %;

VI. e
o1*
k
a1
,= 10.1
*
1 = 10.1%,-A
1
=76% (see Fig. 66.d)
e
o2*
k
a2
,= 7.7
*
1.1= 8.6%, -A
2
=57% (see Fig. 66.d)
e
o3
-k
a3
,= 5.3
*
1.1= 5.8%, -A
3
=38% (see Fig. 66.d)
e
o4*
k
a4
=2.8
*
1.2 = 3.4%. -A
4
=20% (see Fig. 66.d)

VII - VIII.


IX. Required area of window is:

S
wR
= (A
wR*
h
*
a)/100 =(54
*
4.1
*
14)/100 = 30.9 m
2



89

Dimensioning of toplight - Efficiency method.

The following method is suitable to determine the required area of toplight if it enjoys the effect
of the whole sky (i.e. it sees the whole sky). So, it can be used in cases of horizontal-, pitched-
, dome and pyramid types, of the types discussed earlier.

Starting data: (according to Figure 69.)
1. the geometrical data of the room, ( width a. depth b and
headroom h);
2. the high of working plane above the floor r;
3. the average reflection factor of the rooms ceiling
c
, walls

w
and floor
f
;
4. the type and glazing of the toplight;
5 the measures (p, q, m ) and reflection factor of the toplights
walls
tw
;
6. the pollution of environment of the building;
7. the required daylight factor e
R
or illuminance E
R
;
Fig. 69. Symbols of the room.


Method step by step:

The essential equation of the calculation is

e
R

a *

b
S
TR
=
*
( m
2
)

100

g*

s

*

d
*
k
w *


S
TR
is the required area of the toplights.



90
I. e
R
is the required daylight factor.
Its value is obtained
- either from the standard ,
- or from the required (standardised)
illuminance for the activity in
the room with the help of following
equation.
e
R
= [E
R
/E
eD
]
*
100 [%] (see more on page 67.)
II.
g
is the transmission factor of transparent part of the
toplight.
Type of Glazing
g

Flat Glass, Single Layer 0,9
Flat Glass, Double Layer 0,8
Wired Glass, Single Layer 0,77
Wired Glass, Double Layer 0,63
Plastic 0,8
III.
s
is the coefficient of obstruction of structure.
Structure
s

Self Supporting without structure 1
Metal Structure 0,9
Wooden Structure 0,8
Reinforced Concrete Structure 0,8
IV.
d
is the coefficient of reduction by dirt.
Effect of Dirt / Cleaning
d
Offtown and Suburbs/Regular Cleaning 0,8
Offtown and Suburbs/Occasional Cleaning 0,55
Residential Area/Regular Cleaning 0,7
Residential Area/Occasional Cleaning 0,4
Industrial Area/Regular Cleaning 0,55
Industrial Area/Occasional Cleaning 0,25
When it is clean 1
V. k
w
is the efficiency of the well, its value can be
determined with the help of wells index i and the walls reflection factor
of the toplight
tw
,.as follos:

Figure 70. Symbols of toplight.


index of well i is
m
*
(p+q)



91
i =
2
*
p
*
q
where data are according to Fig 70.
k
w
can be determined from this diagram.
Fig. 71. Efficiency of well k
w
.
V.

is the efficiency of the room, which can be

obtained from the following table on the basis of the
room index k
r
, the average reflection factor of the
ceiling
c
, the walls
w
and the floor
f.
Room index k
r
maybe calculated from the main
measures of the room
a
*
b
k
r
=
(a+b)
*
(h-r)

f

0,3 0,1

c

0,8 0,5 0,8 0,5 0,3

w

0,8 0,5 0,3 0,5 0,3 0,3 0,5 0,3 0,3
k
r

0,6 0,63 0,39 0,33 0,39 0,33 0,34 0,37 0,33 0,32
0,8 0,76 0,53 0,45 0,51 0,45 0,45 0,50 0,45 0,44
1 0,88 0,62 0,54 0,60 0,54 0,53 0,58 0,53 0,50
1,25 0,95 0,71 0,63 0,68 0,62 0,62 0,66 0,60 0,60
1,5 1,02 0,78 0,70 0,76 0,69 0,68 0,72 0,68 0,66
2 1,1 0,89 0,81 0,85 0,78 0,77 0,80 0,77 0,74
2,5 1,14 0,96 0,88 0,91 0,85 0,83 0,85 0,82 0,80
3 1,17 1,01 0,94 0,95 0,89 0,87 0,88 0,86 0,84
4 1,21 1,07 1,01 1,00 0,95 0,92 0,93 0,90 0,89
5 1,23 1,12 1,06 1,03 0,98 0,95 0,96 0,93 0,92
VI. With above calculated values required area of toplight can be
determined.




92

Following example illustrates usage of the method.

Starting data:
1.a = 16 m, b = 8 m, h = 6,2 m;
2. r = 0,85 m,
3.
w
= 50%
c
= 80%;
f
= 30%;
4. type of toplight is self supporting dome with plastic glazing,
5 p = 1.2 m , q = 1.2 m, m = 0.6 m
tw
,= 80%;
6. Environment offtown with regular cleaning;
7. E
R
= 200 lx; let E
RD
= 5000 lx

I. e
R
=200/5000
*
100 = 4 %;
II.
g
= 0,8;
III.
s
=1 ;
IV.
d
= 0,8
V. i = 2*(1,2+1.2)/2*1.2*1.2= 0,5 as
tw
,= 80% ;
k
w
= 0,75;
VI. k
r
= (16*8) /(16+8)*(6,2-0,85) = 1,
as
w
= 50%,
c
=80%;
f
=30%;

= 0,62

VII: S
TR
= [4/100*(16*8)] / (0,8*1* 0,8 *0,44*0,88) = 17.2 m
2
as area of one unit of toplight is 1,2
*
1,2 = 1,44 m
2
, the required number is
17,2/1,44 12



Grn method

This graphical method is suitable to calculate the direct component of daylighting at given points
of the interior in optional locations of openings ( side lighting and toplighting as well). The
method is implicit, that is to say the value of daylight factor can be calculated with the help of a
supposed opening.
As the method cannot determine the interreflected component of daylighting, the values
calculated his way are smaller than the real one. In side -lighting the actual value at the back
wall may be 2-4 times larger than its direct component. In toplighting, the real value generally is
not larger than 1,5 times of the direct component.
The method is very practical
- for the estimation of the distribution of daylighting on the
reference plane,
- for the comparison of differently located openings,


Starting data:
1. ground-plan with the opening,
2. right angle section through the opening.

Method step by step:


93

The essential equation of the calculation is

e
P
= e
oP *
(C+C )

e
P
is the direct component of daylighting at the investigated point of
the room.

I. e
oP
is the direct component of the daylight factor at uniform sky if the
opening is infinite. It can be determined according to the following:

- a half circle with a diameter of 100 unit (mm) has to be located
on the actual point P of the working plane in the section.
- direct lines have to drown through point P and the two side
points of the opening,
- the points where the direct lines intersect the half circle have to
be projected onto the diameter of the half circle,
- the value of e
oP
is the distance between the two parallel
projecting lines.






II. C and C are the correction factors as the real opening
is not endless.

Their values can be determined according to the following:


94
- the angle of e'has to be determined from the section of room,
- a half circle with a radius of e' has to be drown into the
protractor,
- angles of a and b have to be determined on the ground plane,
- direct lines with angles of a and b have to drown into the
protractor,
- values of C and C are the points where e' half
circle and straight lines of a and b intersect.



III. Value of e
P
can be calculated with the essential equation .


The following examples illustrate how the method is used.


Example 1.



95
What is the difference of daylighting at point P if the window is located
- directly above the parapet (case A) or
- directly below the ceiling (case B) ?



The correction factor of C may be left out of consideration as angles e in cases A and B are
nearly the same. So

Illuminance from window B e
opB
8,5
--------------------------------------- = --------------= --------- = 2,1
illuminance from window A e
opA
4

Window B is about two times more effective on point P than Window A.


Example 2.

Question to be answered: How effective are the two openings (C and D) on point P of the
sketched room, if
- their areas are the same,
- C is a window and D is a pitched toplight,
- their transparent parts are similar.

I. Values of e
oP
from window C and toplight D may be determined as next figure shows.


96
II. Correction factors C and C must be determined, because the relative position of the
openings to point P are very different. e
c
is about 1/3 of e
D
. The angles needed for calculation
are shown on following figure.



Values of correction factors Cand C can be obtained from the protractor, as following figure
shows.



97

C
c
=0,11; C
c
=0,11 C
D
= 0,15; C
D
= 0,15

After all
Illuminance from window C e
opC
(C
c
+C
c
)
--------------------------------------- = ---------------------------- =
illuminance from window D e
opD
(C
c
+C
c
)

6,2 * ( 0,11+0,11) 1,36
= -------------------------- = -------- = 0,6
7,5 *( 0,15+0,15) 2,25

The toplight with 1/3 area is nearly 2 times more effective than the window .


Example 3.

Question to be answered: What is the distribution of illuminance on the working plane like in the
following case of daylighting ?

Answer can be seen on the next page.
Correction factor C is left out of consideration in this case, too, as the question refers only to
character of distribution


98



99

Index

accomodation ....................... 8
adaptation ....................... 8
azimuth ....................... 14, 15
clear sky ....................... 21
colour appearance ............ 64
combined lighting ............ 51
colour rendering ............ 64
colour temperature ............ 6,14
contrast sensitivity ............ 8
daylight factor ............ 52
design external illuminance ............ 66
designing sky condition ............ 65
direct characterisation of daylighting 55
efficiency of opening ............ 29
expected value ....................... 19, 23
external illuminance ............ 22, 23, 52
field of view ....................... 7
foggy sky ....................... 20
glare ....................... 63
ground ....................... 25
illuminance ....................... 9, 14
indirect characterisation of daylighting 55
indirect glare ....................... 63
internal illuminance ............ 52
isopleth ....................... 16, 17, 23
light ....................... 6
linear toplight ....................... 33
luminance ....................... 11
luminous efficacy ....................... 6, 14
luminous flux ....................... 8, 19
luminous intensity ....................... 10
natural luminaire ....................... 13
obstruction ....................... 25, 26
opening ....................... 27
orientation of opening ............ 27, 28
overcast sky ....................... 20
probable value . ....................... 19
reflecting surface ....................... 43, 46
reflection factor . ....................... 9
required daylight factor ....................... 66
sensitivity of human eye ............ 7
sidelight ....................... 30
slope of opening . ....................... 27, 28
spectral distribution ....................... 6
spot-like toplight ....................... 37
structural obstruction ............ 43, 46
sunheight ....................... 14, 15
sun-path curve ....................... 14, 15
sunpath diagram ........................ 14, 15
system of daylighting ............. 51


100
toplight ........................ 32
transmission factor ........................ 9, 44
transmittance for diffuse light ........... 44, 45
transmittance for parallel light ........... 44
transparent surface ............ 43
uniformity ....................... 54
visual ability ....................... 8
visual accuracy ....................... 8
visual comfort ....................... 12
white light ....................... 6
working plane ....................... 55