GREENHOUSE PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES

AGRONOMY 312
2012

Study material and guide Agronomy Department (808 4808 887 9273) University of Stellenbosch

Chapter Contents
1 INTRODUCTION 3

Page

PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

NUTRIENT SOLUTIONS

19

CLIMATE CONTROL

69

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

89

CALCIUM RELATED DISORDERS

99

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

The process of plant production under protection is not a new concept. Initially only competing weeds were removed to improve crop yields but people soon realised that plants grew better when manure was added and water given during dry periods in a production season. Initially cattle, sheep and goats were solely dependant on natural vegetation but today extra grazing is produced with the same skills used by crop production experts. The next phase of crop production will enable man to produce crops in space. Soil-less production techniques will be used, a topic dealt with in this module.

History of plant nutrition and soil-less plant production The advance of science was hindered by the general acceptance of the scheme advanced by the Greek natural philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC), who held that all matter consisted of the four elements earth, water, air, and fire. It was only in the sixteenth century, when modern J.B. van Helmont (1580-1644), a

experimental science began, that this theory was abandoned.

Belgian physician, conducted the first quantitive plant nutrition experiments and came to the conclusion that plant material immediately and materially arises from the element of water alone . He came to this conclusion after growing a willow tree in a pot filled with 200lb of soil for 5 years after which time the tree gained 164lb but none of the soil was missing. Only over a hundred years later when the basic facts of carbon assimilation through photosynthesis were understood could a satisfactory conclusion be described for this phenomenon. John Woodword (1665-1728)

recognized the importance of plant mineral nutrition when he compared plants growing in distilled water with plants growing in water containing dissolved solids. He observed that a great part of the terrestrial matter, mixed with the water passes up into the plant with it; and that the plant is more or less augmented in proportion as the water contains a greater or smaller quantity of that matter. The Frenchman Antoine-Laurent Lavosier (1743-1794) swept away the fallacy of invalid ideas and laid down the chemical nomenclature of elements that we still use today. He declared that no elements are created, none are transmuted into others, and none are destroyed and that chemical reactions consist of changes in the combinations of elements. The Swiss chemist and naturalist Nicolas-Theodore de Saussure (1767-1845) made full use of the new chemistry of Lavoisier in research on plant nutrition. He grew plants in solution of single salts and some organic 3

solutes and observed that these various dissolved substances were not all absorbed by the plants in equal amounts. He also insisted that although certain elements absorbed by plants might be indispensable others are absolutely essential. Jean-Baptiste Bousingault (1802-1887) laid the foundation of the new agricultural science. He stated that the balance between the amounts of each element absorbed by the crop as well as the amounts subtracted from the soil is important and published numerous tables giving the chemical composition of crops. He also gave the first evidence for the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by leguminous plants in an experiment where he observed that red clover and pea, when grown in a soil containing no available nitrogen, gained measurable amounts of nitrogen, whereas wheat and oats, under identical conditions, failed to gain any nitrogen. Justus von Liebig (1803-1873) did away with the humus theory, according to which organic matter of the soil is the source of the carbon that plants absorb and won acceptance for the mineral theory of fertilizers. The importance of the soil solution as a major source of nutrients available for absorption by roots was emphasized by studies done by W. Knop in the early 1860s. Arnon & Hoagland compiled a well-balanced nutrient solution in 1940 and it is still used today. Before World War II, nutrient solutions were only used for scientific experiments. Professor Gericke performed the research that had a great effect on the implementation of hydroponic principles in practice, at the University of Purdue, California. He can be honoured as the father of commercial crop production in soil-less media. He wanted to use the word 'aquaculture' for this production system but was afraid for confusion with fish farming and chose the word 'hydroponic' as alternative. The Greek word 'geoponic' can be translated with 'cultivation in soil' and 'hydroponic' with 'cultivation in water'. Prof Gericke had the opportunity to demonstrate his soil-less production system in the Second World War on an isolated island. Gravel was used as only available root medium to grow vegetables for the American soldiers who had to stay there. It is not often realised that soil-less plant production systems are nothing new. As is the case for many other fields in Agriculture, the general public does not seem to keep up with the science behind crop production.

History of environmental control Plant covers became affordable after the plastic revolution in the sixties. Before that time, other types of soil and plant covers were used. Glasshouses were already popular in Europe during the forties, where intensive crop production systems were developed to extend their relatively cold summers. This expensive way of improving climatic conditions was not justified in areas with moderate climates, where glasshouses were only used for expensive research projects. After plastic 4

became available, this relatively cheap material gained popularity as greenhouse cladding. Different companies developed arch shaped structures and covered it with plastic. The tunnel-like appearance gave rise to the use of the word 'tunnel' farming, not popular amongst the modern greenhouse grower. Knowledge about the effects of environmental conditions on plant growth is needed to enable growers to choose correct plant protection and production systems.

The development of a greenhouse industry in South Africa Commercial crop production using greenhouses was first practised in the RSA in the early seventies. The pioneers in this new industry were Don Bilton and his son Mark, who started growing tomatoes in soil, but protected with a plastic covered structure (tunnel). This was on the farm Bonterivier, close to Stellenbosch in 1972. They soon moved away from soil and plastic covered structures to pure nutrient solutions and switched from tomatoes to lettuce. They adapted the `Nutrient film technique' (NFT), developed and published by Dr Cooper of the Glasshouse Crops Research Institute in Littlehampton (The ABC of NFT, 1979). In stead of pure nutrient solution running down in 15 cm gullies, they used gravel in 900 cm wide plastic lined beds. They produced leafy salad crops in the open, only with windbreaks and some plastic covers in winter. This was their own 'Gravel flow technique' (GFT), the first commercial hydroponic system in the RSA. Several other persons were also involved to launch this new industry in the RSA. As early as 1973, Mr. Dave Rennie grew different crops in soil, under plastic greenhouses. Several other growers followed his lead, also benefiting due to better climate control. Today, greenhouse production is usually associated with climate control in combination with soil-less production systems. These developed almost simultaneously but soil would probably still have been used today if soil-borne diseases did not bring a halt to it all. Today, hardly any crops are still grown in soil within greenhouses. A seed-carried bacterial disease, Bacterial cancer (Corynebacterium michaganense) was brought into the country, infecting almost all the tomato greenhouse soils. Since methyl Bromide only kills fungal pathogens, the soil could not be 'cleaned'. This forced many growers to quit and lots of structures were for sale in the late seventies. These neglected structures could be seen all over the RSA, forcing some of the distributors out of business. The persisting growers needed a soil-less medium to stay into production. The rockwool medium used in Europe was too expensive for RSA conditions. This illustrated the need for research under local conditions. At that stage, the Department of Agriculture could not help this small group of growers. A few growers joined forces and founded an 'Association for Vegetables Under Protection' (AVUP) in 1977 with Prof. Eddie Laubscher (Dept. Agronomy and Pastures) as first chairman. These producers, helped 5

by associated industries, generated funds, enabling the Department of Agronomy and Pastures, to establish a greenhouse complex at the experimental farm (Welgevallen) of the University of Stellenbosch. This was the beginning of local research and development for the industry. A senior lecturer, Peter Maree took over as chairman of the AVUP and did research to evaluate alternative growing media. Gravel, rockwool, vermiculite, pine bark, saw dust and pine shaving were tested. A mix between pine shavings and sawdust proved to be the best root medium under local conditions. He also gathered valuable information during visits to the UK and in Europe and was rewarded with a Ph-D for his work in this field. Prof. Maree retired, as head of the Department of Agronomy and Pastures in 1995 but kept on serving as chairman of the AVUP up to 1998. Dudley Harris produced the first commercial local nutrient solution (Chemicult), currently still marketed. He succeeded to grow different crops in gravel beds, using this mix and illustrating that most crops can adapt to a well-balanced nutrient solution. He served the growing industry by publishing a book `Hydroponics' in 1987. Several other nutrient solutions appeared on the market during the past few years. Several crops, especially flowers, are still grown in soil under protection. Even tomatoes are also grown on soil where new, well-drained soil is used. Accumulation of seed-transmitted bacterial cancer in soil can be prevented by careful selection of seed producers or by treating of seed with warm water. However, as soon as bacterial cancer shows up, the only solution is to cover (isolate) the soil with plastic and to switch to a hydroponic or soil-less production system.

Nutrition and climate can both be optimised when crops are grown under protection but we need to understand the needs of plants first. The opportunity to produce products of excellent quality or to produce out of season, securing good prices can then be created.

Chapter 2
PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

2a) Seedling production

Since expensive structures and equipment are used to grow plants under protection, it is obvious that all the phases of the production process should by optimised. The first and most important phase of any crop is healthy and homogeneous seedlings. It is impossible to 'build' a super crop on a weak foundation. NO mistakes should be allowed here. Several hints to avoid traps during seedling production can be pointed out:

1.

Plant breeders manipulate the genetic properties of seed. Make use of a reliable seed company and use only the best genetic material to suit your conditions. Resistance or tolerance against insects and diseases are increasingly important as the use of fungicides and insecticides on fresh produce are discriminated against on the markets.

2.

Seed should be disease-free. Some virus- and bacterial diseases can be transmitted with seed. Fungal diseases can be controlled on seed by treating it with fungicides. These seeds can easily be identified since dyes are added to the fungicides (blue, pink etc.). Although the Department of Agriculture executes some control, it is no easy task to protect growers against infected seed. The seed buyer should once again make use of a reliable seed merchant. Virus infected seed can not be cleaned. Bacterial cancer can be controlled by a warm water (25 minutes at 52oC) treatment.

3.

Seed should germinate well. The shelf life of seed may be shortened if exposed to high temperatures and high humidities. Low oxygen levels and low temperatures lower respiration rates in seed, conserving seed vitality for relatively long periods. This is the reason why seeds are usually packed in sealed containers and should be stored in cool places.

A growth medium, free of pathogens is essential. If pathogens or nematodes may be present in a growth medium, it should be treated with methyl bromide or sterilised with steam.

The medium should have a neutral pH. Compost tends to be acidic while vermiculite may have a relative high pH. Some media can be bought with the pH already corrected. Seedlings are extremely sensitive for pH extremes directly after germination.

6.

The seedling medium should drain well, even to the detriment of the nutritive value of the medium. Seedling roots need oxygen to be able to absorb water and nutrients from the rhizosphere and are extremely sensitive to fungal diseases under water logged conditions. Nutrients can easily be added with irrigation water, and excessive levels of nutrients can also be leached easily from well-drained media. The texture of a medium determines its ability to drain. The finer the texture, the poorer draining ability due to an increased water retention ability.

The seedling medium should be free from salts. Coir, gathered on the coasts may contain high concentrations of sodium chloride. This should be leached out before use.

Clean containers should be used. The re-use of dirty seedling trays, contaminated with old plant material or soil may house pathogens or insect eggs. All the re-used containers should be washed with chlorinated water or with a registered disinfectant. The safest way may be to expose the washed containers to steam for 5 to 7 minutes (100 oC). (Milk is pasteurised by keeping it at 68oC for 30 minutes. In a pathology laboratory, glassware is sterilised by keeping it at 121oC for 20 minutes.

9.

Filling and planting of seedling trays. A root medium should be compacted prior to seeding to ensure proper contact between the seed and the medium. When a dry medium is used to fill a seedling tray, it can be compacted with a thorough wetting using clean water. When a moist seedling medium is used, it should be compacted with one or two fingers slightly pressing the medium down in each one of the compartments. For large-scale operations, machines are used to do the compaction job. After compaction, there should be a dent in the medium at seeding depth. As rule of thumb, this should be 5 times the diameter of the seed to be used. Only one seed should be planted per compartment and covered with medium and levelled.

10.

Seedling trays should be placed in such a way that automatic root-pruning is possible. By lifting the trays from the soil or solid floor and by placing it onto two horizontal wires, benefits are: a) No contact between roots and soil borne pathogens b) Improved drainage c) Roots that grow out at the bottom drainage holes will dry out in the air, root tips will die and secondary roots will develop in the capsules, binding the root medium and allowing easy transplanting.

11.

Clean irrigation water should be used to wet the seedling trays. It does not make sense to sterilise everything up to the stage of watering and to spoil everything by using an unsafe water source. Borehole water should be pathogen free but water from rivers or canals from irrigation schemes may contain nematodes and fungi. Purification of water is increasingly practised on farms for intensive plant production systems.

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To stimulate germination, seedling trays may be stacked in a germination room at an optimum temperature (25-30 oC), directly after sowing. To prevent drying of the medium, a relative high humidity (90%) should also be provided. It is important to move the seed trays to the seedling greenhouse before appearance of the young seedlings (this may be as quick as two days after sowing).

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If more than one seed dropped and germinated per compartment, the extra seedling should be removed or transplanted to an empty compartment within 10 days. This practice is common where small seeds are used. Seeds are expensive, handle with care. Optimum temperatures (air 27oC and root medium 19oC) and humidity (70%) are needed in a seedling greenhouse for optimum seedling development and tolerance to diseases. Scorching of young seedlings may be induced at high light intensities. On the other hand, long stemmed seedlings are symptomatic of low light intensities or where high seedling populations force seedlings to compete for light. In addition to temperature and humidity control, some sort of light control should also be beneficial in a seedling greenhouse.

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15

Fertigation of seedlings in well-drained root media is efficient when the pH is kept within limits (5.5 to 6.5). Use pure water until seeds germinate. After germination a 50% nutrient solution may be used for a few days, followed by a full strength nutrient solution. Only where 9

seedlings are destined for field plantings at high temperatures and dry atmospheres, the seedlings may be hardened (See 17).

16.

Plant protection. Seedlings should be protected against insects (viruses). This can be done by preventing virus-transmitting insects to enter the greenhouse or by sanitation, preventing mechanical transmission (TMV on the hands of smokers). Chemical insect control proved inefficient due to the fact that insects needs to feed first, transmitting the virus, before picking up the insecticide to die. Insect-proof nets offer a much safer strategy for seedling greenhouses. Fungal diseases on roots may be prevented to a large extent if the root medium can be kept well drained and aerated. Fungal problems seldom develop on the leaves of seedlings if the relative humidity can be kept below 75%. Ensure that insecticides or fungicides are applied at the correct concentration at a relative cool period of the day to prevent chemical injury.

17.

Hardening of seedlings is normally not needed for greenhouse crops. Where the seedlings are to be transplanted into the open, under dry and warm conditions, the following hints may be useful: 1) Reduce the nitrogen level (or the concentration of the nutrient solution) to almost zero about n week before the transplanting date. Maintain this starvation treatment until seedlings develop a light green (yellowish) colour. At this stage, the stomata will be more sensitive and will close easily, allowing the plant to withstand extreme transplant shocks (This may retard regrowth). 2) Allow some sort of stress by reducing the irrigation frequency, removing shading, allowing higher temperatures and exposing the seedlings to lower humidities. 3) Cut away excessive leaf areas prior to transplanting (Take care not to damage the growth point).

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2b) Vegetative propagation Plant material can be multiplied vegetatively (cloning) but since diseases may be transferred from mother plants to the daughter plants, this propagation method should be extremely well managed. Well-known vegetatively propagated field crops such as Sweet potatoes (cuttings) and seed potatoes (tubers) should be disease-free. It is well-known that viruses and bacterial diseases may spread when infected plant material are used for propagation. Most virus infected plants appear yellowish, a colour that attracts aphids, white fly and some other insects that all may be vectors for specific viruses. These insects feed on these plants and then carry the viruses to healthy neighbouring plants. Where bacteria are present in propagation material, it may spread to the soil where the material is planted. Most of these bacterial diseases cannot be controlled and may survive in the soil for several years, preventing the cultivation of susceptible crops. Tissue culture techniques became popular where vegetatively propagated crops are involved due to several disasters with diseases. Even when high technology propagation techniques are used, care should still be taken to avoid contamination of plant material. After the test tube stage, the plants may be propagated with conventional techniques. However, the use of a soil-less production system helps to lower the risk of infections simply due to better sanitation and the fact that less production cycles are needed (lower infection risks), due to higher yields per production cycle. When ordinary cuttings are made such as used for chrysanthemums, carnations and roses, it may be rooted in any well-drained medium. The same type of media, as was described for seedlings, can be used. The only difference between seedling production and propagation with cuttings is that cuttings are more sensitive to water loss at the initial stages due to the absence of roots. Leaves on cuttings wilt easily and may die if the transpiration rate exceeds the uptake of water. Transpiration can be limited with a high humidity and/or by occasional wetting of the leaves with mist blowers. If moisture losses from cuttings can be prevented during the first few days, roots should develop quickly. As roots develop, the humidity may be lowered. Cuttings are usually treated with synthetic auxins to enhance rooting. Once rooted, the same procedures should be followed as was described for seedling production in paragraph 2a.

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2c) Optimum growing conditions Plants react to environmental conditions due to its effects on phyto-hormones. When we grow plants under protection, using sterile or soil-less root media, we alter the root environment as well as the conditions for stems, leaves and fruit. To be able to make full use of the available volume in expensive greenhouse structures, the normal growth pattern of plants needs to be altered. To enable a grower to interfere constructively, more should be known about the basic physiology of plants.

Photosynthesis Plant leaves (open stomata) absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. Plant roots absorb water and these two building blocks (CO2 + H2O) combine to form carbohydrate units such as glucose or fructose (C6H12O6) in green leaves, using light energy. The carbohydrates (sugars), coming from this leaf-factory contain energy that may be used to manufacture more infra-structure (stems and leaves) to enlarge the photosynthetic (production) potential of the plant, or to maintain and enlarge the root system to absorb water and nutrients for the developing plant. To build tissue, the sugar units are linked into complex carbohydrate units (C6H10O5)n with a great number (n) of interconnected units. This formula may be used to describe both starch with more that 500 sugar units (n>500) or cellulose (n>1000). After satisfying all these needs, excess photosynthates may be stored in organs such as fruit.

Respiration To release energy, photosynthates (carbohydrates or sugars) are oxidized or burned in the respiration process. The plant may use the energy to sustain growth and development as well as to provide energy to store excess carbohydrates in marketable plant organs. One of the most important factors in soil-less plant production is root aeration. Roots do not function without sufficient levels of oxygen (O2). Most crops need oxygen in the root medium to allow respiration processes to burn the carbohydrates received from the leaf canopy. As for humans and animals, respiration can be described with the following equation: CH2O +O2 = CO2+ H2O + energy. Please note that O2 needs to be imported but at the same time, CO2 needs to be exported from the respiration site (root zone). This may be a problem under poorly managed soil-less plant production systems. Respiration in roots is extremely important and it should always be considered when deciding on an irrigation frequency (determined by root medium properties). The volume of water applied per day is dependant on the size of the plant as well as climatic conditions (volume per irrigation x frequency = volume per day). With the irrigation frequency too high, respiration may be restricted due to water logging (restricted respiration), 12

especially in fine textured root media. When the plants are fully grown, the demand for water and nutrients reaches a maximum and roots need high levels of oxygen to be able to function well. Another important factor (often ignored) is the temperature of the root medium. Cool water can absorb and retain higher oxygen levels than hot water. This is the reason why trout can only adapt in cool water streams. [Photosynthesis respiration] = [Growth + yield] Plants grow better with night temperatures lower than day temperatures. The detrimental effect of high temperatures during the night (due to high respiration losses) is well known. An aerated root medium to allow roots to respire is also needed at night, when energy is needed to absorb water to regain turgidity after normal wilting during a hot, sunny day (See Ca-related disorders).

Phytohormones Growth regulators are organic compounds that are able to change metabolic processes in plants at extremely low concentrations. The word 'hormone' or 'phyto-hormone' is used when these substances are naturally produced. The term growth regulator includes phyto-hormones, synthetic hormones, or synthetic substances with hormone-like actions or substances that may inhibit the function or production of phyto-hormones. The word 'hormone' may be disturbing for uninformed consumers but it should be noted that plant hormones are not related to animal (human) hormones. Where animals have specialized glands to produce hormones with specific functions, plants produce hormones in almost all its organs with overlapping functions. Plant and animal hormones are chemically completely different and fears that plant hormones may affect humans or animals are completely unfounded. A simplified summary of the effects and interactions of the 5 different plant hormones follows for readers with a limited plant physiology background. (i) Auxins, (ii) cytokinins and (iii) gibberellic acids are known as the growth stimulating hormones in plants. These hormones are produced in meristems and their accumulation in plant organs stimulate the transportation of carbohydrates and amino acids to these organs to be used for growth and development. Auxins are mainly produced in the growth points of shoots but it stimulates root development. Cytokinins are mainly produced in root tips but it stimulates shoot development. Gibberellic acids are produced in almost all the meristems in plants but is perhaps best known as an important product of developing seeds. The balance between hormones is sometimes more important than the concentrations thereof. To illustrate this, the Auxin/Cytokinin ratio can establish a balance between 13

root and shoot development. This can clearly be illustrated by removal of the apical growth point (the auxin production centre). This lowers the auxin concentration in the remaining plant, inducing side shoot development. When a cutting is taken by removing a shoot with an active growth point, the auxins accumulate within the cutting and stimulate root development. In some cases this easily happens but some cuttings may need some extra auxin to speed up its rooting ability. An experienced grower may link an increased number of aerial roots at the base of a tomato stem to water logging or root damage. The loss of young root tips may lower the cytokinin concentration in the plant or increase the auxin/cytokinin ratio. The plant is managed by this ratio; building roots in excess shoot situations and building shoots in an excess root situation. When the available photosynthates are depleted, growth stops and both shoots and roots will stop developing or die back. When grass fields are over-grazed during dry periods, their root systems also decrease in size due to the maintenance of a specific root/shoot ratio and the translocation of reserves from roots to replace the over-grazed shoots. When a plant is experiencing a lack of photosynthates, the different organs compete for food. The development of important organs such as fruit will receive priority under emergency situations, due to their high concentrations of growth hormones that may mobilize reserves from leaves, stems and roots to be translocated to the fruit (metabolic sink). Under these conditions, vegetative development will stop. Statements such as phosphate fertilizers stimulate root development and nitrogen stimulates shoot development cannot be the whole truth and are oversimplifications. Areas where auxins and cytokinins accumulate are known as strong attractors of carbohydrates, but this is surely also true for GA. The absence of seed in sultana grape berries is the well-known cause for its small berries. Growers increase the berry size by dipping the developing berries into GA solutions. Plant breeders rectified the need for pollination of greenhouse cucumbers by breeding a seedless fruit. These parthenocarpic cultivars produce high levels of GA in their fruit tissue. Another interesting GA effect is that cell elongation (longer inter-nodes) is induced when a genetically short (dwarf) plant is sprayed with GA. The reverse happens when a runner bean is sprayed with a GAinhibitor, an instant dwarf results. The use of an anti-GA growth regulator is an easy way to lower the GA concentration to induce dwarfing or bonsai ornamental plants. The chemicals used to block natural GA production in plants, concurrently increase the Abscisic acid concentration. (iv) Abscisic acid (ABA) and (v) Ethylene are the remaining two hormones. Where the first three hormones, as discussed above, can be associated with growth stimulation, these two can be associated with cessation of growth. Abscisic acid is known as the stress hormone, providing an emergency mechanism to save plants 14

under difficult situations. The first visible symptom of an increased ABA concentration is the closure of stomata (saving of moisture losses). The name ABA implies that this hormone may cause abscission. This happens to young fruit when stress conditions increase ABA concentrations that may cause abscission to decrease the load of a plant (less fruit to develop under difficult conditions.) Leaves may be sacrificed under stress (high ABA) conditions. The dropping of the leaves is the last of a series of processes, started by ABA. At first the leaf closes shop (stomata close, stopping water loss but also photosynthesis). Membranes loose their integrity, allowing the translocation of sugars, released due to the break down of leaf starch reserves. After all the reserves were translocated, the leaves are finally abscised. ABA may also induce dormancy and as expected, dormancy in seeds may be broken with GA. Ethylene is the quick acting gas-hormone, used by plants as airmail. This gas is often released by ripening fruit and this may enhance ripening of neighboring fruits. Ethylene is commercially applied to ripen bananas in gas chambers and it is eliminated where a long shelf life is needed for flowers and fruit in transit. Ethylene is the simplest molecule among the plant hormones. Its structure is that of unsaturated hydrocarbon, with the formula H2C=CH2. As a result of its gaseous nature, it has the capacity to move through air; it can also diffuse into fluids and move as other soluble hormones do. Hence it can affect the process very close to its site of synthesis or it can produce effects at distant sites or in different plants. Ethylene enhances the ripening of mature leaves (tobacco) and some fruits (e.g., apple, avocado, banana, tomato). It induces flowering on pineapples and can be applied to field crops using ethephon-containing sprays. These products release ethylene gas as soon as the plant absorbs it. Ethylene metabolism is inhibited in plants by low temperatures silver ions, high CO2 levels and low oxygen levels, important aspects for exporters of flowers and fruit. Plant breeders reduced the ability of tomatoes and other climacteric fruit to produce ethylene. In this way, long shelf life fruits were developed.

Soil or root medium To understand soil, as natural medium for root development, a closer look at it may be useful. Millions of micro-organisms (bacteria & fungi) may be found in only one gram of soil. Some of these organisms may be useful, as example: Rhizobium bacteria may fix N2 on root nodules of legumes; nitrification bacteria may lower harmful ammonium levels by changing it into nitrate; predatory organism may remove harmful pathogens from the soil; michorizas may help roots to absorb phosphate. On the other hand, harmful micro-organisms (pathogens) and nematodes may destroy 15

crops, if not controlled in soil. An average fertile soil (moist at field water capacity) will contain 5% organic material, 45% inorganic material, 25% water and 25% of air, on a volume base. The inorganic and organic components (50% of the soil volume) should offer a well-drained medium, holding water and oxygen (50% of the volume) and the medium will be strong enough for the roots to anchor the plants. Due to the clay component of the inorganic fraction, a gradual release of nutrient elements will be possible and it will be well-buffered against temperature and pH changes. Remember that a fertile medium does not ensure that roots will use the available nutrients. Roots need oxygen for respiration to generate energy to be able to absorb water and nutrients (Rice is an exception due to its ability to transport oxygen via its leaves and stem cavities, down into the roots, enabling it to grow without oxygen in the root zone). Should soil-less plant production systems be used, optimum root medium conditions, as will be discussed briefly, should be supplied. * * Roots need a moist environment to protect root hairs from drying out. Roots need O2 for respiration and should not be exposed to the accumulation of CO2 (a product of root respiration). * Ratios between nutrient elements in soil solutions, affecting the uptake by roots, should be at optimum levels. * The concentration of ions in the soil, as indicated by its resistance, should not be too low (not too high an ion concentration). At very high ion concentrations, no water (or nutrients) can be taken up, as found under saline or dry conditions. * Maintain optimum root medium pH. Since plant nutrients are taken up in the form of ions only, precipitation of insoluble salts should be avoided. The best-known example is Fe precipitation under alkaline conditions, inducing typical Fe-deficiency symptoms in the growth points of sensitive crops. * Roots should be protected against fluctuations in temperatures. Optimum temperatures for roots vary between 17 and 25oC. * * Crop roots should be protected from weed competition (water, root-zone oxygen & nutrients) Plant roots release organic substances into the rhizosphere, known as root exudates. Some of these substances may be toxic to the roots of other plant species, inhibiting their growth, known as allelopathy. Weed plants may also compete in this way. * Where organic material is worked into a soil, the micro-organisms feeding on it use N. Apart from an induced N-deficiency, allelopathic substances may be released by organic material under wet, anaerobic soil conditions. * Roots should be protected from nematodes and soil-borne pathogens. 16

Plant volume and shape Field crops are seldom pruned but are planted at different populations to optimise yields of specific crops under specific environmental conditions. Field crops are allowed to branch naturally to form many shoots, increasing the plants potential to produce reproductive organs or the harvestable yield component. With cotton as an example, the boll number per plant is the result of hormonal signals due to environmental effects. With too much pollinated flowers, relative to the photosynthetic active leaf area, an increased ABA concentration will simply induce abscission of young bolls to allow the existing (ABA producing) bigger bolls to develop fully. When this cut-out stage is reached, no further vegetative growth will occur. In a good season, cotton plants may grow waist high, bearing 18 or more bolls per plant, compared to smaller plants in a dry season with only a few bolls, due to an early cutout stage. This is also the yield potential mechanism used by most other field crops. Greenhouse crops should be planted and pruned in such a way to use the whole volume of the greenhouse and to prevent any cut-out stage. With the exception of flowers and crops such as lettuce and celery, where flushes in production is unavoidable, most vegetable crops can be pruned to stay in production over an extended period of time. To be able to do this, enough energy should be reserved to create new infrastructure (stems and leaves) to carry flowers and to form and feed new fruits. Guidelines for greenhouse growers can be summarised as follows: * Tomatoes, green peppers, eggplants, cucumbers and melons are trellised using a single or double twine. The root media for strawberries are usually lifted to allow the vegetative growth with flowers and fruits to hang down. * Pruning should be done to regulate the limited carbohydrate traffic. Too much fruits per plant (or not enough photosynthetic active leaves) may bring the formation of new infrastructure to a halt. * The photosynthetic potential of leaves should be exploited to the full and less productive old leaves should be removed. The photosynthates from leaves move downwards with stems, from where it is drawn into developing fruits at lower positions on the main stem. With tomatoes, leaves are usually not removed from the main stem above clusters with developing fruits on it. Leaves below fruit may supply photosynthates to maintain a healthy root system. * Make sure that environmental conditions are optimised (light intensity, CO2-concentration, temperature, humidity) and that plant nutrition ensures healthy leaves with high concentrations of chlorophyll and that plant protection measures are in place to protect the leaves from diseases and insects. 17

Fruit * The flowers of most fruiting vegetable crops need to be pollinated to allow fruit development. After fertilization, increased hormone concentrations turn ovaries into strong metabolic sinks. Modern cucumber cultivars are parthenocarpic, allowing fruit development without pollination due to natural high hormone levels. These sinks compete with other growth points on the plant, claiming its fair share of photosynthates. Bumble bees are used as pollinators in Europe and in Israel but permission to use it in South Africa seems to be a problem. Local tomato growers enhance self-pollination by vibrating flower-stems, strawberry fruit development can be improved in the absence of bees with feather dusters and female flowers of melon or other cucurbit crops may be hand pollinated, using male flowers as pollen brushes. * Since young developing fruits are extremely effective to attract carbohydrate reserves, pruning of excess fruits should be done at a very young stage. The maximum number of tomatoes per cluster may be 7 for cultivars with big fruit, up to 10 for smaller types. Over-loaded clusters may tear off, causing severe losses. It is important to reduce the fruit load on plants (such as cucumbers) as environmental conditions deteriorate. * Once well developed, fruit should be protected against diseases, insects, rats and thieves, using environmentally friendly methods.

18

Chapter 3

NUTRIENT SOLUTION MANAGEMENT

Introduction
Plant growers are dependant on the process of photosynthesis, driven in green leaves by energy from the sun, building carbohydrates with carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). Thirteen essential plant nutrients affect this process by ensuring that the leaves are green and filled with chlorophyll and that the integrity of membranes and strength of cell walls are maintained. Plant roots absorb these nutrients from fertile soil. But, these nutrients can also be supplied by a wellbalanced nutrient solution. Arnon and Hoagland (1940) developed some of the first well-balanced nutrient solutions, enabling soil-less crop production. Apart from the introduction of chelated iron, modern nutrient solutions do not differ much from the original ones. In this booklet, guidelines will be given to enable the readers to 'build' their own nutrient solution. Before this can be done, it is important to ensure that terms such as pH, salt concentration and some basic chemical principles are understood.

Acidity and alkalinity

pH is a value taken to represent the acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous solution with values ranging from 1 to 14. At a reading of 7, the pH is considered to be neutral. At this point equal concentrations of hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-) occur. Values lower than 7 indicate acidity and solutions with pH values higher than 7 are alkaline. The pH scale is logarithmic, meaning that a solution at pH 6 is ten times more acidic than at pH 7 and at pH 8 it is ten times more basic than at pH 7. This is why the pH value of water will not decrease linearly when acids are added. Total alkalinity is the aggregate concentration of bases such as carbonates, bicarbonates and hydroxides. The concentration of these ions (CO3-2, HCO3- and OH-) is determined with a titration, as a measure of total alkalinity. It is then expressed as HCO3-, although some laboratories may express total alkalinity as CO3=. The alkalinity can be neutralized by adding an equivalent amount of acid (H+), as will be explained later (page 19-20). Most soils are well-buffered which means that their pH values do not change easily. This is not the case for soil-less conditions where special precautions are needed to control the pH and consequently the chemical and physical form (free ions, soluble complexes, chelates) and availability of nutrients in solution. Nutrients are absorbed as ions (NO3-, NH4+, H2PO4-, Ca++ etc), but ions can precipitate as insoluble salts at high pH values. This is why 19

soil-less crops are grown in nutrient solutions with pH values between 5.3 and 6.3. Compared to soil pH (water) values, this pH range may seem to be relatively low, but a look at the dissociation pattern of phosphate (Table 1) shows why neutral to alkaline nutrient solutions should be avoided. In addition, micronutrients such as Fe and Zn precipitate, forming insoluble salts at pH values higher than 7.

Table 1 Phosphate dissociation pattern. (Steiner, 1984).

H2PO4(Forming a soluble Ca salt) pH = 5.0 pH = 6.0 pH = 6.5 pH = 7 pH = 8 100 % 90 % 78 % 50 % 15 % HPO4= (Forming an insoluble Ca salt) 0% 10 % 22 % 50 % 85 %

Problems also arise with pH levels lower than 5, where the concentration of H+ is too high, restricting the absorption of Ca2+ and other cations. This problem is aggravated in the presence of high ammonium (NH4+) levels. NH4+ directly competes for uptake with Ca++, Mg++ and K+, but also reduces the root zone pH. It is recommended that the pH for soil-less production systems be set at 5.3 to 6.3. Some crops may need their nutrient solutions at slightly lower or higher pH values, but most crops should grow well at pH 5.8.

Electrical conductivity (EC)

EC is a well-known term amongst soil-less growers. The EC of water is used as an indication of its salt content since higher concentrations of charged particles (ions) increase the electrical conductivity of water or nutrient solutions. When salts are added to water, the crystals dissolve or ionise. Using table salt or sodium chloride (NaCl) as an example, one sodium cation (Na+) and one chloride anion (Cl-) will be released per dissolved NaCl unit. These charged ions in the water enable the flow of an electrical current. The higher the concentration of ions (charge) per unit volume of water, the better the conductivity and the higher the EC will be. (But, one unit of CaCl2 releases one Ca2+ cation and two Cl- anions with a potential conductivity of about double that of NaCl, an aspect that will be dealt with later). At a very high EC, the water contains too much dissolved salts, restricting the osmotic movement of water from the root zone solution into the roots. 20

Take note that non-polar molecules (sugar or urea) dissolve in water without the release of charged particles. Thus, these substances dissolve but do not increase the EC of a solution but do affect the osmolarity of the solution and may thus also restrict the uptake of water. The use of different EC units may confuse growers. Siemens (S) is the SI unit for conductivity. With very low conductivity levels, a 1000 times smaller unit such as milli Siemens (mS) can be used. The unit mho is equivalent to S and mmho to mS. Some laboratories use the electrical resistance of soil as indication of its salt content. Due to an inverse relationship between conductivity and resistance, higher resistance values (measured in ohm) are indicative of low salt contents. A lower resistance implies that more salts are in solution, the conductivity will thus be high. The direct relationship between conductivity and salt content is easy to understand and an important managerial tool for soil-less growers. The distance between the two electrodes, while measuring the conductivity of a solution, also affects the reading. The reading in mS m-1 will be 100 times bigger than a reading in mS cm-1. Most growers use mS cm-1 as unit to test the EC of standard nutrient solutions. Depending on the crop and the season, these values may vary between 0.8 and 3.0 mS cm-1. The EC of good quality feeding water may be very low, explaining why most laboratories prefer to express the conductivity of irrigation water in mS m-1. Relation of mS cm-1 to other EC units: 1 mS cm-1 = 1dS m-1 = 1 mmho cm-1 = 100 mS m-1 = 1000 S cm-1

Since temperatures affect EC readings, EC meters are usually calibrated at 25 oC. The electrical conductivity of a solution increases with increasing temperatures. The EC readings as shown in Table 2 can be expected when a standard 2 mS cm-1 solution is measured at different temperatures. EC meters such as those used by growers are often not temperature compensating. These EC measurements can be corrected by subtracting 2% from the measured value per 1oC higher than 25oC solution temperature. With solutions colder than 25 oC, 2% can be added per 1oC deviation. Table 2 Temperature affects the measured electrical conductivity (EC) of a 2 mS.cm-1 nutrient solution. Solution temperature Measured EC (oC) (mS cm-1) 15 20 Standard 30 1.62 1.80 25 2.20

2.00

21

Feeding water quality

The term feeding water is used to describe an untreated water source used to prepare a nutrient solution. Different factors can be used to define feeding water quality. However, it's chemical composition and the presence of potential dangerous micro-organisms are of great importance.

Chemical composition
Electrical conductivity (EC) The concentration of ions, measured as EC, can be used as

indication of potential quality for feeding water, since water with low EC values can be used to grow any crop. High EC feeding water, usually high in sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl) can only be used to grow saline-tolerant crops. These include amaranthus, swiss chard (Sedibe, Combrink and Reinten, 2005), melon (Combrink et. al., 1995) and cherry tomatoes. Examples of crops that are extremely sensitive to saline conditions are disas (Pienaar, 2005), anthurium, cymbidium and roses (De Krij et al., 1999). Most of the remaining greenhouse crops vary between moderately sensitive to moderately tolerant, as can also be deducted from the EC levels that are recommended for the different crops in Table 18 (Page 34). It should be kept in mind that the absorption of water is restricted at increased root zone salinity levels. The water in the lake of Galilee is widely used in Israel, even though it has an EC of 1.0 mS cm -1. The EC of water in the Vaal dam varies from 0.5 to 1.0 mS cm-1 but the EC in the lower Vaal River may be higher. Compared to this, Stellenbosch water has an excellent quality with an EC of less than 0.1 mS cm -1, as is also found in other rivers from unpolluted, high rainfall mountainous areas. However, there is no guarantee that water with a low EC can safely be used for soil-less crop production, since micronutrients may still be present at phytotoxic levels, even in low-EC feeding water. Useful macronutrients in feeding water Water should be chemically analysed in order to

determine the presence and levels of dissolved salts. In low rainfall areas, high levels of salts may be found. Apart from Na and Cl, high levels of essential nutrients such as calcium, magnesium and sulphate (Ca2+, Mg2+ and SO4=) may also be present in saline water. Other essential ions are usually found at lower concentrations, depending on the area and water source. The higher the ratio of useful ions compared to Na+ and Cl-, the better the potential of saline feeding water. These ions should be taken into account when planning a nutrient solution. Micronutrients and feeding water quality The risk of finding toxic levels of micro- nutrients in feeding water increases with increased EC levels. Micronutrients are usually present at very low concentrations, but even at concentrations considered to be very high for micronutrients, they still do not affect EC readings. Thus, in some cases, low EC feeding water may contain micronutrients at phytotoxic high levels. Should their concentrations exceed prescribed levels for nutrient 22

solutions (Table 18), the water should be avoided or handled with care. As with macronutrients, the micronutrient levels in feeding water should be taken into account when nutrient solutions are prepared. Micronutrient-sensitivity differs between crops Strawberries need relatively low B levels due to physiological problems with B at >0.32 mg L-1. Tomatoes can tolerate B at levels up to 1.1 mg L-1, almost three times higher than its recommended rate (Deckers, 2002). De Kreij, et al., (1999) recommend that Zn be used at 0.33 mg L-1 for substrate-grown tomatoes but at only twice this concentration, toxicity can be expected (Deckers 2002). High Zn-levels are usually found in water gathered from galvanised roof surfaces or fed trough galvanised pipes. Copper-sulphate is a wellknown chemical, used to kill algae in swimming pools. Thus, the potential phytotoxic effect of high Cu-levels is well-known. According to Steiner (1984), a Cu level at 0.1 mg L -1 (double the normal concentration) may induce toxicity problems on crops. Copper pipes should thus not be used to feed water to hydroponic units. Manganese toxicity problems may develop on lettuce (open or loose tulip shaped heads) where seedlings are raised on sphagnum peat, due to high levels of Mn in this European substrate (Deckers, 2004). Both iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) may cause production problems by blocking irrigation drippers. Feeding water pH Water pH can not be used as sole parameter for pH adjustments. This must be done by adjusting total alkalinity, the aggregate concentration of bases such as carbonates, bicarbonates and hydroxides. Laboratories measure the total concentration of these bases (CO3=, HCO3- and OH-) with a titration. Since fertilizers may be slightly acidic, the feeding water should be slightly alkaline to prevent the pH from dropping too low when mixing. In mountainous, high rainfall areas, low-EC water may have a zero alkalinity or may even be acidic (corrosive). In order to lower the corrosiveness of this water, municipalities allow it to flow through huge reservoirs, filled with limestone pebbles (Aquastab). This treatment removes the acidity and lifts the alkalinity of the water from zero to levels where it can be used as feeding water for soil-less crop production, even though the water's pH may seem to be high. This is no problem with low-EC water, since the alkalinity will still be relatively low, making it acceptable for soil-less crop production. Apart from the limestone pebble treatment, alkalinity can also be added to corrosive water by using hydroxides such as KOH, but the dosage of this highly soluble product should be accurately calculated and applied, as discussed later (Table 9; Page 18). Saline feeding water with a high alkalinity needs to be treated with acids to lower its alkalinity (and pH), as will be discussed later (Table 10 & 11; Pages 19-20).

23

Harmful micro-organisms in water

The levels of plant pathogens in water from boreholes are usually very low. When using water from rivers, the incidence of plant pathogenic organisms is much higher. Due to informal settlements and urbanization, water sources that were relatively free from plant pathogens a few years ago, might have deteriorated, needing sterilization before using it for soil-less crop production. Apart from chlorination, used by municipalities, other sterilization options are also available, briefly discussed by Combrink (2005).

Removal of unwanted ions from feeding water

Iron and manganese. High levels of soluble (ferrous) iron may be found in water from the mountainous areas of the Cape and along the Drakensberg. This iron is in a reduced state (Fe 2+) and when oxidized, ferric iron Fe3+ precipitate as an insoluble, red substance. Using this water to irrigate with sprinklers, the red pigment can be seen on leaves and on garden walls. Manganese is also soluble in its reduced state and precipitates as insoluble MnO2 when oxidized. Should water with high Fe or Mn concentrations be used for drip irrigation, the ions are oxidized and these insoluble salts block the drippers. Apart from oxidization due to aeration, ferric and manganese bacteria are chemotropic and also contribute to oxidize Fe2+ and Mn2+. These ferric and manganese bacteria cause the oxidized residues to accumulate among the bacterial waste, creating a slimy residue, also blocking the drippers. Water quality can be defined as good, medium or poor, according to its Fe and Mn concentrations. Good quality is regarded as safe to use, with no risk of blocking drippers with Fe <0.1 and Mn <0.02 mg L-1. Medium quality water may contain Fe at 0.1 to 0.5 and Mn at 0.02 to 0.3 mg L-1. With Fe at >0.5 and Mn at >0.3 mg L-1, the water quality can be defined as poor. Feor Mn-rich water should be pre-treated to lower the concentrations of these ions in the water where drippers are used. By aerating the water, Fe and Mn can be oxidized. These small oxidized particles can then be removed with a sand filter. The oxidizing process is extremely slow in acidic water but this problem can be dealt with by increasing the pH of the water, as illustrated in Table 3. Apart from oxidation by aeration, the oxidizing process may also be accelerated with the addition of chlorine gas (Cl2), ozone (O3) or H2O2. Growers who make use of drip irrigation should remove as much as possible of the Fe in the feeding water and it should then be replaced with the correct concentration of chelated Fe (Deckers, 2002). When using an ebb-and-flow irrigation system or production methods without drippers, removal of Fe is not critically important.

24

Table 3 The effect of pH on the aerobic oxidation times for iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) (http://www.netafim.com). pH level <6 6.6 7.2 7.8 9.0 9.5 Aerobic oxidation time for Fe (minutes) >180 < 60 < 10 < 6.6 <3 <2 Aerobic oxidation time for Mn (minutes) >1000 >1000 >1000 >1000 < 200 < 45

Na, Cl as well as nutrients at potential phytotoxic levels. Na and Cl ions can only be efficiently removed with expensive water purification systems such as reversed osmosis, currently used to purify sea water at Sedgefield. Should water purification companies claim that they can remove these ions from feeding water, samples should be obtained and the water should be chemically analysed to measure the Na and Cl levels before and after the process to determine whether the process lives up to its claim. The same expensive system of reversed osmosis is needed to remove nutrients such as Mg, Cu, Zn and B, when they are present at phytotoxic levels. This method of water purification does also create a large percentage of wastewater which should be considered when calculating your water needs. Ions associated with alkalinity The alkalinity level in saline feeding water is usually high, due to high levels of CO 3=, HCO3- and OH-. These ions can easily be replaced by nitrate or phosphate, simply by using nitric- or phosphoric acid to lower the alkalinity, as illustrated later (Tables 10 & 11; pages 19-20).

Basic hydroponic chemistry

Mole: Mole is Avogadros number with the value of 6.02 x 1023. The atomic mass, expressed in grams, contains Avogadros number of atoms. For example, 12 g of carbon (C) and 23 g of sodium (Na) contain the same number of atoms = 6.02 x 10 23 = 1 mole. The atomic masses of some elements are shown in Table 4 (page 9). Molelecular mass: One mole of a substance is a mass in grams numerically equal to the molecular mass. With KCl as an example, 39.1 and 35.5 are added to reach 74.6, the molecular mass of this salt. Thus, 74.6 g of KCl contains Avogadros number of KCl units: 1 mole (6 x1023) K and 1 mole Cl atoms. 25

Table 4 Chemical formula, ions of some elements and complex ions with their respective atomic and molecular masses. Element Symbol Ion Hydrogen H Boron B Carbon C Nitrogen N Oxygen O Sodium Na Magnesium Mg Silicon Si Phosphorus P Sulphur S Chloride Cl Potassium K Calcium Ca Manganese Mn Iron Fe Copper Cu Zinc Zn Molybdenum Mo H+ Atomic mass 1.0 10.8 12.0 14.0 16.0 23.0 24.3 28.1 31.0 32.1 35.5 39.1 40.1 54.9 55.8 63.5 65.4 95.9 Complex ion Bicarbonate Carbonate Ammonium Nitrate phosphate Sulphate Chemical Molecular formula mass HCO3 CO3 NH4 + NO3 H2PO4 SO4 = 61 60 18 62 97 96

Na+ Mg++

Cl K+ Ca++

Equivalent mass (mass per charge): The atomic mass of K is 39. When losing an electron it becomes a single charged cation K+. Its mass (and equivalent mass) remains 39 (the mass of an electron is close to zero, so it can be ignored). The atomic mass of Ca is 40, but when ionised, it loses 2 electrons, becoming a double charged cation (Ca++). Its atomic mass is 40, but its mass per single charge (equivalent mass) is 20. By dividing atomic mass by the charge of its ion, the equivalent mass is calculated. The molecular mass is calculated by adding the mass of all the atoms in a compound. Its equivalent mass is the molecular mass, divided by the highest valency (charge) of the ions that will be released when it is dissolved in water. Thus, its equivalent mass is the mass of material with mole positive and mole negative charges. As an example: The mass of 1 mole CaCl2 is 111 g (40+35.5+35.5) containing 2 mole positive (and 2 mole negative) charges. The mass of material containing one mole positive and negative charges (equivalent mass) is 111/2 or 55.5 g of CaCl2. With mole charged particles per equivalent, the term molc is used, a unit 1000 times bigger than mmolc. expressed as mmolc L or meq L .
-1 -1

The concentration of macronutrients in nutrient solutions is

26

Molar (M): By dissolving 1 mole KCl (74.6 g) into one litre of distilled water, the molarity of the solution will be 1 M KCl. In this case 6 x1023 positively charged ions (K+) and 6 x1023 negatively charged ions (Cl-) would be present in the water. Due to these charged particles, the solution will be able to conduct an electrical current, which is used as indication of the ion concentration. By dissolving only 2% of 74.6 = 1.49 g KCl per litre distilled water, the molarity of the solution will be 2% of 1 M = 0.02 M. This solution can be used as standard EC test solution to calibrate your ECmeter, because its EC will be 2.77 mS cm-1 at 25oC. Normality (N): By dissolving the equivalent mass of a substance into one litre of distilled water (1 mmolc per litre) the solution's normality will be one (1 N). The normality of acids or liquid fertilizers can be calculated with the following formula: N = (SG x C) / Eq mass N SG C Eq mass = = = = Normality Specific gravity of the solution Concentration as g.kg-1 or (% x 10) Equivalent mass of the dissolved chemical

Transforming ppm or mg.L-1 to mmolcL-1. Chemical laboratories usually use mg.L-1 as unit for their water analyses reports. These can be transformed to mmolc.L-1 by dividing it by the equivalent mass of the ion or the complex ion, as shown in Table 5. Table 5 Concentrations expressed as mg.L-1 (or ppm) must be divided by the equivalent mass of the substance to transform it to mmolcL-1. Eq. mass 14 18 61 20 30 35.5 12.1 Substance Nitrate - N Nitrate (NO3-) Phosphate P Phosphorus Potassium (K+) Sodium (Na+) Sulphate (SO4 2) Eq. mass 14 61 31 31 39 23 48

Substance Ammoinium - N Ammonium (NH4 +) Bicarbonate (HCO3) Calcium (Ca+2 ) Carbonate (CO32) Chloride (Cl ) Magnesium (Mg+2)

27

Essential nutrients

Micronutrients are needed in extremely low concentrations (Table 18; page 34). In European soil-less production environments, micronutrient concentrations are expressed as mol.L-1, a unit 1000 times smaller than mmol L-1. In South Africa, micronutrient concentrations are expressed as mg L-1 (mg kg-1 or ppm). Macronutrients are known as N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S. These are still seen as the only essential macronutrients, although Si and other minerals may positively affect the growth of some plants under specific conditions. Roots absorb macronutrients as ions: NH4+, K+, Ca++, Mg++ (cations) and NO3-, H2PO4-, and SO4= (anions). Only N can be absorbed as a positively charged cation (NH4+) as well as a negatively charged anion (NO3-). Several chemicals can be used to release these ions into feeding water. The molecular mass as well as the equivalent mass of most of these chemicals available in crystalline form, is shown in Table 6. Liquids are listed in Table 7.

Table 6 Some chemicals in crystalline form that may be used as macronutrient sources Chemical name Chemical formula Equivalent mass mass Ammonium phosphate (MAP) NH4H2PO4 115.0 115.0 Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4 132.1 66.0 Calcium carbonate CaCO3 100.0 50.0 * Calcium nitrate crystals Ca(NO3) 2.4H2O 236.1 118.0 ** Calcium nitrate crystals Ca(NO3) 2.0.2(NH4NO3.10H2O)216.1 108.0 Calcium sulphate CaSO4.2H2O 172.1 86.0 Magnesium nitrate Mg(NO3) 2.6H2O 256.3 128.2 Magnesium sulphate MgSO4.7H2O 246.4 123.2 Potassium carbonate K2CO3 138.2 69.1 Potassium chloride KCl 74.6 74.6 Potassium hydroxide KOH 56.1 56.1 Potassium nitrate KNO3 101.1 101.1 Potassium phosphate (MKP) KH2PO4 136.1 136.1 Potassium sulphate K2SO4 174.3 87.1 Sodium chloride NaCl 58.4 58.4
* Contains zero ammonium ** Contains ammonium

Molecular

28

Table 7 Some liquid fertilizers and acids that may be used as sources of macronutrients Chemical name Chemical formula mass eq. XConcen- Specific YNormality tration gravity (N) -1 (g kg ) (g ml-1) 543 543 640 695 590 800 850 1.26 1.26 1.48 1.32 1.36 1.63 1.69 8.5 8.5 8.7 6.2 12.7 13.3 14.7

Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 80 Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 80 Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3) 2.0.2(NH4NO3.10H2O) 108 Magnesium nitrate Mg(NO3) 2.6H2O 128 Nitric acid HNO3 (59%) 63 Phosphoric acid H3PO4 (80%) 98 Phosphoric acid H3PO4 (85%) 98
X

Concentration (g kg-1) = % x 10 Y Normality N = (SG x Concentration) / Eq. mass (page 10)

Non-essential Na and Cl
Sodium is not essential for crop growth but most South African water sources contain some sodium. Most crop plants are salt excluders with limited uptake of Na+ by roots. Some plants do not transport sodium ions from the roots to the shoots (Epstein and Bloom, 2004). The plants ability to tolerate high Na+ levels may improve in the presence of high Ca++ levels. This was demonstrated with saline-sensitive beans that could be grown in the presence of 50 mmolc L-1 NaCl, but only with addition of relatively high Ca-levels (La-Haye and Epstein, 1971). Chloride (Cl-) is considered to be an essential micronutrient, but it is usually present at macronutrient quantities. Please do not confuse the chloride ion (Cl -) with chlorine gas (Cl2), used by municipalities and growers as an oxidant to sterilize water. Some saline water sources contain high levels of chloride that may limit the uptake of nitrate (Kafkafi, Valoras and Letey, 1982). Fortunately the opposite is also true. Weigel et al., (1973) used feeding water with a high chloride level and by increasing the nitrate level in a nutrient solution from 1.25 to 7.0 mmolc L-1, found that chloride concentrations in soybean leaves dropped. See Table 20 (page 36) for Na and Cl absorption rates and the maximum levels tolerated by different crops)

29

Basics before starting with a nutrient solution

Nutrient recipes: By combining and evaluating the information available in the literature, Steiner (1968) made a huge contribution when he summarised basic nutritional principals for soil-less plant production. He proposed a well-balanced Universal nutrient solution by dealing with cations- and anions separately and described safe areas for the K+ : Ca2+ : Mg++ and NO3- : H2PO4- : SO4= ratios. Using mmolc L-1 as unit, he expressed the ideal cation ratio as 35:45:20 % and chose 60:5:35 % as anion ratio. Some deviations from these ratios are allowed but he also defined the outer limits beyond which deficiencies or toxicities may develop (Steiner, 1968). Before starting with nutrient solutions, the role of NH4+ should first be clarified. Ammonium is used as pH regulator or N-source for acid-tolerant crops: Steiner did not include ammonium (NH4+) in his nutrient solution and used NO3- as the sole nitrogen source. As in Europe, all South African soil-less growers use some ammonium to regulate the pH in the root zone. To understand this, it should be remembered that a neutral charge is maintained in the root. When a cation or anion is absorbed, the root secretes H+ or OH- respectively. Due to the fact that NH4+ is a very small ion and is easily absorbed, NH4+ is exchanged by H+ at a high rate that may acidify the root zone. During decomposition of organic substrates, bicarbonate is released, increasing the alkalinity and the substrate's pH. However, too much NH4+ An increased ammonium level may then be useful to counteract this. may acidify the root zone to such an extent that the uptake of Ca may be Kafkaffi (2000) claims that damage by

restricted. Thus, ammonium should be carefully managed, especially on crops sensitive to blossomend-rot, a Ca deficiency disorder (Combrink, 2005). ammonium increases at high root zone temperatures. As the temperature increases, more sugars will be used for respiration and less will be available to form amino acids than can safely be translocated to the stems. The difference in sensitivity of crops to ammonium toxicity is ascribed to differences in sugar concentrations in the roots where ammonium is metabolised. Azaleas, Orchids and Disas are acid- or ammonium-loving crops. In a pot trial, Pienaar (2005) found that Disas reacted positively where ammonium levels were increased to 50% of the total N-application. Compiling your own nutrient solution. Publications by Arnon and Hoagland (1940), Steiner

(1984) and Dutch research workers (de Kreij et al., 1999; Straver, et al., 1999) helped local fertilizer companies to develop ready mix nutrient solutions. The cation and anion ratios of these commercial mixes fall within the limits of Steiners Universal nutrient solution. These products allow growers to avoid the tedious job of weighing and mixing fertilizers from several different bags, when compiling their own mixes. But, 'ready mixes' can only be used where the feeding water contains almost no dissolved salts (EC <0.3 mS.cm-1). Most manufacturers of ready mixes make use of KCl as Ksource. This is acceptable for growers with good quality feeding water but may be a risk for growers 30

with saline sensitive crops and high levels of Cl- in their feeding water. In addition, these saline water sources may also contain high levels of Mg. By simply adding the normal Mg level (using a ready mix), the optimum Mg level can easily be exceeded and at high levels it may suppress the uptake of the other cations (Ca
&

K). This underlines the importance of taking into account the nutrients

already present in the feeding water, when preparing a nutrient mix. Predicting the EC of solutions: solution. The unit mg L
-1

EC is used as indication of the amount of dissolved salts in

is commonly used by laboratories where feeding water is chemically

analysed. However, it is difficult to balance ion concentrations using this unit. This problem is solved by using mmolc L-1. In addition, the EC of the solution can then also be predicted with relative accuracy. By dividing the cation (or anion) concentration (mmolc L-1) by 10, a fairly accurate EC value (mS.cm-1) is calculated. As an example, if you add 20 mmolc L-1 cations (and anions) to distilled water, the EC will be about 2 mS cm -1. By multiplying an EC value with 10, you can thus estimate its ion concentration in mmolc L-1. Using feeding water with an EC of 0.3 mS cm 1

, you know that dissolved salts are present at a concentration of about 3 mmolc L-1.

EC and nutrient uptake: The size of a root system as well as the ion concentration in the root zone affect the rate of ion uptake. It is obvious that a well-developed root system is needed for optimum uptake and that a specific root system is likely to absorb more nutrients at higher nutrient concentrations (higher EC levels). The increase in ion uptake is linear with increased nutrient concentrations, but only up to a certain level. As soon as the EC rises above a certain level, the rate of ion uptake decreases. Bar-Yosef (1995), an Israeli scientist, explained this process to a group of South African growers by comparing a root with a suburban train. The longer the train, the more doors are available for uptake. With only ten passengers waiting for the two 'o clock train, they can easily board within the one-minute stop (uptake=10 min-1). With 20 persons waiting for the three 'o clock train (double concentration) they can also manage to enter within one minute (double concentration = double uptake: 20 min-1). However, with forty persons waiting for the four 'o clock train, more than a minute (say two minutes) may be needed for everybody to enter due to pushing and shoving at the limited number of doors (root system). The uptake rate will thus remain the same (40 per 2 minutes = 20 min-1). With 80 persons pushing and scrumming at 5 'o clock, the tempo at which they will enter should drop to less than 20 persons per minute. In addition, smaller persons may squeeze in through small openings, ahead of bigger persons, especially those carrying two suitcases, such as the massive double-charged Ca ion, inducing Ca-deficiency disorders (Combrink, 2005). This illustrates that the rate of ion uptake can be increased by an increased ion concentration but only up to a certain point. Even saline tolerant crops grow slower, should the EC of the root zone solution be increased beyond the crops optimum need (Ribeiro and Combrink, 2005). Benoit (2003) compared a salt sensitive to a salt tolerant crop and found that the yield potential of the 31

sensitive crop declined at a rate of at least 10% for each 1 mS cm-1 rise beyond its optimum EC of 2 mS cm-1. The yield of the salt tolerant crop declined at EC levels higher than 4 mS cm-1 at a rate of approximately 5% for each 1 mS cm-1 higher than EC 4 mS cm-1. In an effort to improve the sugar content of Daniela, one of the first long shelf life tomato cultivars grown in South Africa, the nutrient solution's EC of 2 mS cm-1 was increased to 4 mS cm-1 with addition of 20 mmol NaCl per litre. The fruit's total soluble solids (oBrix) did increase but the associated higher sugar percentage was due to the fact that less water was absorbed and not due to a better sugar production. This was reflected by an associated 30% reduction in yield and fruit size (Combrink, 1998). The nutrient solution EC needed for optimal crop growth is also affected by the prevailing growing conditions (Sonneveld and Voogt, 2009). Under high light intensities and low humidity extra care should be taken to ensure that water uptake by plant roots are not restricted by high concentrations of nutrients in the root zone. Similarly under conditions where water uptake and transpiration is limited, for example under a low light intensity and high humidity, the uptake of certain elements may be limited and can be compensated for by increasing the nutrient solution EC.

Planning a macronutrient solution

Steiner was a prominent figure on the soil-less culture scene for many years and it may be useful to do our first exercise with his Universal nutrient solution. At this stage we ignore the composition of the feeding water, assuming that it is of good quality, not needing pH adjustment. The macronutrient percentages for cations in Steiners Universal nutrient solution are: 35% K+, 45% Ca2+ and 20% Mg2+ (on a mmolc L-1 basis). The recommended anion ratio is 60% NO3-, 5% H2PO4- and 35% SO4-2. Should the aim be to have a nutrient solution at an EC of 2 mS cm-1, then the cation as well as anion needs will be 20 mmolc L-1. The K+-level will thus be 35% of 20 = 7 mmolc L-1. Ca2+ at 45% of 20 = 9 mmolc L-1. Mg2+ at 20% of 20 = 4 mmolc L-1. The same procedure for the anions will indicate that 12 mmolc L-1 NO3-, 1 mmolc L-1 H2PO4- and 7 mmolc L-1 SO4-2 are needed. Pure hydroponic-quality salts are used as sources of these ions. The next step is to select the chemicals used to obtain this mixture and determine the amount of each to add. This will be explained in the next section. Procedure to select chemicals 1. Look for the smallest nutrient need; 1 mmolc L-1 H2PO4- and choose a P source. Since no ammonium is prescribed for this mix, this eliminates ammonium phosphate. Thus, apply 1 32

mmolc L-1 mono potassium phosphate. Apart from the phosphate application of 1 mmolc L-1, potassium (K) is also added at 1 mmolc L-1 as shown in Table 8. 2. Look for the next smallest need, 4 mmolc L-1 Mg. Choose a Mg source. Mg-nitrate and Mgsulphate options are available. Choose the Mg salt with the anion with the smallest need in your planned solution (nitrate vs. sulphate): The choice is MgSO4. Add 4 mmolc L-1 Mg2+ at the cation side and 4 mmolc L-1 SO42 at the anion side. 3. The next smallest need is 3 mmolc L-1 SO42-. Since the Mg need is already satisfied, K-sulphate is chosen as SO42- source. Apply the balance of 3 mmolc L-1 SO42- and remember also to add the 3 mmolc L-1 for K+ at the cation side. 4. The next smallest need is 3 mmolc L-1 potassium (7 needed, but 1 K-phosphate and 3 Ksulphate were given). With only nitrate still needed at the anion side, the only option is to use KNO3 at 3 mmolc.L-1. 5. The last action is to apply the Ca-need as well as the balance of nitrate still needed with 9 mmolc L-1 of ammonium-free Ca-nitrate. Table 8 Mixing Steiner's ammonium-free macronutrient solution. (Steiner, 1984).

Macro-nutrients
7
mol Fertilizer mass
th

9
(mmolc.L-1) Ca++

4
Mg++

12
NO33

1
(mmolc.L-1) H2PO4-

7
SO4=

eq. mass 101 87 136

Application
(g/1000L) K+ 3 3 1

KNO3 K2 SO4 K H2PO4

X

(4 step) (3rd step) (1 step) (Last step) (2nd step)

st

101 174 136 236 246

3 x 101 = 303 3 x 87 = 261 1 x 136 = 136

3 1 9 4 9 4 12 1 7

Ca(NO3)2.4H2O

118 9 x 118 = 1062 123 4 x 123 = 492 7

Mg SO4.7H2O

x = Ammonium-free Ca-nitrate is used for this exercise.

Y

= Application = Eq. mass x mmolc.L -1

(g.1000 L -1 )

Adjust alkalinity and add nutrients The aim of this exercise is to set your feeding water's total alkalinity between a minimum of 0.2, up to a maximum of 1.0 mmolc L-1 before adding fertilizers. Some fertilizers such as Potassium sulphate (K2SO4) and mono potassium phosphate (MKP) may contain acid residues. On average, the H+ released from fertilizers used for a normal macronutrient mix varies from 0.2 to 0.4 mmolc.L1

. With only this limited acidity in fertilizers to neutralize, an alkalinity buffer of 0.4 should be

sufficient. The alkalinity of feeding water for organic substrates (releasing HCO3- during decomposition) should be lowered to 0.2 to 0.4. Using inert substrates, the input alkalinity may be higher at about 0.5 to 1.0 mmolc L-1.

33

Add alkalinity Distilled water is an example of water with a neutral pH and alkalinity of zero, as would also be found in pure rain water. Water from high rainfall areas may have no alkalinity, it may even be slightly acidic. Due to the low solubility of CaCO3, as shown in Table 16, calcitic lime can be used to increase the total alkalinity of these water sources without the danger of an over-dosage (Lime's solubility is 0.014 g.L-1 = application (g.1000L-1) / eq. mass = 14/50 = 0.28 mmolc.L-1). Should the water be exposed to the lime for a long period, its alkalinity wil rise to 0.28 mmolc.L-1.

. Figure 1 Tank with limestone pebbles (Aquastab) to treat low-pH feeding water Water from the Cederberg area (low EC; low pH) flows into the Clanwilliam dam. This water is then fed to growers via cement canals. The exposure of the water to the cement ads alkalinity to the water. The alkalinity of the water may increase as it moves to growers further downstream. In winter, when the need for irrigation water is low, the water flow is slow, allowing more time for the water to interact with the cement. This may further increase the alkalinity of the water. The result is about the same as where corrosive water is treated by letting it flow through a lime-pebble tank. Where lime-pebble pre-treatment operations are impractical and the alkalinity of the feeding water is too low, a soluble alkali such as KOH can be added, as illustrated in Table 9. This should prevent a pH drop when fertilizers with acid residues are dissolved.

34

Table 9

Increasing the alkalinity of rain water from 0 to 0.4 mmolc L-1 before adding nutrients for Steiners solution.
Application Dry products Liquids -1 -1 Eq. mmolc L x eq. mass mmolc L / N mass (g 1000 L-1) (L 1000 L-1) Na NH4+ K
+ +

mol mass Water composition: HNO3 KOH pH corrected water: (N = 12.7 ) 56

Ca

2+

Mg

2+

NO3- H2PO4- SO4-2 Cl

HCO30

56

56 x 0.4 = 22.4

0.4 0.4

0.4 0.4 9 9 4 4 12 12 1 1 7 7 0.4

To be added:
Final nutrient solution: EC 2.04 mS cm-1

7 7.4

Use Table for 'To be added.' KNO3 K2 SO4 K H2PO4

z

Dry products 101 87 136 118 123 3 x 101 = 303 3 x 87 = 261 1 x 136 = 136 9 x 118 = 1062 4 x 123 = 492

Liquids

Na NH4+ K

Ca

2+

Mg

2+

NO3- H2PO4- SO4-2 Cl 3 3 1

HCO3-

101 174 136 236 246

3 3 1 9 4

Ca (NO3)2 . 4H2O

9 4 12 1 7 4

Mg SO4.7H2O

Added

z = Ammonium-free Ca-nitrate is used for this exercise. Most Ca-nitrate sources in S-Africa contain some ammonium.

An application of about 0.2 to 0.4 mmolc L-1 KOH should be sufficient for pure rain water, used to grow crops in an organic substrate. Apart from lifting the alkalinity with 0.4 mmolc L-1, an equivalent amount of 0.4 mmolc L-1 K is then also applied (Table 9). By adding Steiner's recipe, the K-level will end up to be 0.4 mmolc L-1 higher than planned. This small deviation from Steiner's recipe can be ignored. The EC of the final nutrient solution will thus be about 2.04 mS cm-1. Decrease the alkalinity of a low EC feeding water With the addition of acid to alkaline feeding water, carbon dioxide gas as well as water is released, as seen in the following equation: H+ + HCO3- = H2O + CO2. The HCO3- can be replaced with NO3-, H2PO4- or even Cl- or SO4= by using either nitric acid (HNO3), phosphoric acid (H3PO4), hydrochloric acid (HCl) or sulphuric acid (H2SO4) as source of H+. Although the alkalinity is not very high in the example (Table 10), it is lowered from 0.9 to 0.4 because the plants will be grown in an organic substrate (adding alkalinity) and Steiner's solution contains no acidifying ammonium. The grower can thus expect a rise in alkalinity and pH as the nutrient solution passes through the root zone. A higher alkalinity would be needed for a nutrient solution containing a high ammonium level, especially using an inert substrate. The EC of the feeding water, containing both cations and anions at levels of 1.3 mmolc L-1, can be calculated as 1.3/10 = 0.13 mS cm -1. remains unchanged after the acid treatment. After addition of 20 mmolc L
-1 -1

This EC value

salts for Steiner's

solution, the EC should be 2.13 mS.cm . Due to relatively low levels of nutrients in the feeding water and the fact that only a small increase in nitrate level results due to the addition of 0.5 mmolc 35

L-1 nitric acid, the end result does not differ much from Steiner's recipe. This feeding water is pure enough to allow the use of a 'ready mix', obtainable from most fertilizer companies. However, this may be slightly more expensive than a home-made mix. . Table 10 A mild lowering of the alkalinity of low-EC feeding water before adding nutrients for Steiners solution.
Application Dry products Liquids -1 -1 mol Eq. mmolc L x eq. mass mmolc L / N -1 (g 1000 L ) mass mass (L/1000 L) Feeding water HNO3 (N = 12.7 ) KOH pH corrected water: 56 56 0.8 0

Na+ NH4+ K+ Ca2+ Mg2+ H+ 0.8 0.3 0 0 7 0.8 0 7 0.3 9 9.3 0.2 4 4.2 0 0.2 0.5

NO3 H2PO4 SO4

-2

Cl - HCO30.4 0.9 0

0.5/12.7 = 0.039

0.5 0.5 12 12.5 0 1 1 0 7 7 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4

To be added:
Final nutrient solution: EC 2.15 mS cm-1

Use Table for 'To be added.' KNO3 K2 SO4 K H2PO4

z

Dry products 101 87 136 118 123 3 x 101 = 303 3 x 87 = 261 1 x 136 = 136 9 x 118 = 1062 4 x 123 = 492

Liquids

Na+ NH4+ K+ Ca2+ Mg2+ 3 3 1 9 4

NO3 H2PO4 SO4 3 3 1 9 4 12 1 7

-2

Cl - HCO3-

101 174 136 236 246

Ca (NO3)2 . 4H2O

Mg SO4.7H2O

Added

z = Ammonium-free Ca-nitrate is used for this exercise. Most Ca-nitrate sources in S-Africa contain some ammonium.

Decrease the alkalinity of high-EC feeding water In Table 11 the EC of the feeding water is 0.7 mS cm-1, a level often found in South African production areas. Should 20 mmolc.L-1 be added to this water, using a ready mix, the expected EC of the nutrient solution will be about 2.7 mS.cm1, a level where the uptake of water may be slightly restricted. In addition, the levels of Ca, Mg and sulphate (usually present in saline water) will probably be unnecessarily high. The following example (Table 11) shows that only 17 mmolc.L1

need to be added to equal Steiners nutrient solution, ending with a final EC of 2.4 mS cm-1 and a

lower fertilizer bill as well as better ion ratios in the root zone.

36

Table 11 Lowering the alkalinity of a 0.7 mS.cm-1 feeding water before adding nutrients, aiming to satisfy ratios as suggested by Steiner.
Application Dry products Liquids -1 -1 mol Eq. mmolc L x eq. mass mmolc L / N -1 (g 1000 L ) mass mass (L/1000 L) Feeding water HNO3 (N = 12.7 ) KOH pH corrected water: 56 56 4 0

Na+ NH4+ K+ Ca2+ Mg2+ H+ 4 2 0 0 7 4 0 7 2 7 9 1 3 4 1 1.6

NO3 H2PO4 SO4 2 1.6

-2

Cl - HCO33 2 0

1.6/12.7 = 0.126

1.6 10.4 12

0 1 1

2 5.6 7.6

0.4

To be added:
Final nutrient solution: EC 2.4 mS cm-1

0.4

Use Table for 'To be added.' KNO3 K2 SO4 K H2PO4

z

Dry products 101 87 136 118 123 3.4 x 101 = 343 2.6 x 87 = 226 1 x 136 = 136 7 x 118 = 826 3 x 123 = 369

Liquids

Na+ NH4+ K+ Ca2+ Mg2+ 3.4 2.6 1 7 3

NO3- H2PO4- SO4-2 Cl HCO3-

101 174 136 236 246

3.4 2.6 1 7 3 10.4 1 5.6 3

Ca (NO3)2 . 4H2O

Mg SO4.7H2O

Added

z = Ammonium-free Ca-nitrate is used for this exercise. Most Ca-nitrate sources in S-Africa contain some ammonium.

The alkalinity in the example shown in Table 11 is 2 mmolc L-1. In this example, nitric acid is used as sole acid to lower the alkalinity from 2.0 to 0.4 by adding H+ and NO3- at 1.6 mmolc L-1. In this case the added nitrate can not simply be ignored and will be taken into account when deciding how much nitrate should be added. Growers with high alkalinity levels, as in this case, may choose to first add phosphoric acid (H3PO4) at the same level as the H2PO4- need. Thus, phosphoric acid will then be used to supply both H+ and H2PO4- at 1 mmolc L-1. The H+ will then bring the alkalinity down from 2.0 to 1.0 mmolc L-1. Only 0.6 mmolc L-1 nitric acid will then be needed to lower the alkalinity from 1.0 to 0.4 mmolc L-1. Table 11. The planned added cations and anions must always be equal. Start with the cations, adding K, Ca and Mg to reach Steiner's preset values (mmolc L-1). With no K in the water (Table 11) the K application will be 7 mmolc L-1. The water contains some Ca and Mg, thus top it up with 7 and 3 mmolc L-1 respectively. At this stage, take note that the total added cations will be 17 mmolc L-1. Now plan to add exactly 17 mmolc L-1 anions. Top nitrate up by adding 10.4 mmolc L-1 and add the total phosphate need of 1.0 mmolc L-1. Of all the macro nutrients, plants can adapt to sulphate at a very wide range. As long as the sulphate level ends up within 50% higher or lower than the target value, the plants will still be happy. In this example the sulphate target is exceeded by about 10% in order to balance the cations and anions. 37 However, only nitric acid is used in the example shown in

Only now you can start using the lower table (in Table 11) to add ions, starting with the smallest need first, phosphate in this case. Select the ammonium-free P-source, mono potassium phosphate. By adding K and P at 1 mmolc L-1, the P-need is satisfied and the K-need lowered from 7 to 6 mmolc L-1. With the Mg-need at only 3 mmolc L-1, this ion is added next. Choose between the two Mg-salts. Since Mg-sulphate will also supply sulphate, and the fact that the sulphate-need is smaller than the nitrate need, this salt is chosen. By adding Mg-sulphate at 3 mmolc L-1, the remaining sulphate-need is the smallest. Apply K-sulphate, the only other sulphate-containing salt at 2.6 mmolc L-1. The next smallest need is K at 3.4 mmolc L-1 . The only anion still needing a topup is nitrate. After adding K-nitrate at 3.4 mmolc L-1, Ca-nitrate (zero ammonium) is used to top up both Ca and nitrate, using 7 mmolc L-1 .

Using acids or bases as ion sources In Table 10, nitric acid was used to lower the alkalinity and it also served as source of some nitrate. The same was done in Table 11, although it was mentioned that phosphoric acid could have been used as source of P (also lowering the alkalinity with an equivalent value). Apart from using acids to lower high alkalinity levels in feeding water, it is also possible to use an acid as a source of anions. To avoid the associated lowering of pH with the application of an acid, an equivalent quantity of a base should then also be added. As an example, assume that mono potassium phosphate (MKP) becomes unavailable or extremely expensive. When dissolved, this fertilizer releases K+ and H2PO4- ions. These ions can also be released by KOH (K+ & OH-) and H3PO4 (H+ & H2PO4-). OH- and H+ will form water (H2O) in the neutralising process, as can be seen in Table 12. It is important to note that some salts are extremely insoluble in high pH solutions and that acids should be added first, followed by neutralising bases. By doing it the other way around, nutrients may be lost due to precipitation (See insoluble hydroxides: Table 16). Strong acids should be handled with extreme care:

Take note:

Concentrated acids should be handled with extreme care to prevent injuries to workers! Never add water to acids. Acids should be carefully added to stirred water.

In the other exercises, total alkalinity (CO3-2 + HCO3- + OH-) was expressed as HCO3- as done by most laboratories. In this example, OH- is used as alkalinity unit to demonstrate how equal 38 quantities of H+ and OH- are neutralised (H+ + OH- = H2O).

Table 12 Using an acid and a base to add anions and cations to a solution.
Application Dry products Liquids -1 -1 mmol L x eq mass mmol mol eq. cL /N -1 -1 -1 mass mass (mg L or g 1000 L ) (L 1000 L ) H3PO4 (85%; N 14.7) KOH 56 56 1.2 x 56 = 67 1.2/14.7=0.082 1.2

(mmolc L ) Na NH4 K+ Ca2+ Mg2+ H+

+ +

-1

(mmolc L ) NO3 H2PO4- SO42- Cl OH

-

-1

1.2 1.2 0

1.2 1.2 1 0

End product:

H+ and OH - are not shown as end products, since they combine to form water (H2O).

Using Ammonium in the nutrient solution Organic substrates decompose with time, releasing HCO3 (Benoit, 2003) resulting in an increase in root zone pH. Coco peat decomposes slower than pine sawdust and therefore its associated rise in alkalinity and pH is also slower. The expected increase in root zone alkalinity (especially during the first 6-8 weeks after starting with a fresh organic substrate) can be counteracted with addition of more ammonium to the nutrient solution. With inert substrates (rock-wool, sand or gravel) or with NFT systems, lower ammonium levels may be used. Apart from its effect on pH, some plants, for example Disas, need relatively high ammonium levels (Pienaar, 2005). Steiner's ammonium-free solution was used as an example, but in practice, growers have to use ammonium. MKP was used as K- and P-source in our previous examples, but mono ammonium phosphate (MAP) is a popular ammonium- and P-source. The ammonium-free Ca-nitrate [Ca(NO3).4H2O] that was also used in previous examples, was only recently introduced to the RSA on commercial scale. Most South African growers buy ammonium-containing Ca-nitrate from big fertilizer companies. Looking at its chemical composition, 5Ca(NO3)2.(NH4NO3.10H2O), one can see that 11/12 of the applied N is given as nitrate-N and 1/12 as ammonium-N. By ignoring the ammonium content of Ca-nitrate and by using MAP (NH4H2PO4) as P-source (Table 13), ammonium can reach an extremely high level.

39

Table 13 Ammonium phosphate as P-source in combination with ammonium containing Canitrate, using Mg-sulphate or Mg-nitrate as alternative Mg-sources. (Concentrates in stock solution tanks See page 29).
Concentra- Eq. tion tank KNO3 A and/or B K2SO4 A NH4H2PO4 C 5Ca(NO3)2.NH4NO3.10H2O B MgSO4.7H2O A Fertilizer Application + 2+ 2+ -1 + -2 -1 mass g.1000 L mmolc L NH4 K Ca Mg NO3 H2PO4 SO4 101 404 4 4.0 4.0 87 174 2 2.0 2.0 115 115 1 1.0 1.0 108 891 9 0.75 8.3 9.0 123 492 4 4.0 4.00 1.75 6.0 8.25 4.0 13.0 1.0 6.0

Three stock solution tanks needed NH4+ as % of N-Total: 1.75/(1.75+13.0)*100 = 11.9% Concentra- Eq. Fertilizer
K2SO4 NH4H2PO4 5Ca(NO3)2.NH4NO3.10H2O Mg(NO3)2.6H2O

Application + 2+ 2+ -1 + -2 -1 tion tank mass g.1000 L mmolc L NH4 K Ca Mg NO3 H2PO4 SO4 A 87 522 6 6.0 6.0 A 115 115 1 1.0 1.0 B 108 891 9 0.75 8.25 9.0 B 128 512 4 4.0 4.0 1.75 6.0 8.25 4.0 13.0 1.0 6.0

Two stock solution tanks needed

The second option, shown in Table 13, shows that Mg-nitrate can be used as Mg source to replace Mg-sulphate. This is only possible where the K-need is equal to, or higher than the sulphate-need. By choosing Mg-nitrate as only Mg-source, it can be mixed with Ca.-nitrate to have only two stock solution tanks, as shown in Table 13 and discussed on page 29. Mixing procedure, using ammonium-containing Ca-nitrate The tomato nutrient solution (Table 18; page 34) that is used in the following example, contains ammonium at 1 mmolc L-1. The mixing procedure, as was demonstrated on page 16; Table 8, was done with ammonium-free Ca-nitrate. Using ammonium-containing Ca-nitrate, this procedure needs adjustment as discussed below and illustrated in Table 14:

40

Table 14 Mixing procedure, using ammonium-containing Ca-nitrate.

Nutrient mix for tomatoes (mmolc L ), ignoring feeding water :
mol mass 101 Step 5 Step 3 Step 2 Step 1 Step 6 174 136 115 216 246 eq. mass 101 87 136 115 108 123 Application (See y) 3.15 x 101 = 318 2.5 x 87 = 218 1.35 x 136 = 184 0.15 x 115 = 17.3 9.35 x 108 = 1010 3.5 x 123 = 431 1.00
X = Ammonium-containing Ca-nitrate y = Nutrient concentration (mmolc L -1 ) x equivalent mass of fertilizer = Application (g 1000 L -1 )
-1

7
K+

8.5
Ca++

3.5
Mg++

12.5

1.5

FERTILIZER K NO3 K2 SO 4 K H2PO4 NH4 H2PO 4

X

Adding Step 4

NH4+

NO3-

H2PO4- SO4=

3.15 2.50 1.35 0.15 0.85 8.50 3.50 7.00 8.50 3.50

3.15 2.50 1.35 0.15 9.35 3.50 12.50 1.50 6.00

5Ca(NO3)2.(NH4NO3.10H2O) Mg SO4.7H2O

Step 1: Deal with the nutrient at the lowest need first (ammonium). Using ammonium-containing Ca-nitrate, this salt is dealt with first. Calculate the Ca-nitrate application (needed to satisfy the Caneed) and then see how much ammonium was applied concurrently. Ca is needed at 8.5 mmolc.L1 . Multiply this Ca-need with 1.1 = 9.35 mmolc.L-1. This is the level of nitrate in this application and the sum of Ca and NH4. With Ca at 8.5 mmolc L-1 the difference (9.35 8.5) is ammonium (0.85 mmolc.L-1). Plants that require a low ammonium level, such as peppers needing NH4 at only 0.3 mmolc.L-1, force growers to use NH4-free Ca-nitrate. Step 2: The next step is to add the smallest need, in this case the remaining NH4-need. By adding MAP at 0.15 mmolc.L-1, the NH4+-level is lifted from 0.85 to 1.0 mmolc.L-1. Step 3: In the previous step, phosphate was lifted to 0.15, still needing 1.35 to reach a level of 1.5 mmolc.L-1. This can be done by using potassium phosphate as third step. Step 4: The next smallest need is nitrate: Add K-nitrate at 3.15 mmolc.L-1. Step 5: The need for K was lowered in the previous step. With nitrate and phosphate levels settled, 2.5 mmolc.L-1 K-sulphate should be added. Step 6: Both Mg and sulphate need 3.5 mmolc. This is applied using Mg-sulphate. Saline feeding water: Most greenhouse crops will be unaffected with Na (and Cl) levels below 5 mmolc L-1. Saline tolerant crops may withstand Na and Cl up to 10 mmolc L-1, but high levels of Na+ and Cl- restrict the uptake of essential nutrients (Kafkafi, Valoras and Letey, 1982). Sand-pumped water on the west coast can have varying salt concentrations. A grower at Yzerfontein uses feeding water with an EC of 1.9 mS cm -1. Of the 19 mmolc L-1 salts in his water, only 7 mmolc L-1 represents essential nutrients. With the rest as sodium chloride (12 mmolc L-1), he still manages to grow saline tolerant herbs with a nutrient solution at an EC of about 3.3 mS.cm-1. However, it is 41

extremely difficult to avoid Ca-deficiency disorders under these conditions. Extra precautions such as lowering of the ammonium level and an increased Ca level may help. (See 'EC and nutrient uptake' on page 14).

Planning a micronutrient solution

When feeding water quality was discussed, it was mentioned that some micronutrients may have phytotoxic effects at high concentrations and that some may block drippers, such as Fe and Mn (page 5). When present at high levels in drip irrigation systems, Fe and Mn should be removed from the feeding water in advance. It is seldom possible to remove all the Fe and Mn but with these nutrients at safer lower levels, Mn may be topped up to its required level. Due to its quick oxidation and loss in irrigation pipes, the remaining Fe in the feeding water must be ignored and the total Fe-need applied as chelated Fe (Deckers, 2002). As with macronutrients, the other micronutrient levels in the feeding water should be topped up to their optimum levels, as suggested in Table 18 for 'drain-to-waste' systems and in Table 19 for closed systems. The micro-mixing process is illustrated in Table 15. Table 15 Micronutrient recipe for tomatoes, taking the composition of the feeding water into account.

Micro-mixing
Fertilizer Libfer (Fe-EDTA) Manganese sulphate Zink sulphate Solubor Boric acid Copper sulphate Sodium molibdate Ammonium Molibdate Fe Mn Zn B B Cu Mo Mo Element Conc. % 13 24.7 22.5 20.5 17.5 25.2 39.6 54

Optimum nutrient level for crop (mg.kg-1) 0.85 0.55 0.30 0.34 0.34 0.06 0.05 0.05

Micro- nutr. Application in feeding Micro-nutr. Fertilizer water top-up top-up x (100 %) (mg.kg-1) (mg.kg-1) g/1000 L 0.40 0.85 6.54 0.10 0.45 1.82 0.05 0.25 1.11 0.12 0.22 1.07 0.12 0.22 1.26 0.01 0.05 0.20 0.00 0.05 0.13 0.00 0.05 0.09

The procedure that should be followed when preparing nutrient solutions (macro- and micronutrients) will be discussed after a closer look at the solubility of salts.

Solubility of salts
Some growers use partly shaded porta-pool reservoirs to mix their nutrient solutions. After filling these reservoirs with water, fertilizers are dissolved into it, using pumps to circulate the water. The 42

problem is that algae grow in nutrient-rich water when it is exposed to light. Even though the solution may appear clear, low concentrations of algae may still block filters and drippers. The modern trend is to switch to smaller fertilizer tanks, containing 100 x concentrated stock solutions to be released into passing feeding water. However, due to precipitation risks, some ion combinations should be avoided in concentrated solutions. Why not concentrate the entire nutrient solution into one tank? By concentrating a standard nutrient solution with an EC of 2.2 mS.cm-1, you do not find a linear increase in EC, as expected (Figure 2).
Measured 25 20 15 10 5 0 Std x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8 x9 x10 Times concentrated Expected

Figure 2 Electrical conductivity (EC) when concentrating a standard nutrient solution up to 10 times. Ca.-sulphate (CaSO4) has a solubility of 2.41 g L-1 (Table 16). This means that only 2410 g can dissolve per 1000 L. [(g.1000L-1) / eq. mass = 2400 / 86 = 27.9 mmolc.L-1]. With a Ca. level of 9 mmolc.L-1 in this standard nutrient solution, it means that gypsum (CaSO4) will precipitate when the solution is concentrated more than 3 times. The lower than expected EC with the increase in concentration (Figure 2) can be ascribed to ion losses due to the precipitation of Ca-sulphate and other relatively insoluble ion combinations such as calcium and phosphate, especially at a relatively high pH. In Table 16, the solubility of monocalcium phosphate (low pH) is better than dicalcium phosphate (neutral pH) and tricalcium phosphate is almost insoluble (high pH). phosphate should also be kept apart when solutions are concentrated. Another relatively insoluble ion combination is Ammonium-magnesium-phosphate-hexahydrate (Table 16). This implies that not all three of these ions (NH4, Mg and H2PO4) may be kept together in concentrated solutions. Any two of them can be placed in the same concentrated stock solution, but 43 Thus, Ca and

Electrical conductivity (mS/cm)

not all three. Thus, when using MAP, Mg-sulphate cannot be added to the same stock solution tank. Then, the only way to retain a two-tank system, is to use Mg-nitrate as source of Mg and to add it to the Ca-nitrate tank (Table 13). Another way to add ammonium (apart from the ammonium already present in Ca-nitrate) is to use ammonium-nitrate that should be mixed into the Ca-nitrate tank. When preparing stock solutions, ammonium-containing solutions should never be exposed to high pH levels since ammonium losses will then occur due to the formation of NH3 gas. The pH should be below 6.5. At pH levels higher than 7, a high concentration of OH - enhance the precipitation of Fe, but Mn-, Zn- and Cu-hydroxides are also relatively insoluble (See Table 16). Much research was done to prevent Fe losses, until the problem was partly solved with the development of Fe-chelates (Lindsay and Norvell, 1969). By using Fe-EDTA (fit for the pH range used in soil-less culture), Fe is protected from precipitation losses. However, at pH 7 or higher, the chelate can no longer protect Fe from reacting with other nutrients. It is of extreme importance to manage your mixing procedure in such a way that the pH remains below 6.5. Most growers with modern greenhouses use concentrated stock solutions. feeding water, to reach the greenhouse at the correct EC and optimum pH. They use special

electronic or volumetric equipment to control the release from the stock solution tanks into the

44

Table 16 Solubility of some chemical compounds (Bornman, 1994)

Name Molecular formula Solubility per litre deionized cold water

Ammonium nitrate Mono-ammonium phosphate Di-ammonium phosphate Ammonium magnesium phosphate hexahydrate Ammonium paramolybdate Ammonium sulphate Boric acid Calcium carbonate Calcium hydroxide Calcium nitrate Tricalcium phosphate Dicalcium phosphate Monocalcium phosphate Calcium sulphate Copper sulphate Copper hydroxide Copper carbonate Ferri phosphate Ferrous carbonate Ferrous hydroxide Ferri hydroxide Ferrous sulphate heptahydrate Magnesium carbonate Magnesium hydroxide Magnesium nitrate hexahydrate Magnesium sulphate heptahydrate Magnesium sulphate anhydrate Manganese carbonate Manganese hydroxide Manganese sulphate tetrahydrate Potassium chloried Potassium hydroxide Potassium nitrate Potassium sulphate Potassium dihydrogen phosphate Sodium borate decahydrate Sodium molybdate dehydrate Zinc carbonate Zinc hydroxide Zinc phosphate Zinc sulphate heptahydrate

(Analytically pure) NH4NO3 NH4H2PO4 (NH4)2HPO4 NH4MgPO4.6H2O (NH4)6Mo7O24.4H 2O (NH4)2SO4 H3BO3 CaCO3 Ca(OH)2 Ca(NO3)2 Ca3(PO4)2 CaHPO4.2H2O Ca(H2PO4)2.H2O CaSO4.2H2O CuSO4.5H2O Cu(OH)2 CuCO3 FePO4 FeCO3 Fe(OH)2 Fe(OH)3 FeSO4.7H2O MgCO3 Mg(OH)2 Mg(NO3)2.6H2O MgSO4.7H2O MgSO4 Mn CO3 Mn(OH)2 MnSO4.4H2O KCI KOH KNO3 K2SO4 KH2PO4 Na2B4O7.10H2O Na2MoO4.2H2O ZnCO3 Zn(OH)2 Zn3(PO4)2 ZnSO4.7H2O

(g L-1) 1 183 227 575 0,2 430

706 63,5 0,014 1,85 1 212 0,02 0,316 18 2,41 316 0,0015 156,5 0,106 0,009 1 250 710 260 1 053 238 1 070 133 120 330 20,1 562 0,01 965 45

Mixing macro- and micronutrient solutions

Using a big reservoir at the desired EC Growers who use porta-pools as nutrient solution reservoirs, fill them with water, adjust the pH and then add the correct mass of each kind of fertilizer, allowing it to dissolve before the next fertilizer is added. Pumps are used to induce a stir action. With this procedure the chance of having high concentrations of ions such as calcium and sulphate in one area is minimised and precipitation is prevented. Growers with good quality feeding water may prefer to buy pre-mixed fertilizers. The single bag 'ready-mix' contains all the macro- and micronutrients and should be mixed into a big volume of stirred water, adding small quantities at a time to prevent high concentrations of ions in the same volume. However, most ready mixes are sold in two bags with the problem ions separated. These bags should be dissolved separately. Take note that algae develop in nutrient solutions when exposed to light for a few days. This may block drippers. In addition, bacteria may change ammonium to nitrate, associated with a drop in pH. Using two or more stock solution tanks The simplest mixing procedure for growers with two concentrated stock solution tanks is to use a twobag ready mix from a reputable company. However, this is only advised for growers with low EC feeding water (<0.3 mS.cm1). The one bag usually contains Ca-nitrate and Fe. It may also contain some K-nitrate. The rest of the nutrients, including phosphate and sulphate are usually present in the other bag. It is possible that some companies may have ammonium phosphate (MAP) as well as Mgsulphate in one bag. As explained on page 27, this is not recommended. Growers who wish to compile their own specific nutrient solutions, best suited for their own growing conditions and crops, can also save on fertilizer costs. With high levels of essential nutrients in your feeding water, you have no choice but to top up as needed, changing the water into a nutrient solution. Ready mixes should rather not be used with a feeding water with EC values exceeding 0.3 mS.cm-1 or with high micronutrient levels. When stock solution tanks are used, the ion combinations, as discussed on pages 26-27 should be taken into account. The best-known problem salts are CaSO4, Ca(H2PO4)2.H2O and NH4MgPO4.6H2O. Where theres no need to apply ammonium, a conventional two-tank system with Ca-nitrate and Fe-chelate in one tank and the rest in the other tank can be used. Rather than placing all the K-nitrate into the sulphate-phosphate tank, 50% of the K-nitrate may be transferred to the Ca-nitrate stock solution tank to speed up the dissolving process. When ammonium phosphate and magnesium sulphate are both part of the prescribed recipe, a three-tank system with ammonium phosphate in the third tank should be used. However, by using Mg-nitrate as 46

source of Mg, rather than Mg sulphate, a third concentration tank can be avoided. Ammonium phosphate may then go into the tank with potassium sulphate while the magnesium nitrate can be added to the Ca nitrate tank. This procedure is illustrated in Table 13 (page 23). By switching from mono ammonium phosphate (MAP) to mono potassium phosphate (MKP), a third concentration tank can also be avoided. Ammonium can then be included as ammonium nitrate and this may then be added to the Ca-nitrate tank. This option (using MKP as P source with ammonium nitrate in the Ca-nitrate tank) allows greater flexibility when the ammonium level needs to be changed in order to adjust (reduce or increase) the alkalinity of the root zone solution to manage root zone pH. This will be discussed later. Where acids are needed to lower the alkalinity of the feeding water, this can be done by adding the correct amount of acid to the phosphate stock solution tank, where all the non-chelated micronutrients are kept. The pH in this tank, containing phosphate and the non-chelated micronutrients, may be very low, but has an upper limit of pH 6.5. The pH in the Ca-nitrate tank, containing Fe-EDTA, should not be lower than 3.5 since the chelate (Fe-EDTA) is destroyed at pH<3 (Deckers, 2004). An upper pH limit of 6.5 is used, also to protect Fe-EDTA. EC-regulated nutrient concentrate injectors have synchronised valves, opening or closing to increase or decrease the EC. Other mixers can be volumetrically controlled to release 1 litre of each stock solution per 100 litres of water, should 100x concentrated stock solutions be used. The injection nozzles (with two concentrates) are placed some distance apart from one another on the pipe carrying the feeding water to allow mixing before the second concentrate is injected. To avoid working with very small quantities of micronutrients, some growers prefer to make their own micronutrient stock solutions by dissolving and concentrating all the micronutrients into one small (10 100 L) container. With a 10 000 times concentrated micronutrient mix, 1L is applied per 10 000 L of a standard nutrient solution (100 ml per 1000 L). Where growers are using tanks with concentrated stock solutions, Fe-EDTA should rather be excluded from this micronutrient mix and applied separately to the Ca-nitrate stock solution tank. As explained above, the non-chelated micronutrients can be mixed into the phosphate-sulphate tank, even where acids lower the pH to extremely low levels. When mixing micronutrients, make sure that the pH is lower than 6.5 at all times. Take note that borax and some other boron sources may increase the pH of the solution. When using these B-sources, dissolve the B-source first, then lower the pH if needed, and then continue to dissolve the other micronutrients. Boric acid can be used as B-source to avoid this problem. Some growers with low micronutrient levels in their feeding water prefer to use pre-mixed micronutrient products. Should these 'micro-mixes' be used, it can be added to a stock solution tank, provided that the pH in the tank is between 3.5 and 6.5. If this is not possible, a third micronutrient stock solution tank should be added. 47

Tank with concentrate

Pump

Figure 3 Using a chemical pump to dissolve salts, added to a stock solution tank, filled to at least 70% of its capacity with water. Start by adding at least 70% of the needed water into the tank. Salts dissolve quicker at lower concentrations. It is important to monitor the pH during the dissolving of salts, especially in the phosphate tank. As with micronutrients, the pH of a phosphate- or ammonium containing concentrate should not be allowed to rise above a level of 6.5. It may also help to add the chemicals with acid residues first. Use only hydroponic grade fertilizers since oily substances may be present in fertilizers for field crops. By having a suction nipple at 900 mm from the base of a 5 000 L stock solution tank, and with an injection nipple at the base, a chemical pump can be used to mix the added fertilizers in the tank. With all salts dissolved, it is a good practice to have a stir action every time before concentrates are drawn from the tanks to prevent denser layers from sinking to the bottom.

Using nutrient solutions in experiments

Research workers manipulate standard nutrient solutions in order to study plant nutritional effects. Say that the effects of K-levels are to be studied. A common mistake is simply to add KCl to a standard nutrient solution to serve as high K treatments. The plants response to this treatment may be due to the higher K levels, or to the associated higher Cl levels, or to the increased EC. Another approach to have varying K-levels may be to lower the standard K-nitrate level while equivalent quantities of Na-nitrate are added to keep nitrate- and EC-levels constant. But apart from lower K-levels, the measured effects may also be ascribed to increased Na-levels. Steiner 48

(1984) proposed that when studying the effects of different macro-nutrients, it should be done by varying the respective nutrient ratios. This is shown in Table 17. Table 17 Control and two treatments to study the effects of high K and low NO3 levels.
Application
mol mass KNO3 K2 SO4 K H2PO4 Ca (NO3)2 . 4H2O Mg SO4.7H2O
z

Standard solution
(molc L ) K
+ -1

Eq mass 101 87 136 118 123

mmolc L

-1

x eq mass Ca
2+

(g /1000 L) 303 261 136 1.62 492

Mg

2+

NO3 3

H2PO4

SO4 3

2-

101 174 136 236 246

3 3 1 9 4 7 9 4

1 9 4 12 1 7

Application
mol mass KNO3 K2 SO4 K H2PO4 Ca (NO3)2.4H2Oz Mg SO4.7H2O 101 174 136 236 246 Eq mass 101 87 136 118 123 mmolc L-1 x eq mass (g /1000 L) 545 357 136 779 357 K

High K treatment
(molc L-1)
+

Ca

2+

Mg

2+

NO35.4

H2PO4-

SO424.1

5.4 4.1 1.0 6.6 10.5 6.6 2.9 2.9

1 6.6 12 1 2.9 7

Application
mol mass K2 SO4 K H2PO4 z Ca (NO3)2 . 4H2O Ca (SO4).2H2O Mg SO4.7H2O
Z

Low N treatment
K
+

Eq mass 87 136 118 86 123

mmolc L

-1

x eq mass Ca
2+

(g /1000 L) 457 238 708 258 492

(molc L ) Mg2+ NO3-

-1

H2PO41.75

SO425.25

174 136 236 172 246

5.25 1.75 6 3 7.0 9 4 4 6

3 6 1.75 4 12.25

Ammonium-free

Say that a high K-level is chosen at 50% higher than that of the control and a low N-level is used at 50% of the normal level. For the K-treatment, the higher than normal K level should be balanced with proportionally lower Ca- and Mg-levels, not changing the Ca:Mg ratio while the anions remain unchanged. The same principle is followed with the lower nitrate application. Extra phosphate and sulphate will then be applied proportionally, to retain the ratio between them and not to change the EC or standard cation levels.

49

Recipes for specific crops

Using soil-less substrates, only the roots interact with the nutrient solution, changing the ratios between the different ions due to different uptake tempos. To prevent these deviations in nutrient ratios, frequent fertigation with fresh nutrient solution can be done (Silber et al., 2003). Since root volumes in hydroponic systems may be relatively small, compared to soil grown crops, all the old solution can effectively be flushed out and replaced by the balanced fresh solution, as done in drain-to-waste systems. To optimize plant nutrition, as done by modern Dutch and Belgian growers (De Kreij et al., 1999; Deckers, 2004), nutrient solutions are changed when root zone solutions indicate that imbalances develop. The standard recipes, used to start production with drain-to-waste systems (Table 18) or for closed system where the nutrient solution is re-circulated (Table 19), can then be corrected. It is important to note that root zone norms are exactly the same for both systems (Table 22).

Drain-to-waste systems: The recipes in Table 18 are based on Dutch (De Kreij et al., 1999) and Belgian (Deckers, 2004) information. However, lower nutrient concentrations are proposed for the RSA, due to our hotter climate and higher light intensities. It is dangerous to use nutrient recipes from foreign countries, without understanding their conditions. As an example, relatively high Mg levels occur in Israel's feeding water. Thus, hardly any Mg is used by Israeli growers. Dutch growers use inert media such as rock wool, whereas most South African growers use organic substrates, such as pine sawdust. A side-effect of decomposing organic material is a lowered root zone N level during the first six to eight weeks after transplanting, associated with an increased root zone pH or alkalinity (Benoit, 2003).

50

Table 18 Nutrient solutions for different crops, grown with drain-to-waste production systems. The EC values represent listed nutrients alone (Subscript x).
EC x Macronutrients -1 (mS.cm-1) (mmolc.L ) K Ca Mg NO3 H2PO4 SO4 Fe 1.9 1.4 1.0 2.8 2.0 1.5 3.8 2.5 1.9 5.5 5.8 1.0 4.3 6.5 2.5 5.5 6.0 2.0 4.0 7.3 3.0 5.0 6.5 2.5 5.0 7.0 2.5 6.3 6.0 2.0 5.5 7.0 2.5 6.0 7.0 2.0 6.0 7.0 2.0 4.5 7.0 4.0 5.5 7.0 3.0 5.5 7.5 2.5 5.2 9.0 3.5 7.0 8.5 3.5 7.0 9.8 4.0 8.0 9.5 4.0 7.0 10.8 4.2 7.0 10.8 4.2 3.3 4.0 6.1 10.0 10.4 11.0 12.0 10.0 10.5 12.0 12.0 12.3 12.3 12.5 13.0 13.0 12.8 12.5 13.0 13.0 13.0 13.0 0.7 0.8 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.5 1.6 2.0 2.5 2.8 2.0 3.0 3.7 2.5 3.0 2.5 2.5 3.0 2.5 2.5 4.0 6.0 7.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 0.60 0.73 0.85 1.30 1.40 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.52 1.55 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.65 1.65 1.65 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.30 2.30 2.30 0.45 0.45 0.85 1.00 0.85 2.00 0.85 1.15 1.40 0.55 0.85 1.40 1.40 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 Micronutrients (mg.L-1) Mn 0.55 0.55 0.15 0.55 0.30 0.30 0.55 0.75 0.30 0.55 0.30 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 Zn 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.45 0.25 0.30 0.25 0.26 0.26 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.25 0.30 0.25 0.25 B 0.20 0.20 0.30 0.30 0.20 0.30 0.30 0.10 0.30 0.30 0.20 0.33 0.25 0.38 0.38 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.35 0.30 0.35 0.35 Cu 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 MO 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

NH4 Disa Cymbidiium Anthurium Lettuce Rose Gerbera Gypsphila Strawberry Alstromeria Amaryllis Beans Carnation Crysanth Brinjal Courgette Cucumber Pepper Tomato Melon Cherry toms Swiss chard Amaranthus
X

1.7 1.0 0.3 0.7 0.7 1.5 0.7 1.0 0.7 1.2 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.3 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.0 1.0

Z Z

y y y y y

The crop recipes should produce these EC values with zero Na and Cl in the feeding water. These values may be increased with 10 to 20% by concentrating the nutrient solutions during cold and low radiation conditions. During sunny, hot and low humidity conditions (with poor climate control structures) the EC values can be reduced by lowering the nutrient concentrations with 15 to 25%. The relatively high sulphate levels may be reduced with 2 up to 3 mmolc L-1 and replaced with equivalent levels of Cl, only with a drain-to-waste system and with the water Cl levels < 2 mmolc L-1. Addition of silicon (Si) to these nutrient solutions may reduce the incidence of powdery mildew, as discussed on page 35.

These standard (input) nutrient solutions (Table 18) should be changed when root zone solutions indicate that imbalances develop. Regular and accurate analyses of root zone solutions should be done in order to adapt the nutrient's input concentrations. As an example, the K demand may increase with an increased tomato fruit load and this will be reflected in the root zone where the Klevel will be relatively low. Corrections to the input solution's cation ratio can thus be made (higher K, lower Ca and/or Mg). This timely correction is done before plants experience deficiencies or toxicities. The principle is to compare the root zone nutrient solution with target values (Table 21) as will be explained later. 51

Silicon (Si)
Although Si is not an essential nutrient for most crops, Si can be included in nutrient solutions for crops to reduce the incidence of powdery mildew. This may reduce disease losses in crops such as cucumbers, courgettes and roses (Sonneveld, 2002). In Belgium, Si is found at concentrations of 1.6 to 3.2 mmolc L-1 (0.4 to 0.8 mmol L-1) and special care is needed not to use water with more than 1.6 mmolc L-1 on strawberries. This may cause albinism, a lack of red pigment in ripe fruit (Deckers, 2002). Si concentrations are usually not measured in South African water samples. Our limited information indicates that Si is generally present at 5 to 10 mg.L-1. With an atomic mass of 28.1 and a valency of 4, the eq mass of Si is 7.03. South African feeding water may thus contain Si at 0.7 up to 1.4 mmolc. A general recommendation is to have Si at 3 mmolc L-1 in the root zone solution (Voogt, 1992). Apart from the Si in the feeding water, sandy substrates may release Si that should be taken into account. The practice to add Si to nutrient solutions is problematic. The Si-source (potassium meta silicate) cannot be added to a concentrated stock solution tank due to its high pH, necessitating a special pH adjusting and separate application procedure (Sonneveld, 2002). The other alternative, to use 'Bindzil' or powdered sand (SiO2) as source of Si may block drippers. However, according to Stan Dekkers (Personal communication, BDB, Leuven), this product can be used with NFT or Ebb-and-Flow irrigation systems, where needed.

Closed systems Table 19 Nutrient solutions for different crops, grown in closed systems.
Macronutrients EC* (mS.cm-1) (mmolc.L-1) K Ca Mg NO3 H2PO4 SO4 Fe 1.9 2.8 3.4 3.9 2.2 4.5 3.4 3.6 4.3 3.6 4.7 3.9 3.9 4.4 4.0 4.5 4.4 4.8 4.7 5.4 5.0 5.0 1.4 2.0 1.8 3.8 1.7 3.1 5.2 3.2 3.4 2.5 4.3 3.1 3.1 5.1 3.6 5.3 6.2 4.3 5.8 4.8 6.0 6.0 1.0 3.3 1.5 4.0 1.3 4.5 0.6 7.0 1.0 4.0 0.8 7.0 2.0 9.0 1.3 6.1 1.4 6.8 1.2 6.0 1.5 9.4 1.2 6.9 1.2 6.9 2.4 9.5 1.9 7.8 1.8 9.6 2.5 10.4 2.2 8.3 2.3 8.6 2.5 8.7 2.0 7.0 2.0 7.0 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.7 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.5 1.5 1.1 1.0 1.6 1.5 2.0 2.3 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.4 2.3 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.6 4.0 3.9 5.8 5.8 0.60 0.73 0.68 0.89 0.55 0.92 1.13 0.89 0.98 0.78 1.15 0.90 0.90 1.26 1.03 1.24 1.34 1.21 1.38 1.38 1.38 1.38 0.45 0.45 0.85 1.00 0.51 1.42 0.85 1.00 1.40 0.55 0.57 1.12 1.12 0.85 0.57 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.70 0.85 0.85 0.85 Micronutrients (mg.L-1) Mn 0.55 0.55 0.15 0.55 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.75 0.30 0.40 0.30 0.28 0.28 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.40 0.40 Zn 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.22 0.19 1.90 0.40 0.25 0.30 0.19 0.20 0.20 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.24 0.24 0.25 0.24 0.20 0.20 B 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.30 0.20 0.20 0.30 0.08 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.22 0.15 0.38 0.33 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.30 0.20 0.30 0.30 Cu 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 MO 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

NH4 Disa Cymbidiium Anthurium Lettuce Rose Gerbera Gypsphila Strawberry Alstromeria Amaryllis Beans Carnation Crysanth Brinjal Courgette Cucumber Pepper Tomato Melon Cherry tomato Swiss chard Amaranthus 1.7 1.0 0.3 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.5 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.3 0.8 1.0 1.1 0.8 0.8

* Electrical conductivity with nutients dissolved in distilled water

52

In a closed system, the drained nutrient solution is re-used. When the solution is re-circulated, the input solution can be adjusted in anticipation of expected changes. Lower concentrations of almost all the nutrients (in Table 18) can thus be used as input solution, as shown in Table 19. In spite of these well-planned nutrient solutions, imbalances may still develop during production. With the root zone solution as check, the same target values as prescribed for the drain-to-waste production system (Table 21) are also used as norm for a closed system. With no run-off, stricter feeding water norms apply for closed systems. The biggest problem is that most crops absorb Na and Cl at very low rates. Accumulation of these ions will thus occur where the input exceeds the absorption rate. In the Netherlands and in Belgium, where the feeding water contains Na and Cl at high levels, they dilute the water with rain water, gathered from glasshouse roofs. Due to the low rainfall in some of our production areas and the local use of tunnel-shaped structures, accumulation of rain water is not a practical solution for most South African growers. It is possible to use feeding water with higher Na or Cl concentrations than the absorption rates (Table 20), on condition that the expected accumulation of Na and Cl is closely monitored in order to flush in time. This should be done when the Na level in the root zone reach a critical level (substratemax) where yield losses will seriously set in, shown in Table 20.

Table 20 Na and Cl uptake of some crops, as well as maximum levels not to be exceeded in root zones (xVoogt, 2008; yDe Kreij et al., 1999).
Uptake Na (mmolc L-1) 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.8 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 1.5 1.2 0.5 1.0
x y

Substrate(max) Cl Na Cl 0.2 1.0 0.4 1.0 0.9 0.5 0.5 0.9 1.5 2.0 2.0 0.7 1.2 6 6 8 8 3 -

Crops

(mmolc L-1) 8 6 12 12 3 8 10 15 10 15

y x

6 10 8 8 10

Cymbidium Rose y Aubergine x Peppers-vegetative x Peppers-fruiting y Bouvardia y Alstromeria/ Beans /Anthurium/ /Gypsophila/ Hippeastrum x Chrysanth x Gerbera x Lettuce x Cucumber y Carnation/ Courgette/ Melon x Tomato

These are European results. Values in this table still need to be tested under South African conditions.

53

Cherry tomatoes can be considered as more tolerant to saline conditions than standard tomato cultivars. A grower at Yzerfontein manages to grow cherry tomatoes, chillies, basil and rocket with feeding water containing Na at 12 mmolc L-1 in a drain-to-waste system. It should also be possible to grow saline-tolerant crops such as Amaranthus (Marog) and spinach (Beta vulgaris) at this high Na level, on condition that the substrate drains well. Rather than allowing the Na and Cl levels to reach critically high levels before flushing a 'closed' system, accumulation of these ions can be prevented by daily discarding of a certain percentage of the solution in the drainage tank. The discard percentage can be calculated as follows: (Input uptake) x 100 / (Substrate(max) uptake). The discard percentage is used to prevent the substrate Na- or Cl-concentrations from exceeding substrate(max) levels. Say that you are using a nutrient solution containing Na at 2 mmolc L-1 (Input) and you are growing tomatoes. Using Wim Voogt's values (Table 20), tomatoes can absorb Na at 1.0 mmolc L-1 and can tolerate root zone Na-levels of up to 10 mmolc L-1. The percentage of the solution in the drainage tank that should be flushed to prevent the accumulation of Na can be calculated: Discard % = [input - uptake] x 100 / [substratemax uptake] = (2.0 1.0) x 100 / (10 1.0) = 11%. Using the same feeding water to grow cucumbers in a closed system (absorbing Na at 1.2 mmolc L-1 and with a substratemax of 8 mmolc L-1 (Table 20), the percentage of the drained solution that should be discarded is: Discard % = [input - uptake] x 100 / [substratemax uptake] = (2.0 1.2) x 100 / (8.0 1.2) =12% The discard percentage should not be confused with the drainage percentage. The drainage percentage for substrate-grown plants in closed systems is 30%. When using root zone solutions to correct your applied nutrient solution, your drainage percentage should lie between 10% and 30% to ensure that the process works well. Due to economic reasons, most drain-to-waste growers keep their drainage percentages as low as practically possible, usually between 10 and 20%. Micronutrients in feeding water for closed systems should not exceed levels needed in the planned nutrient solution. The only exception is that the B-level should be a bit lower than the planned level, due to its tendency to accumulate during recycling. B may be phytotoxic when allowed to accumulate. Leaf vs. root zone solution analyses The procedure to use leaf analyses as tool to manage nutrient solutions, consumes valuable time. The time needed for deficiency or toxicity symptoms to develop on leaves is just too long. It is almost 54

impossible to avoid yield and quality losses with this procedure.

Even with quick petiole sap

measurements as aid, it is still extremely difficult to manage a crops nutritional needs (Brink, Combrink and Knight, 2002). Root zone analyses enable growers to identify nutritional imbalances before it is reflected in the leaves and before damage can be done to the yield potential. The Dutch and the Belgians have technicians who take root zone samples every week or two. They drop the samples at the laboratory at the end of the sampling day where it is analysed the next day and the results and suggested changes faxed or E-mailed to the growers (Deckers, 2002). This is possible due to homogeneous growing conditions, short distances between growers and the availability of trained advisors, backed by well-equipped laboratories. managerial effectiveness. South African conditions limit the implementation of such a system but the same principles may be adapted to improve our nutrient

Procedure for adjusting nutrient levels

After compiling a nutrient solution to fit a specific feeding water, as explained earlier, it is advised that a check be done on the final product. Apart from the grower's EC and pH measurements, nutrient levels should preferably also be checked. The next step, after a week or four, is to have the solution from the root zone chemically analysed to detect deviations from preset norms in order to adjust the input solution. Sampling Samples of the freshly applied nutrient solution (for closed- as well as drain-to-waste systems) are taken from the drippers, after allowing a few minutes to flush the pipes. With closed systems a second 500 ml sample can be taken from the drainage tank as indication of the root zone solution (Deckers, 2002). With the commonly used drain-to-waste system, samples are directly taken from the root zone. This can be done 5 minutes after the completion of an irrigation. Use at least 20 randomly selected plants, excluding border rows. A sample of about 25 ml is taken from the bottom of each bag. A 50 ml plastic syringe can be used with a home-modified plastic suction tube. The 20 sub samples are added to fill one 500 ml plastic bottle to the top, replacing all air. The bottle should be marked and placed in a dark container while taken to the laboratory, preferably in a cool bag at 4oC to minimise nitrification. Checking laboratory results Before accepting a laboratory result, its accuracy should be checked first. With an EC of 2.1 mS cm-1 the measured cation (Na, K, Ca, Mg & NH4) and anion (H2PO4, SO4, NO3, Cl & HCO3) totals should 55

be 21 mmolc L-1 each.

Deviations of less than 10% between the measured and calculated cation-

and anion-ECs may be accepted. Norms for root zones Where roots absorb nutrients quicker than water, EC-increases occur in the root zone. Where the uptake of water is quicker, relative to the uptake of nutrients, an EC-increase occur. Plant roots absorb nutrients at different tempos and this is the reason why the concentration of some nutrients increase and others decrease when the nutrient solution moves through a root zone. This was taken into account when ideal root zone levels were chosen for several crops at Naaldwijk. These values were adapted for South African conditions as shown in Table 21. Table 21 Target levels of nutrients at EC(c), the target EC level for nutrient solutions after passing through the root zone of different crops.
Macronutrients
(mmolc.L-1)

Micronutrients Evaluate at EC(c)

(mS.cm-1) (mg.L-1)

K Disa Cymbidium Anthurium Lettuce Rose Gerbera Gypsophila Strawberry Alstromeria Amaryllis Beans Carnation Crysanth Brinjal Courgette Cucumber Pepper Tomato Melon Cherry toms Swiss chard Amaranthus 1.3 2.0 3.0 5.0 3.9 5.5 4.0 5.0 5.0 6.3 5.5 6.0 6.0 4.5 5.5 5.5 5.2 7.0 7.0 8.0 7.0 7.0

Ca 1.8 2.6 3.5 8.1 9.8 9.6 11.7 10.4 11.2 9.6 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.9 11.9 12.8 16.2 15.3 17.6 17.1 19.4 19.4

Mg 1.2 1.8 2.5 1.4 3.8 3.2 4.8 4.0 4.0 3.2 4.0 3.2 3.2 6.4 4.8 4.0 6.0 6.0 6.8 6.8 7.1 7.1

NO3 H2PO4 SO4 2.6 3.2 5.5 10.0 11.4 13.2 14.4 12.0 12.6 14.4 14.4 14.8 14.8 15.0 15.6 15.6 15.4 15.0 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 1.0 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 2.6 3.3 2.2 3.0 4.0 4.8 3.4 5.1 6.3 4.5 5.4 4.5 4.5 5.4 4.5 4.5 8.0 12.0 15.0 17.0 17.0 17.0

Fe 0.41 0.41 0.77 1.00 0.85 2.20 0.94 1.27 1.54 0.61 0.94 1.54 1.54 0.94 0.94 0.94 1.11 1.11 1.11 1.11 1.11 1.11

Mn 0.22 0.22 0.08 0.28 0.15 0.18 0.33 0.45 0.18 0.33 0.18 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.39 0.39 0.39 0.39 0.39 0.39

Zn 0.25 0.25 0.28 0.28 0.30 0.33 0.33 0.59 0.33 0.39 0.33 0.34 0.34 0.39 0.39 0.39 0.42 0.42 0.35 0.42 0.35 0.35

B 0.20 0.20 0.33 0.36 0.26 0.45 0.45 0.15 0.45 0.45 0.32 0.53 0.42 0.65 0.65 0.51 0.60 0.60 0.70 0.60 0.70 0.70

Cu 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.03 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06

MO 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

0.58 0.71 0.84 1.38 1.63 1.89 1.86 1.79 1.97 1.97 2.06 2.02 2.02 2.12 2.09 2.09 2.43 2.82 3.18 3.38 3.38 3.38

Concentrations of macro nutrients in the target solutions are given at specific EC values for the different crops, termed EC(c). To be able to compare macro nutrient levels of root zone samples with these EC(c) target values, their concentrations should be adjusted to be on par with the values at EC(c). This can be done using the following procedure: Calculate EC(v): As an example, say that the measured EC of a pepper root zone solution is 3.3 mS cm-1 with Na at 3.0 mmolc L-1 and Cl at 2.6 mmolc L-1, then the EC-contribution of Na and Cl must be 56

subtracted by using the bigger of the two values. The corrected EC will then be 3.3 minus sodium's contribution of 0.3 mS cm-1 (Calculated as 3.0 mmolc L-1 /10). The adapted EC of 3.3-0.3 = 3.0 mS cm-1 is now termed EC(v). Adjust the root zone macronutrient levels: All the measured macro nutrient levels are multiplied with a correction factor. This is done to change the measured values to be comparable with EC(c), as given in Table 21. The correction factor is the ratio between EC(c) and EC(v). Using peppers as an example, its EC(c) value is 2.43 mS cm-1 as shown in Table 21 and the EC(v), in the previous paragraph was 3.0 mS cm-1. The correction factor (cf) will then be: cf = EC(c)/EC(v) = 2.43/3.0 = 0.83. This cf is smaller than 1.0, indicating that the measured nutrient levels will be lowered when multiplied with cf. Where the EC(v) of the root zone sample is lower than EC(c), the correction factor will exceed 1.0 and the measured nutrient levels will be increased after multiplication with cf. EC of root zone solution EC of Na or Cl (use highest value) Root zone EC after subtracting Na or Cl EC of target solution (Table 21) Root zone macro nutrient correction factor EC(r) EC(s) EC(r)- EC(s) = EC(v) EC(c) EC(c) / EC(v) = cf.

After multiplying the measured nutrient levels with cf, these values can then be compared with the target values in Table 21. The difference, expressed as a percentage, is used to decide whether the basic input nutrient level needs adjustment. A guideline to help with this decision is given in Table 22.
K a) Roots (mmolc.L-1) b) Target (mmolc.L-1) c) Deviation = a b Ca Mg NO3 P SO4

K x cf. K(t) K(d) d) Deviation % = (c x 100)/b

Ca. x cf Ca(t) Ca(d) K(%)

Mg x cf Mg(t) Mg(d) Ca(%)

NO3 x cf NO3(t) NO3(d) Mg(%)

P x cf P(t) P(d) NO3(%)

SO4 x cf SO4(t) SO4(d) P(%)

SO4(%)

Table 22

Proposed adjustments to nutrient levels of input solutions, due to deviations from root zone norms, as given in Table 21. Micronutrient deviation correction
0-30% 30-40% >40% None 25% 50%

EC-adjusted macronutrient deviation correction

0-25% 25-40% >40% None 12% 25%

Correcting micronutrient levels: The measured micronutrient values are not EC-adjusted. Deviations of micronutrients are simply calculated by subtracting the target value (Table 21) from the 57

root zone value and this difference is then expressed as a percentage of the target value. Changes to input solutions are suggested in Table 22 and further explained with examples (pages 42-47).

Procedure to manage pH
The pH value as well as the levels of bicarbonate and ammonium in the root zone are used to correct the pH where needed. De Kreij et al., (1999) defined different scenarios to demonstrate how this is done. As mentioned earlier, most crops grow well when the pH of a nutrient solution is about 5.8. Norms for ammonium and bicarbonate: < 0.5 mmolc L-1 0.5-1.0 mmolc L-1 = medium 1.0 1.5 mmolc L-1 = high -1 >1.5 mmolc L = very high Different possible situations 1) pH below 5.5 due to a low bicarbonate level that may be associated with a medium to high ammonium level. Possible solutions: Increase the pH of the input solution (max. 6.2) or, should ammonium be high, lower the ammonium input level. 2) pH 6.5 7.5 in spite of a high ammonium level. Solution: The pH may still decrease somewhat due to the presence of ammonium; the pH of the input solution can be slightly lowered, but not below pH 5.3. 3) pH 6.0 6.5 with a very high ammonium level.. Solution: No action is needed due to the high ammonium level and an anticipated pH drop. The root zone sample was probably taken during or directly after irrigation. 4) pH above 6.0 due to a high bicarbonate level, in spite of a very high ammonium level. Solution: Do not increase the ammonium level; lower the pH of the input solution but not lower than pH 5.3. 5) pH below 5.5 due to a very high ammonium level and low bicarbonate level. Solution: Remove all the ammonium from the basic input solution until the pH settles at higher levels. 6) The ratio of bicarbonate to ammonium is high (Bicarbonate high; ammonium low): a. pH 5.56.0 Solution: Due to expected pH increase, lower the input solution's pH (but not lower than 5.3) and add some ammonium (< 0.3 mmolc L-1) to the basic nutrient solution for crops tolerant to the development of Ca-deficiency disorders such as blossom-end-rot (BER). Zero ammonium for BER-sensitive crops. = low

58

b. pH 6.0-6.5 Solution: Lower the input solution's pH (but not lower than 5.3) and add some extra ammonium (0.2 -0.4 mmolc L-1). Use the lower level for crops that are sensitive to the development of Ca-deficiency disorders. c. pH 6.5-7.0 Solution: Lower the drip pH (not lower than 5.3) and add some extra ammonium (0.4 0.8 mmolc L-1). Use the lower level for crops that are sensitive to the development of Ca-deficiency disorders.

Procedure to change input solutions

Example 1 The best way to explain the procedure is per example. Say that root zone samples were taken from the bottom of bags with sawdust, about a month after tomato seedlings were established in a drain-towaste production system. Say that twenty samples were used to make up one 500 ml sample, to be analyzed as root zone- or substrate solution: Tomato root zone composition (input values in Italics between brackets).
Macronutrients Micronutrients
-1

pH-Parameters

Salinity parameters
-1

(mmolc.L )
K Ca Mg NO3 P SO4 7.42 (7.2) 8.82 (8.8) 3.40 (3.4) 13.51(13.3) 1.43 (1.4) 5.74 (5.7) Fe Mn Zn B Cu Mo

(mg.L )
0.55 0.40 0.29 0.46 0.08 (0.85) (0.55) (0.25) (0.30) (0.04) (0.05)

-1

(mmolc.L )
HCO3 0.8 (0.2) NH4 0.4 (1.0) Na Cl

(mmolc.L-1 )
0.5 (0.6) 0.3 (0.4)

pH (pH) 6.2 (5.9)

EC 2.35

(EC) ( 2.04)

EC of root zone solution EC of Na or Cl (highest value) Root zone EC after subtracting Na or Cl EC of target solution (Table 21) Root zone macronutrient correction factor

EC(r) EC(s) EC(r) - EC(s) = EC(v) EC(c) EC(c) / EC(v) = cf

= 2.35 = 0.05 = 2.30 = 2.82 = 1.23

K a) Substrate (mmolc.L-1) x cf =
-1

Ca

Mg

NO3 -N

SO4

9.10 b) Substr. crop target (mmolc.L ) 7.0 -1 c) Deviation (mmolc.L ) (a b) +2.10 -4.49 d) Deviation % (c x 100)/b +30 % -29.3 %

10.81 15.3 -1.83 -30.5 %

4.17 16.56 1.75 7.04 6.0 15.0 1.2 12.0 +1.56 +0.55 -4.96 +10.4 % +46.1% -41.4% 59

According to Table 22, the input values should be adapted with 12 % where deviations exceed 25 % and with deviation percentages higher than 40%, corrections of 25% should be considered.
K e) Input (mmolc L ) Correction to Input *Correction in mmolc L-1
-1

Ca

Mg

NO3 -N

SO4

7.2 8.8 3.4 -12 % +12 % +12 % -0.86 +1.06 +0.41

13.5 1.4 0 % - 25% 0 - 0.35

5.7 +25% +1.43

* These suggested changes need to be balanced first. Increases must be equal to decreases on both sides (cations and anions). Always use the less drastic change when balancing. Before balancing the cations, have a look at the pH-scenario (page 41-42). If changes in ammonium is suggested, it must be brought into the cation equation. Cations and ammonium: The pH parameters in this example show that ammonium input may need adjustment. The pH of the input solution is 5.9 with ammonium at 1.0 and bicarbonate at 0.2 mmolc L1

. These values changed in the root zone to pH 6.2 with ammonium down to 0.4 and bicarbonate up If this is not done, the recommendation is to increase the

to 0.8 mmolc L-1. This is similar to scenario 6b, described on page 42. The first option for this scenario is to lower the pH to 5.3. ammonium level with 0.2 to 0.4 mmolc L-1. The 6b suggestion is to use the lower of these two values when growing crops that are sensitive to Ca-deficiency disorders. Blossom-end-rot is a common Caproblem on summer-grown tomatoes. Thus, the ammonium level will be lifted with only 0.2 from 1.0 to 1.2 mmolc L-1. According to the procedure, as explained in the previous paragraph, the input levels of K, Ca and Mg need to be altered with -0.86 +1.06 and +0.41 respectively. With ammonium included, the equation looks as follows: +0.2 NH4 - 0.86 K +1.06 Ca +0.41 Mg = +0.81 (an excess of 0.81 mmolc L-1) When lifting ammonium with 0.2, the calculated 1.06 extra Ca and 0.41 extra Mg should be lowered to have a total increase of 0.86 (= total decrease). This is less drastic than to increase the K-reduction in order to balance the equation. But, the Ca- and Mg-increases should be lowered proportionally (), say from 1.06 and 0.41 to 0.48 and 0.18 mmolc L-1 respectively. balanced (Increases = decrease): +0.2 NH4, -0.86 K, +0.48 Ca, +0.18 Mg = 0.00 Anions: The procedure suggests that nitrate be left unchanged and that the phosphate level be decreased with 0.35 and sulphate lifted with 1.43 mmolc L-1. Apart from using the least drastic action (retain the 0.35 phosphate reduction and lower the sulphate increase from 1.43 to 0.35) one should also take note that plants can adapt to sulphate at a very wide range (Steiner, 1980). deficiencies or toxicities do not easily develop at low or high sulphate levels. Summarizing the process:
NH4 K Ca Mg NO3-N P SO4

By doing this, the equation is

Thus,

60

Input (mmolc L ) Correction (Table 22) Rough correction (mmolc L-1)

-1

1.0

7.2 -12 %

Balanced corrections: +0.2 -0.86 -1 New input-mix (mmolc L ) 1.20 6.34

8.8 +12 % -0.86 +0.48 9.28

3.4 13.3 1.4 +25 % 0 % -25% +1.06 +0.41 0.0 +0.18 0 -0.35 3.58 13.30 1.05

5.7 +25% -0.35 +0.35 6.05

+1.43

Micronutrients Since no EC-adjustments are needed before evaluating micronutrients, the changes can be made, using the following steps:
Fe Target root zone levels (mg.L-1) 1.11 -1 Measured root zone levels (mg.L ) 0.55 (Root zone) (Target value) -0.56 Root zone deviation from target -50% -1 Input (start-up) mix (mg.L ) 0.85 Adjustment to input (Table 22) +50% -1 Adjusted micronutrient mix (mg.L ) 1.28 Mn 0.39 0.40 +.01 +3% 0.55 0 0.55 Zn 0.42 0.29 -0.13 -31% 0.25 +25% 0.31 B 0.60 0.46 -0.14 -23% 0.30 0 0.30 Cu 0.06 0.08 +0.02 +33% 0.04 -25% 0.03 Mo 0.05 0.05 0.05

If possible switch to a closed system (Example 2). Most South-African growers use the 'drain-to-waste' production system. Due to several irrigations per day, imbalances do not easily develop, making it a relatively easy production system. The problem is that 20 to 30% of the applied nutrient solution is lost. Apart from expensive wasted fertilizers, water is also wasted and also enriched with nutrients. When released to rivers, the nutrient-rich water stimulate the growth of algae and invasive water plants. When using a 'drain-towaste' production system, growers should at least use the run-off nutrient solution to fertigate field crops or gardens. More skills are needed to recycle, but growers with good quality feeding water should seriously consider to switch to a closed system. By so doing, water and nutrients can be saved and the bonus is that with no run-off, we can keep our water streams clean.

61

Example 2 When growing lettuce in a closed system with plastic-lined gravel beds as substrate, the volume of nutrient solution that is absorbed by the crop is usually replaced with pure feeding water entering the system via a ball-valve. The associated drop in EC is corrected by adding nutrients, at least once a day. It is recommended that the composition of the drained solution be monitored from time to time to correct deviating nutrient ratios, to adjust pH-parameters where needed and to monitor Na and Cl. Lettuce drainage tank solution (input values in Italics between brackets)
Macronutrients (mmolc.L-1 ) Drain (Input) K Ca Mg NO3 P SO4 4.59 9.91 1.55 8.02 0.99 5.40 (3.5) (3.9) (0.6) (6.5) (0.9) (1.6) Micronutrients (mg.L-1) Drain (Input) Fe Mn Zn B Cu Mo 0.55 0.40 0.29 0.46 0.04 (0.85) (0.55) (0.30) (0.30) (0.05) (0.05) pH-Parameters Salinity-Parameters -1 (mmolc.L ) (mmolc.L-1 ) Drain (Input) Drain (Input) HCO3 0.1 NH4 0.5 (0.4) (1.0) Na 2.3 Cl 1.6 (1.9) (1.6)

pH = 5.4

(5.8)

EC 1.80

(EC) (1.49)

EC of root zone solution EC of Na or Cl (highest value) Root zone EC after subtracting Na or Cl EC of target solution (Table 21) Root zone macronutrient correction factor

EC(r) EC(s) EC(r)- EC(s) = EC(v) EC(c) EC(c) / EC(v) = cf.

= 1.80 = 0.23 = 1.57 = 1.38 = 0.88

K
a) Roots (mmolc.L-1) x cf = b) Target (mmolc.L-1) c) Deviation (a b) d) Deviation % (c x 100)/b

Ca 8.71 8.10 +0.61 +7.5%

Ca

Mg 1.36 1.40 -0.04 -2.7%

Mg

NO3 -N 7.05 10.00 -2.94 -29.0%

NO3 -N

P 0.87 0.80 +0.07 +8.8%

P

SO4 4.75 3.00 +1.75 +58.2%

SO4

4.03 5.00 -0.97 -19.3%

K

e) Input (mmolc L-1)

3.5 Correction (Table 22) 0% *Corrections in mmolc L-1

3.9 0% 0

0.6 0% 0

6.5 0.9 +12% 0% 0 +0.78

1.6 -25% 0

- 0.4

Corrections still need to be evaluated and balanced, but to balance changes to cations, ammonium must first be brought into the equation. 62

Cations and ammonium: Have a look at the pH parameters. The pH of the input solution is 5.8 with ammonium at 1.0 and bicarbonate at 0.4 mmolc L-1. These values changed in the root zone to pH 5.4 with ammonium at 0.5 and bicarbonate down to 0.1 mmolc L-1. This is similar to pH-scenario 1 on page 41. The options are to lower the ammonium level and/or to incease the input pH. Due to a relatively low input alkalinity (0.4 mmolc L-1) the alkalinity can be increased to about 0.8 mmolc L-1 to lift the pH The other option (chosen for this exercise), is to lower the ammonium level with 0.4 mmolc L-1 from a relatively high input level of 1.0 mmolc L-1 to 0.6 mmolc L-1. With the lower ammonium now part of the cation balancing equation, we need to add an equal amount (0.4 mmolc L-1) of either K, Ca or Mg, even though no changes are suggested. However, the relatively high root zone K deviation of 19.3% is an indication that this cation can be used to add the extra 0.4 mmolc L-1, needed to balance the cation equation: -0.4 NH4 ; +0.4 K; 0 Ca; 0 Mg.

Anions: The suggested changes in nitrate (+0.78) and sulphate (-0.40) do not balance. The least drastic option should be followed. Thus, the nitrate input should be increased by 0.40 and the sulphate input decreased (as recommended) by 0.40 mmolc L-1. Summarizing the process: NH4
Input (mmolc L ) 1.0 Correction (Table 22) *Correction (mmolc L-1) Macro's & pH adjust: -0.4 -1 New input-mix (mmolc L ) 0.6
-1

K
3.5 0% 0 +0.4 3.9

Ca
3.9 0% 0 3.9

Mg
0.6 0% 0 0 0.6

NO3-N P
6.5 +12% +0.78 +0.40 6.9 0.9 0 0 0.9

SO4
1.6 -25% -0.40 -0.40 1.2

Micronutrients Since no EC-adjustments are needed before evaluating micronutrients, the changes can be made, using the next steps:
Fe Target root zone levels (mg.L-1) Root zone levels (mg.L-1) (Root zone) (Target value) Root zone deviation Input (start-up) mix (mg.L-1) Adjustment to input Adjusted input mix (mg.L-1) 1.00 0.55 -0.45 -45% 0.85 +50% 1.28 Mn 0.28 0.40 +0.12 +43% 0.55 -50% 0.28 Zn 0.28 0.29 +0.01 +4% 0.30 0% 0.30 B 0.36 0.46 +0.10 +28% 0.30 0% 0.30 Cu 0.06 0.04 -0.02 -33% 0.05 +25% 0.06 Mo 0.05 0.05 0.05

63

Due to a high Na-level in the feeding water, higher than lettuce's absorption rate of 1.2, its concentration increased from 1.9 to 2.3 mmolc L-1. To prevent Na from accumulating to levels higher than substratemax, the following percentage of the drained solution should be discarded at the end of each day. Discard % = 6.2%. The discarded nutrient solution should not be allowed to flow into rivers, it should rather be used to fertigate field-crops or gardens. By doing this, we can help to keep the water in South-African rivers clean. = [input - uptake] x 100 / [substratemax uptake] = (1.9 1.5) x 100 / (8.0 1.5) (See Table 20)

64

References
ARNON, D.I. & HOAGLAND, D.R., 1940. Crop production in artificial culture solutions and in soils with special reference to factors influencing yields and absorption of inorganic nutrients. Soil Sci. 50, 443-476. BAR-YOSEF, B.T., 1995. Plant nutrition workshop. Stellenbosch, November, 1995. Association for Vegetables Under Protection,

BENOIT, F., 2003. Conductivity and pH. Chapter 4 of the International course for soil -less crop production European Vegetable R&D Centre, Sint-Katelijne Waver, Belgium. BORNMAN, J.J., 1994. Principals of fertigation. Proceedings of the Association for Vegetables Under Protection, Stellenbosch, November, 1994. BRINK, P.P., COMBRINK, N.J.J. & KNIGHT, F.H., 2002. Evaluation of petiole nitrate measurements as an aid for N-fertilisation of potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.) on sandy soils. S. Afr. J. Plant Soil, 19, 1-7. COMBRINK, N.J.J., 2005. Nutrient solutions and greenhouse www.greenhousehydroponics.co.za. Stellenbosch, South Africa. management.

COMBRINK, N.J.J., 1998. Tomato fruit quality and yield affected by NaCl in nutrient solutions. J. S.Afr. Soc. Hort. Sci. 8, 57-59. COMBRINK, N.J.J., JACOBS, G. & MAREE, P.C.J., 1995. Muskmelon fruit quality as affected by nutrient solution concentration and fruit shading. J. S. Afr. Soc. Hort. Sci. 5, 39-42. DECKERS, S., 2002. Sampling, interpretation and fertilization advice in hydroponics. Fertigation workshop, Stellenbosch University, October, 2002. AIPP-

DECKERS, S., 2004. Nutrient management in closed systems. Association for vegetables under protection, Stellenbosch, November, 2004. DE KREIJ, C., VOOGT, W., VAN DEN BOS, A.L. & BAAS, R., 1999. Bemestings Adviesbasis Substraten. Proefstation voor Bloemisterij en Glasgroente te Naaldwijk, The Netherands. EPSTEIN, E. & BLOOM, A.J., 2004. Mineral nutrition of plants: Principles and perspectives. Sinauer Associates, Inc. Publishers, Sunderland, Massachusetts. LaHAYE, P.A. & EPSTEIN, E., 1971. Calcium and salt toleration by bean plants. Physiologia Plantarum 25, 213-218. KAFKAFI, U., VALORAS, N. & LETEY, J., 1982. Chloride interaction with nitrate and phosphate nutrition in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) J. Plant Nutr. 5, 1369-1385. 65

LINDSAY, W.L. & NORVELL, W.A., 1969. Equilibrium of Zn 2+, Fe3+, Ca2+ and H+ with EDTA and DTPA in soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc., 33, 62-68. PIENAAR, D., 2005. A study of greenhouse production techniques for evergreen Disas. MSc (Agric) thesis, University of Stellenbosch. RIBEIRO, J.E.M.M., & COMBRINK, N.J.J., 2005. Growth and development of Amaranthus tricolor L. as affected by salinity and cutting height S Afr. J. Plant Soil, 23 (1) In press. SILBER, A., XU, G., LEVKOVITCH, I., SORIANO, S., BILU, A. & WALLACH, R. 2003. High fertigation frequency: the effects on uptake of nutrients, water and plant growth. Plant and Soil 253, 467-477. SEDIBE, M.M., COMBRINK, N.J.J. & REINTEN, E.Y., 2005. Leaf yield of Amaranthus hypocondriatus L. (Imbuya), affected by irrigation systems and water quality. S. Afr. J Plant Soil 22, 171-174. SONNEVELD, C., 2002. Composition of nutrient solutions. Chapter 5 in: Hydroponic production of vegetables and ornamentals, edited by Savvas, D & Passam, H. Embryo publications, Athens, Greece. SONNEVELD, C. & VOOGT, W. 2009. Plant Nutrition of Greenhouse Crops. Springer New York. Science,

STEINER, A.A., 1968. Soilless Culture. Proceedings of the 6 th Colloquium of the International Potash Institute, Florence, Italy. STEINER, A.A., 1980. The selective capacity of plants for ions and its importance for the composition and treatment of the nutrient solution. Proc. Int. Soc. Soilless Culture 1980, 83-95. STEINER, A.A., 1984. The universal nutrient solution. Proc. Int. Soc. Soilless Culture 1984, 633649. STRAVER, N., DE KREIJ, C. & VERBERKT, H., 1999. Bemestingsadviesbasis Potplanten. Proefstation voor Bloemisterij en Glasgroente te Naaldwijk, The Netherands. VOOGT, W., 1992. Silicium zinvol bij roos in steenwol. Vakblad voor de Bloemisterij 47 (33), 2829. VOOGT, W., 2008. Elke kuub water van bron tot sloot. Onder Glas (2) Feb. 2008. WEIGEL, R.C., SCHILLINGER, J.A., McGRAW, B.A., GAUCH, H.G. & HSIAO, E., 1973. Nutrientnitrate levels and the accumulation of chloride in leaves of snap beans and roots of soybeans. Crop Science 13, 411-412. 66

SANITATION OF NUTRIENT SOLUTIONS

We have already mentioned that good quality water is preferred for hydroponic systems. Good quality water should be pathogen-free and it should have a low salt content as well. i) Water for drain to waste systems The 'drain to waste' system is used in semi intensive production units in the RSA, Australia, Spain and Israel. Using this system, the potential harmful effects of salts and pathogens in the feeding water is relatively low. However, the EC of the feeding water should be lower than 0.4 to 1.2 mS.cm-1. The lower EC level applies where saline -sensitive crops are grown. The higher EC limit may be used for salt-tolerant crops or moderately tolerant crops where the ions present in the water are also essential minerals. The types as well as concentrations of microorganisms present in the feeding water are important. Not all nematodes are harmful but harmful nematodes in feeding water may accumulate in root media and attack the roots. This problem may develop where dam or river water is used. Nematodes may be removed from water using micro-filters. The real dangerous pathogens are much smaller than nematodes (fungi, bacteria and viruses). Fungal root diseases may be avoided to some extent with well-aerated root media and well-managed irrigation programs. An anaerobic root medium may trigger fungal problems such as damping off in seedlings and pythium or other fungal root diseases, especially on carnations and cucumbers. Fungicides can be used to cure affected roots, only in a well-aerated root medium. However, prevention is better than cure and many growers dose seedlings with fungicides directly after transplanting. The concentration of potentially harmful microorganisms in rivers and dams increased over the past few years as the population and informal settlements grew. An increase in incidence of water-carried diseases may convince users of these water sources to chlorinate the water used for intensive plant production. Small growers may use swimming pool products but gas (Cl2) seems to be easier to apply on bigger units. This is also done to purify municipal drinking water. Sanitation is the only way to prevent bacterial diseases and viruses. These pathogens usually do not enter production units via the feeding water. They are brought in via infected seed or seedlings, pruning knives, insects and the hands of smokers and visitors.

ii)

Recycled nutrient solutions

These systems increase the potential danger of salt and pathogen accumulation and greater care is needed. The feeding water should be low in sodium (<1 me/L) and chloride (<2 me/L) and the 67

recycled solution should be sterilized against pathogen build-up.

Ion concentrations should be

checked regularly to ensure that minimum and maximum limits are not exceeded.

Pathogens It should once again be emphasized that plants can resist fungal root diseases if the roots are well aerated. However, if pathogens do accumulate, diseases may spread quickly due to millions of spores poured into the water of a closed system. Cases were reported where bacteria and viruses wiped out entire production units within a few days. European growers are increasingly using expensive water sterilizing equipment to clean their recycled nutrient solutions. Ozone, heat and UV are used, with UV gaining popularity. UV applied correctly kills all living micro-organisms effectively but clear nutrient solutions are needed in order to allow the UV rays to penetrate the solution to kill the pathogens. With organic root media, nutrient solutions may develop a dark brown colour, preventing deep penetration of UV rays. Inert root media are mostly used where UV lamps are used for sterilization. Chelates such as Fe-EDTA may be broken down during UV radiation. A cheaper but less effective method to lower the pathogen concentration in water is to use a bio-filter (slow sand filtration). The principle is that micro predators accumulate naturally in the sand filter, where they feed on pathogens passing by. The bio filter is illustrated in the following diagram, where it can be seen that the active layer should be in a dark and anaerobic environment. Since algae grow in nutrient solutions that are exposed to light, one of the problems of a GFT system is that algae grow on the wet gravel in the beds that may be infected with the Big Vein Virus (BVV). Since BVV can be transmitted to lettuce, causing enlargement of the vascular bundles, the belief (in some circles) that the open gravel beds of a GFT system may act as some sort of a bio-filter should not be trusted.

68

Chapter 4
CLIMATE CONTROL

4a)

FACTORS TO CONSIDER

We are dealing with a big capital investment. The first step should be to learn more about the crop and the type of market that you would like to target. The next step should be to consult an engineer with the necessary experience with greenhouses and crops. This may be a big problem because engineers with greenhouse experience are also involved with companies selling greenhouses. This is why different opinions and quotes are needed. It may also be useful to discuss structures with existing growers in your area. The options and risks should be well calculated. In the following paragraphs, some basic principles will be discussed.

Climate When you are growing crops in the tropics, it would be senseless to think about spending money to improve the climate. However, if plants are grown in areas with sub-optimal climatic conditions, climate control becomes an issue. In some areas the only problem may be a low rainfall, a problem easily corrected with an irrigation system. If temperature, humidity, wind, light and even CO2 are identified as limiting factors, the need for complete climate control increases. Due to their poor climatic conditions, the high technology glasshouses in Europe may be justified. These structures are expensive and are only used to produce well-priced products. In the RSA, Australia, Spain, Morocco and Israel, structures are less sophisticated. Even in the RSA, the needs vary form East to West and from North to South. As the climate changes, the structural needs also change, even for the same crop.

Crop Before considering any production, one should first identify a good market. The grower must know where he would like to grow which crop for which market or time before even thinking about the type of plant protection unit. Having identified the limiting climatic conditions, the greenhouse may be planned and the erection costs calculated. (It is much cheaper to lower light intensity and wind speed with a net structure than to increase low night temperatures). Too many new growers believe that only

69

a 'tunnel' is needed to solve all the problems, as was reported or advertised in some agricultural weekly magazine. Good market research should be the foundation of any new project. Locality If a structure is planned, the following should be kept in mind: * Is the water quality good and the feeding rate high enough? (10L/m2 /day) ? * Is the market within reach (road, rail, port) ? * Choose a building site higher than the lowest valley in areas with frost problems but not at the peak of a hill in the windy areas. * In hilly areas a Northern slope should be chosen to use as much of the winter sun as possible (Avoid high trees or structures to the North, East or West of the planned greenhouse to prevent shading problems). In addition, height (pressure) differences should be taken care of when planning the irrigation scheme. * The rows in a greenhouse should be placed in a North-South direction to allow sunlight to reach most plant parts. * Should the crop or the workers need protection from rain to improve flower quality, pollination, productivity, etc., a waterproof roof (plastic, polycarbonate or glass) should be used.

Greenhouse-effect The greenhouse-effect (heating) is well known in ecological circles. Environmental specialists say that the temperature of the atmosphere is increasing due to air pollution and an increase of the CO2 concentration. Due to the shield of air polluting gasses and CO2, the radiation energy from the sun is trapped beneath the 'sheath'. The earth is heated due to the fact that the incident light rays change into heat energy, when absorbed by dark surfaces. This heat can be radiated away from the earth in the form of heat waves, mainly infrared. (This happens on cloudless nights). Due to the long waves of infrared, it is easily reflected by clouds as well as by a polluted atmosphere, slowing down the cooling process. If this concept is understood, it is easy to explain why heat builds up in an environment, sealed by transparent plastic material. The plastic acts as a filter, allowing light (shorter waves) to enter but reflects the longer heat waves. Black or dark objects (light-absorbing) in a structure can increase the greenhouse effect by absorbing more light energy, transforming it into heat that may be radiated as infra red but will be largely reflected by plastic covers. Using white floors, a large percentage of the light will be reflected from it (unchanged), easily passing through the plastic cover, leaving without heating the floor or the air in the structure. With a black floor, most of the ligth will be absorbed and changed into heat energy, accumulating in the tunnel due to the difficulty of long 70

wavelength rays to pass through the plastic. Growers should be able to manage the heat accumulation during the day and prevent heat losses at night to optimize growing conditions.

Relative Humidity (RH) Most crops develop well at a RH of 60% up to 75%. How do we go about to measure RH? Accurate electronic sensors are available but RH can be better understood when the old technique is described. Use two calibrated thermometers; giving the same reading when placed in a glass of water. Use a tennis shoelace to cover the bulb of the one thermometer. Place the other end into a holder with water to make your own wet bulb thermometer (Tw). To measure the RH in your greenhouse, use the table below. Follow the line of the dry bulb (Td) reading. The RH can be read in the column showing the difference in dry and wet bulb temperatures (Td-Tw). The thermometers should be placed in a Stevenson cabinet (or well-constructed homemade copy) not allowing direct sunlight to reach the thermometers but open enough to allow air moving through. The bulbs should not be in contact with the cabinet-walls.

71

RH-VALUES IN BLUE ASSOCIATED WITH SPECIFIC DRY BULB (Td) TEMPERATURES AT SPECIFIC TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DRYAND WET BULB

TEMPERATURES (Td-Tw) TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE : Td-Tw (oC) 0 DRYBULB: Td (oC) 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 90 90 91 92 93 94 94 94 94 94 94 94 94 95 80 83 82 82 84 86 87 88 88 88 88 88 89 90 73 75 76 76 78 79 79 80 81 82 83 83 83 84 64 68 68 68 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 78 79 56 60 60 62 65 66 67 68 70 71 72 72 73 74 48 50 52 55 58 59 60 62 64 65 66 67 68 69 40 43 46 49 51 54 55 57 59 60 62 63 64 65 32 37 38 40 43 47 49 51 53 55 57 58 58 59 25 30 32 35 38 41 44 46 48 50 52 54 54 55 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

72

4b)

COOLING

i) Reduce the greenhouse effect (Prevent heat build-up in the structure) This can be done by reducing the light entering the greenhouse or by reflecting extra light from within a greenhouse. A cover with a natural low transparency (green or milky white) may be used for certain ornamental crops (semi-shade). With crops needing relatively high radiation levels, these covers may only be used in mid-summer, when most areas in South Africa have higher than optimum light intensities. Most growers with standard tunnels spray their plastic covers with Ca(OH)2 to create a white, light reflecting lime coat. The problem with these coats is that it is easily washed off by rain. Special paints can also be used, needing solvents to be removed after the mid-summer period. Shade nets can also be used as reflectors or to absorb light on top of existing plastic covers or to replace plastic covers during the high light intensity summer periods. Apart from reducing light intensities entering a greenhouse, extra light may also be reflected from within the greenhouse. This can be done with reflecting (white) floor covers and even by covering root media with white plastic. The incoming light rays that miss the leaves, may then be reflected and prevented from generating heat, as would be the case with dark floors. White shade nets or special aluminet light reflecting materials are used as moveable ceilings in more expensive structures.

ii) Methods to remove heat from a greenhouse

a) Natural ventilation. Warm air is less dense, and will leave the greenhouse at high vents, allowing cooler air to be drawn in at lower vents. This chimney-effect is more effective with a structure built on a slope. With insufficient air movement, expensive mechanical means may be used to force air into or out of a structure.

b) Evaporate cooling It is remarkable to note the difference in temperature between two identical greenhouses where the one is filled with seedlings (small leaf area) and the other with a full-grown crop (large leaf area). This is due to the cooling effect of transpiration. The cooling increases as evaporation (transpiration) increases. When seedlings are transplanted in mid summer, the small leaf areas cannot cool the whole greenhouse. These seedlings may be protected from extreme high temperatures with emergency procedures such as to wet the floor surface to cool the environment down and to increase the RH. The same can be done using a wet wall with fans to force air 73

through it or by using foggers. However, only good quality water should be used for foggers placed directly above the plants. Salts may scorch leaves after evaporation of water from the droplets. Water is emitted from foggers or nozzles at high pressure with the aim to cool the environment and not to wet the leaves. Wet plants, or plants at >80% RH are likely to be attacked by fungal leaf diseases. The effectiveness of this cooling method is best at a low relative humidity (RH). Using a wet wall (pad and fan) or a fogger will increase the RH in a greenhouse and will lower the need for transpirational cooling. Plant roots can easily absorb sufficient volumes of water to cool leaf canopies at humidities of 65 to 75%. At lower humidity levels, however, the roots of crops such as cucumbers may experience difficulty to meet the increased demand for water to be transpired (To help the plant roots to cope with the increased pumping demand, the EC may be lowered under hot, low RH conditions, if possible). However, melon fruit quality may improve at a low RH due to higher transpiration rates from fruit surfaces, cooler fruit, extended fruit development periods and higher sugar concentrations. Discussing temperatures for plant production, RH should never be ignored. Remember that the leaf does not experience heat as measured with a dry bulb thermometer, it should be regarded as a wet object, as humans. If you feel comfortable in a greenhouse, the plants will also be happy. Compare Durban with the Kalahari dessert, both at 34oC. You will experience a problem to cool down at Durban (94% RH), your skin temperature will not be lower than 33 oC, compared to a minimum skin temperature of 25 oC in the Kalahari at 50% RH. The same applies for transpiring plant leaves. The only cheap way to remove moisture from a greenhouse is to ventilate. As can be expected, this may be a problem in winter or in areas with a natural high RH. To be able to ventilate in winter, extra heat is useful, as is done in Europe. With both temperature and humidity at high levels, it is almost impossible to manage with plastic plant covers. Under these conditions, nets should be used.

c) Mechanical cooling Since evaporation is less effective in an environment with a high RH, the only other option in humid areas would be to use mechanical means. A compressor is used to place a liquid under pressure, forcing it to change into a fluid but also building up heat, radiated from a black grid outside the greenhouse. The pressure is then released inside the greenhouse, using lots of heat-energy to change the liquid into gas, cooling the greenhouse. This is an expensive procedure and is only used for greenhouses used for research or for expensive tissue culture plant production units.

74

4c)

HEATING

It is expensive to generate heat energy and this is the reason why energy should be preserved by all means. Heat losses occur due to the leaking of hot air from structures (open vents), radiation from warm surfaces as infrared (IR) or conduction of heat via the plant cover.

Prevent heat losses: i) Air leaks: Doors and vents should be manufactured in such a way that they close tight, not allowing hot air to leak out at night. During autumn, winter and spring, these openings should be closed before sunset or just before temperatures reach sub-optimum levels. Holes in greenhouse covers should be repaired, especially where expensive heat generators are used. ii) Radiation: As discussed in the paragraph on the greenhouse effect, visible light rays easily pass through greenhouse covers. After this light was absorbed by dark objects and changed into heat energy, it can be radiated as long wavelength IR rays. A large percentage of IR rays are reflected by glass and plastic covers, helping to prevent quick heat losses, as would be experienced without plant covers. Special IR reflecting plastic covers are available but it is difficult to say whether these products really retain heat better than ordinary plastic. No significant difference was found at the Welgevallen experimental farm when 20 m thick normal plastic and 20 m IR reflecting plastic was compared as mini tunnel plant covers. It is possible that the IR reflecting properties in thick (200 m) plastic covers, used for standard green houses, may be more efficient. The problem is that it is almost impossible to have a trial with greenhouses as experimental units with enough replications to do a statistical sound comparison between plastic with and without IR reflecting properties. The best way to minimise IR radiated heat losses is to cover the plants with reflecting material at night. Moveable screens (shade net or Aluminet), can be used to limit light radiation on summer days but may also be useful as IR reflectors on winter nights.iii) Conduction losses. Since these losses occur via the roof and sides of a greenhouse, a structure with a small cover area, relative to the floor-area, should lose less heat. The tunnel shaped structures have a relative large surface exposed to heat losses, compared to a multispan. Rather than having 3 separate 'tunnels' of 8m x 30m each, a 24m x 30m multispan (without individual side covers) should be less exposed to conduction losses. Another problem is that bigger differences between outside and inside temperatures increase cunduction of heat to the outside. By using a double layer of plastic with a 15-30 cm air space between the two layers as isolation, the conduction losses can be greatly reduced. It should, however, be noted that a single layer of new plastic may absorb 10% of the incoming light, compared to 20% for a double layer. With ageing of the plastic, the absorbancy values 75

may increase to such an extent that a low light intensity may be a problem in greenhouses with double layers in winter.

Add heat Growers heat water in boilers to be re-circulated through pipes in their greenhouses. Heater pipe rails are used between the rows in Europe, also to serve as rails for the pruning-, harvesting- or spraying trolleys. Water may be heated with electricity, burning of coal or diesel, solar panels or even with wind rotors. (Beware not to use Cu or Zn pipes or elements in re-circulating systems, plastic or stainless steel are safe alternatives). Heat from power stations may also be an option. In Israel, warm water from 1000m deep boreholes is used to fill large plastic bags in greenhouses as source of heat at night. After cooling, this mineral water is diluted with fresh water and used as irrigation water. Rocks, heated by the sun, may also be used as sources of energy to heat greenhouses at night. Some of the heat-generating units produce warm air to be blown into large (0.6 m diameter) plastic tubes, placed between the rows. Paraffin burners are useful when properly managed. With sufficient O2 supplied to the burner (using fresh air from the outside), the burner will produce CO2, which may enhance photosynthesis and growth under optimum light and temperature conditions. However, these burners may emit two poisonous gasses when used with insufficient O2 levels: CO is a human poison and ethylene (H2C=CH2) a hormone that may harm young plants by inducing abscission of flowers and by enhancing senescense). A new and promising way of thinking is to develop a compound with the property to change phases (liquid/gas) at 20oC. This will use energy (cooling) during the day to be changed from a liquid to a gas and release heat during the night to liquidize. Heating of a root medium is used to stimulate rooting of cuttings in winter. The optimum root medium temperature for rooting is about 15 to 22oC. Care should be taken not to overheat, since the solubility of O2 decreases in water at high temperatures. 4d) LIGHT

Problems associated with low light intensities are long internodes, pale-green leaves and suboptimum photosynthetic rates. In paragraph 3f (Greenhouse covers) it is mentioned that all transparent covers intercept a certain percentage of light and that critical low intensities of short wave 390m (violet) light may be the result. This light is needed to form anthocyanin in leaves, especially important for red lettuce types. This illustrates that light quality is not a function of intensity alone. Since many wavelengths of light affect plant development, the relation between the different 76

wavelengths (light quality) should also be kept in mind. Photosynthesis occurs in the waveband 400700 nm and this is called photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and is dependent on both, red (647-740 nm) and blue (422-492 nm) light. However, maximum photosynthesis occurs at two peak wavelengths 435 nm (blue) and 675 nm (red). High levels of blue light limit inter-node length and red controls the vegetative / reproductive growth with the longer red waves 780-2500 nm (far-red and infra-red) affecting phytochrome pigments. Photoperiodism (the response of plants to daylength) is controlled by light at 400-500 nm, 580-700 nm and 700-850 nm; photomorphogenesis (plant architecture) is controlled at 660 nm and 730 nm; and phototropism at 445 nm. We also know the change from vegetative to reproductive development in many plants is controlled by red (660 nm) and far red (730 nm) light. Saturating irradiance for most species is 80-130 W m-2 (value for single leaves). As the LAI increase the saturating irradiance increase to about 300 W m-2 for a LAI of 3. A photosynthetic photon flux density of about 400 mmol m-2 s-1 for 8-10 hours (10-15 mol m-2 d-1) is needed for satisfactory plant growth. This level can also be attained by 200 mmol m-2 s-1 for 20 hours, or 300 mmol m-2 s-1 for 10 hours, with an additional 200 mmol m-2 s-1 for five hours. Most high intensity discharge lamps will deliver 100-150 mmol m-2 s-1 at plant level.

Photoperiodism Photoperiodism is the flowering response to the lengthening or shortening of the day, hence the term daylength. However, it is more scientifically correct to deal with the length of the dark period, and whether it is broken or not. The energy receptor for photoperiodism is not chlorophyll but a protein called phytochrome, and its energy reception spectrum is quite broad at 400-500, 580-700, and 700850 nm. Short-day plants should be covered by dark curtains so that the dark period exceeds the light period. Even a very short light period in the middle of a dark period will prevent a short-day plant from flowering. Long-day plants need supplementary lighting and this is often more effective if light is given in the middle of the dark period. Sometimes a 10-minute light period every 30 minutes is as effective as continuous light. This practice is termed cyclic lighting. In greenhouse operations, a combination of natural daylight and artificial light and dark screens or curtains are used to control the day/night cycle. High intensity discharge (HID) lamps, fluorescent tubes, incandescent lamps, or a combination of these lights are used in greenhouses located in latitudes where day lengths are short. Fluorescent or incandescent lights are usually used for 77

supplemenary lighting to illuminate the new mature leaves. These lights are inexpensive to install and run, but the trade-off is low lumens per watt with a high proportion of the total radiant emission of incandescent lamps in the 550-700 nm (red) spectral band.

Phototropism Phototropic responses are triggered between 350 and 500 nm (optimum 445 nm), and the receptors are carotenoid pigments. Shade avoidance is triggered by a relatively higher proportion of far-red to red and blue light. It occurs when plants are overshadowed by their neighbours, and at dusk when far-red becomes more important. Symptoms of shade avoidance are larger and thinner leaves, and stems are longer, thinner and weaker (etiolated). Neighbouring plants filter out the photosynthetic colours red and blue.

Photomorphogenesis Photomorphogenesis have an effect of the architecture of the plant, e.g. plants grown exclusively under red light look spindly and have small leaves, an effect which is caused by the lack of blue light. The amount of blue light necessary to prevent this abnormal growth is so small that even the contribution from weak daylight through glass is normally adequate to prevent abnormal growth. Photodormancy Germination of seeds of some plants (e.g. lettuce) is promoted by light, specifically by red light at about 670 nm, and inhibited by infra-red (750 nm). Most seeds are indifferent to light or darkness. Good seed catalogues spell out the light requirements for seeds. Through a glass darkly About 95 % of incoming sunlight is in the 400-2500 nm waveband. Window glass and glasshouses seldom transmit more than 70 % of this incoming radiation, and this is further reduced by screens, structural shading, etc. Glass transmits about 90 % of light at 600 nm (in the PAR range, and near the 675 nm optimum), PVC transmits 87 %, and polyethylene transmits only 82 %. However, once inside the greenhouse, almost half of the incoming radiation is re-radiated outwards from soil and plants in infra-red wavelengths of 3500-25000 nm. But glass is fairly opaque to long-wave radiation (>3000 nm), and so we have the greenhouse effect. Plastic materials are more transparent than glass to long-wave radiation, but even so, heat conduction and reflection can still give substantial heating.

MEASURING LIGHT Plants see light differently from the way human beings do. As a result, lumens, lux or footcandles should not be used to measure light for plant growth, since they are measures used for human 78

visibility. More correct measures for plants are PAR watts, PPF PAR (photosynthetic photon flux PAR), and YPF PAR (yield photon flux PAR), although each in itself does not tell the whole story. In addition to quantity of light, considerations of quality are important, since plants use energy in different parts of the spectrum for critical processes.

PAR and plant response curve The quality of light is as important of the quantity. Plants are sensitive to the PAR spectrum (400-700 nm). Plants respond more effectively to reg light and to blue light, the peak being in the red region at around 630 nm. However, a plant illuminated only with red light will fail to develop sufficient bulk. Vegetative growth and bulk also require blue light. The correct portion of the spectrum varies from species to species.

Lumens and Lux: Light quantity for humans is based on how bright the source appears and how well the eye sees under the light. Since the human eye is particularly sensitive to yellow light, more weight is given to the yellow region of the spectrum and the contributions from blue and red light are largely discounted. This is the basis for rating the total amount of light emitted by a source in lumens. The light emitted from the source is then distributed over the area to be illuminated. The illumination is measured in lux, a measurement of how many lumens falls on each square of surface area. 1000 lux = 1000 lumens per square meter. Both lumens and lux refer specifically to human vision and not to the way plants see light. PAR watts for plants: Watts is an objective measure of energy being used or emitted by a lamp each second. Energy itself is measured in joules, and one joule per second is called a watt. A 100-watt incandescent bulb uses up to 100 joules of electrical energy every second. How much light energy is it generating? About six joulers per second, or six watts, but the efficiency is only 6 %, a rather dismal number. The rest of the energy is dissipated, mainly as heat. Modern discharge lamps, such as high pressure sodium (HPS) and metal halide (MH), convert typically 30-40 % of the electrical energy into light. They are significantly more efficient than incandescent bulbs. 79

Since plants use energy between 400-700 nm (PAR), we could measure the total amount of energy emitted per second in this region and call it PAR watts and directly indicates how much light energy is available for plants to use in photosynthesis. The output of a 400-watt incandescent bulb is about 25 watts of light, while a 400-watt MH bulb emits about 140 watts of light and a 400-watt HPS lamp emits typically 120-128 watts. Illumination for plants is measured in PAR watts per square metre and is termed irradiance. Radiometric units: Radiant energy: joule (J) ; Radiant flux (energy flow): J s-1 or W ; Irradiance: W m-2 at a specified wavelength

HORTICULTURAL LAMPS The choice of lamp for a particular greenhouse will depend primarily upon the purpose for which it is required. The light output of the lamp compared with the energy input is termed luminous efficacy, expressed in lumens per watt (lm W-1).

Lamp types

Incandescent lamps Used in homes. Relatively cheap with luminous efficacy of 10-35 lm W -1. Provide light in the far red end of the colour spectrum. Generally regarded as unsuitable for photosynthesis since they release the bulk of their radiation as infra-red. Plants grown under these lamps show abnormal morphology with excessive stretching of internodes. Their low efficiency and relatively short lifespan makes them unsuitable for other than a simple system of photoperiod for flower control. 1000-2000 hours (@ 18 h days = 2-4 months) Fluorescent tubes Luminous efficacy is 40-100 lm W -1. They are widely used in plant lighting where an illuminance of 1000 lux converts to 2.9 W m-2 for PAR wavelengths. Until HID lamps were developed, fluorescent lights were the most widely used horticultural lamps available for greenhouse installations. Some fluorescent tubes boast a spectrum that is almost identical to that of the sun, but they are not bright enough to efficiently grow many plant species. Today, these lamps are best used for cuttings and seeding. They supply cool diffused light in the proper spectrum to promote strong root growth. Apart from rooting, cloning and tissue culture for which fluorescents are highly recommended, their use in greenhouse operations is restricted to photoperiodic lighting, mainly for pot plants. The high 80

irradiance level necessary for photosynthesis is not easily achievable with this type of lamp. 500035000 hours (@ 18 hour days = 9 months to 5 years)

High Intensity Discharge (HID) 1. Mercury Vapour (MV) Poor luminous efficacy 10-63 lm W -1. Mercury vapour lamps emit a cool blue-white light (strong in blue and green), and shows an obvious bias in the violet-blue wavelength. It is weak in the red area of the light spectrum and plant growth is typically tall and spindly. These lamps make very good supplementary lights for formative and vegetative plant growth. MV lamps last longer with a rated life of up to 24000 hours. Today, MV lamps are the least expensive light source for horticultural applications, but the trade-off is that certain wavelengths are missing. Nowadays, they have been replaced by MH and HPS lamps, which have a higher radiant efficiency and better light distribution. 2. Metal Halide (MH)

MH lamps are well suited for illuminating large areas within greenhouses and grow rooms. While the blue light dominates the light spectrum, metal halides also have a useful amount of red light. MH lamps produce a brilliant cool blue-white light. Their luminous efficacy is 40-100 lm W-1. The illuminance of a 1000-watt lamp at PAR wavelengths is 3.10 W m-2. 3. High Pressure Sodium (HPS) HPS lamps have luminous efficacies of 50-150 lm W -1. At 1000 lux, their illuminance at PAR wavelengths is 2.45 W m-2. HPS lamps combine high radiant efficiency with a spectral energy distribution that is well suited to a wide variety of plants. The spectral distribution is highest in yellow, orange and red, which stimulates flower production and stem elongation, ideal for flower production. The trade-off is tall and spindly growth in some plants that require some blue light in order to maintain healthy vegetative growth. It is preferable to use this lamp in combination with metal halide lamps in order to increase the blue content of the light spectrum this is necessary for the formative growth of many crops such as lettuce and tomato. Over the years there has been considerable debate whether MH or HPS is the better HID lamp to use in horticultural applications. The bottom line is that both work well. However, if you utilise both lamps within your growing environment, then you have the most balanced light possible the two reinforce each other. The main reason why many growers choose the MH alone is because of its greater general vegetative/flowering flexibility.

81

Sulfur bulb Relatively new. This light source offers light, almost equal to the quality of natural sunlight. A glass ball, containing non-reactive gas and S, is exposed to microwaves to facilitate the light emission process. It emit far less heat and almost no harmful UV or infra-red radiation than HID lamps. There have been no notable studies in horticulture using the sulfur light. Major marketing obstacles are cost, and an appropriate luminaire for horticultural applications.

Which lamp is the best? For supplementing natural daylight, commercial growers with a big greenhouse would choose HID lamps. Fluorescent tubes dont have the irradiance for greenhouse use, and incandescent bulbs have the wrong spectrum for photosynthesis. This leaves MH and HPS as the best supplements (but not replacements) for photosynthetic light (PAR 435 and 675 nm optima). MH lamps have output peaks at 350-450 and 575-650 nm, while HPS lamps have peaks at 550-650 and 825 nm. Commercial growers prever MH for propagation and foliage-only plants, and HPS for photoperiod manipulation.

4e)

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Due to the unsophisticated greenhouse structures used in the RSA, CO2 -enrichment of plant environments is not yet practiced. However, one should not forget that ventilation of greenhouse structures is not only done with temperature and humidity control in mind, but that low CO2 concentrations in closed structures may be a problem, especially on cool but sunny mornings. CO2 enrichment may have positive effects, especially under optimum light and high temperature conditions. The CO2 concentration is slowly increasing in our atmosphere. This is mainly due to the burning of fossil fuel, the destruction of the photosynthetic potential of the earth (green algae, forests) and volcanic activities. The increasing CO2 concentration and air pollution jointly increase the reflection of IR from the earths atmosphere, causing global warming. An increase in global temperature and CO2 concentration may increase crop yields with rainfall or light intensities unchanged. In 1960 the CO2 concentration was 0.03% but is close to 0.04% at this stage. Most crops will benefit from an increased CO2 concentration up to the 0.10% level. Using cucumbers, it was shown that a concentration as high as 0.13% CO2 was beneficial, in cases where the temperature and light intensities were increased concurrently. 82

Taken from Principles of Plant Nutrition edited by K. Mengel & E.A Kirkby (1987)

CO2 and plant growth Numerous experiments on a wide range of crops have demonstrated that under normal atmospheric conditions, the concentration of CO2 limits photosynthetic rate. It would, of course, be misleading to suggest that this is the only rate limiting factor. Both light and temperature affect photochemical reactions, but there is abundant evidence to confirm that both photosynthetic and growth rates increase with additional CO2 under a wide range of light and temperature conditions. Since photosynthesis occurs primarily in the leaves, the initial accumulation of dry matter is also in leaf tissue. This means that crops which are grown exclusively for their leaves (such as lettuce) tend to be the most efficient users of additional CO2 (double CO2 = 45% increase yield). In fruit crops such as tomatoes, peppers and cucumbers, yield improvement is less direct, because carbohydrate formed in the leaves must be transported to the developing fruit to contribute to the final harvest yield. Fortunately, rates of transport are also improved in plants grown under CO2-enriched conditions (double CO2 = 19% increase yield). CO2 levels outside the greenhouse are generally in the 340-350 ppm range, while interior concentrations vary considerably. When the greenhouse is full of plants and leaves create a canopy which completely covers the growing area, nighttime respiration contributes CO2 to the greenhouse atmosphere. At dawn, CO2 concentrations often exceed those outside the greenhouse, but as light levels and temperature increase, photosynthesis quickly consumes the excess and drives CO2 levels below 340 ppm. At this point, photosynthesis and growth will be retarded unless additional CO2 is provided. The problem is most severe under bright daylight conditions and cold outside temperatures 83

which limit greenhouse ventilation. Even with ventilators open, CO2 concentrations are frequently below outside atmospheric levels. Nutrient concentrations may have to be increased under CO2 enrichment.

The natural replenishment of CO2 in the greenhouse can be supplemented by burning fuels such as propane, natural gas, or kerosene, by decomposition of organic material, or by injection of pure CO2. CO2 should, ideally, be monitored, and the rate of supplementation should be varied to maintain approximately 1000 ppm CO2. Pure CO2 Most expensive, but safest and most easily controlled. Pure CO2 has two outstanding advantages: 1) there are no contaminants and 2) it can be controlled precisely. The CO2 should be distributed directly into the principal part of the vegetative canopy by means of 5 cm flat polyethylene pierced at 30 cm intervals with 1 mm diameter holes.

Combustion All fuels require that sulfur content not exceed 200 g g-1, otherwise plant damage from SO2 is likely to occur. Propane and natural gas composition can vary markedly, e.g. commercial grades of propane can vary from 30-100 % propane and 70-0 % propylene. For CO2 production, the fuel gases are piped from the external supply to open-flame burners suspended over the crop. Fuels burned for CO2 supply have two outstanding advantages: 1) they are cheap compared with pure CO2, and 2) they can also supply heat simultaneously. However, they can be a serious disadvantage under conditions where no heat is required. Another important disadvantage, especially if the fuel is burned inside the 84

greenhouse, is the possibility of plant damage resulting from fuel contaminants and improper combustion.

Organic matter decomposition Decomposition of any organic matter produces CO2. With the movement toward soilless culture and requirements for dependable and controllable CO2 sources, decomposition is seldom practiced in modern greenhouses.

Problems Any combustion in the confines of an enclosed building has inherent dangers. Among the possible pollutants are sulfur dioxide (SO2; <0.5 ppm), nitrous oxides (NO, NO2; <0.025 ppm), ethylene (C2H4; <20 ppb), and leakage from pipe joints of propylene and natural gas. Inefficient combustion of petroleum fuels can lead to formation of carbon monoxide (CO), formaldehyde (HCHO) and acrolein (CH2CHCHO). 4f) COVERS Rainproof covers If a waterproof cover is needed, glass, polycarbonate, glass fiber and plastic are mostly used. * Glass does not change over time and only absorbs/reflects 7% of sun light (transmits 93%). Some problems with glass as cover is its weight, needing strong and costly structures, and the fact that it can break and injure workers in a greenhouse. * Polycarbonate is next in line, retaining its quality for at least 10 years, before losing transparency. New polycarbonate sheets absorbs 10% of sun light. Polycarbonate is light and almost

indestructible, a great advantage for areas with hailstorms or for more expensive units. 85

* Glass fiber is as light as polycarbonate, not as fragile as glass, but its transmission decreases quickly after a few years in the sun. * Plastic is relatively cheap but can be used for only 2 to 5 years before it should be replaced. New plastics for greenhouses are continuously being developed. Manufacturers may claim that their covers have properties such as anti-fog, better resistance to UV- and chemical breakdown, have a 100% UVabsorbency to disorientate insects or other properties to prevent fungal leaf diseases. The problem with most of these claims is the difficulty to proof false claims in practice. The light that is responsible for the production of red pigments in leaves (anthocyanin), is relatively short 390m, just shorter than violet light (410m). Shorter wavelength light rays are greatly absorbed by covers. The UV light rays hardly pass through glass, making it impossible to tan with a glass between the sun and your body. Red lettuce cannot be grown under low intensity light, especially not under covers.

Nets With no need for waterproof covers, nets can be used. Any net plant cover will lower the light intensity, an advantage in summer, but it may be a problem in winter. At night, the reflection of IR may just help a grower to avoid white frost. Frost may still develop on top of the nets but plants inside the structure may be protected against mild frosts. Different colours are available with black or white mostly used. The advantage of black is its better resistance against UV-breakdown. As black nets, white nets are also used as protection against wind and to lower light intensity but an additional advantage is its ability to disperse sunlight. Instead of absorbing the radiation from the sun (as with black nets) it reflects the light. The reflected light rays (from sides of twines) are sent into all directions, almost illuminating the net ceiling. The manufacturer claims that more light reach the leaves due to this dispersion. In hot and humid areas, nets may be the only practical plant cover to use. Apart from its value as cover for plant production units, vertical nets are invaluable to protect plant production sites against strong winds in windy areas such as the western Cape.

4g)

SOLARIZATION

Principles of solarization As discussed in the paragraph on the greenhouse effect, visible light rays easily pass through transparent material but after being changed into heat, the longer IR rays are much more subjected to reflection by the same transparent material. Contrary to general belief, black plastic soil mulches are 86

much less effective to increase soil temperature than transparent ones. The black cover accumulates a lot of heat but it is mostly lost to the atmosphere as IR rays. Only a small percentage of this heat energy is conducted to the top few millimeters of the under laying topsoil. Using transparent soil mulches, most of the sunlight (90%) will strike the soil where it will be changed from light- into heat energy. The IR rays are now trapped below the plastic cover where it will heat the soil effectively. By wetting a soil, its heat exchange capacity will increase. This is the reason why soils are irrigated before covered with transparent plastic for solarization. This is an environmentally friendly alternative for methyl bromide fumigations, used in Israel to control nematodes, weeds and some other soil pathogens. After a week or two in full sunlight, the covers may be removed for normal crop production.

4h)

Mini tunnels

* Soil mulches Soil mulches are used to suppress weeds and to improve the microclimate of the soil surface. Temperature and soil moisture are well known factors determining the microclimate that may be improved with the use of soil mulches. It was reported that the property of reflected light from soil mulches affect vegetative growth and that white grass mulches were superior to red grass mulches for potatoes. Claims were made that insects may be repelled by light, reflected from soil mulches at specific frequencies, to control the spread of viruses. In a local trial with black and white soil mulches under controlled conditions (moisture and temperature kept constant), melon seedlings were grown to test the effect of reflected light. The white plastic reflected light 40 times better than black, without changing the wavelength ratios (quality). Shorter internodes but thicker stems were found on white mulches. Within 21 days, the seedlings gained 5-10% more dry material on white mulches, compared to black. The only explanation is that photosynthesis was more effective, due to extra-reflected light from the white plastic. This trial was done in spring with a light intensity that may be considered as sub-optimum for melons.

* Plant covers (mini tunnels) Earliness and yield of seedless watermelons were tested, using three planting dates, combinations of different soil mulches and plant covers at the experimental farm of the University of Stellenbosch. The first planting was done in August, the second in September and the third in October. The earliest harvest date for uncovered plots from the August planting was only 6 days earlier than the September planting and only 14 days earlier than the first picking from the October planting. Harvesting dates for 87

Augustus and September plantings were two weeks earlier under plastic covers, compared with the uncovered plots. For the October planting, no beneficial effect was found with plastic covers, probably due to the onset of warmer weather. The use of plant covers in Augustus and September plantings increased the average watermelon yields with 57% (from 48.6 to 76.1 t.ha-1). An advantage of plant covers is the early rise in air temperature. At 14h00, air temperatures were significantly higher under the plastic covers. This advantage could be seen with the first two plantings only. Air temperatures did not differ early in the morning, indicating that these temperature differences disappeared during the night. One of the plastic plant covers had anti-fog and IR-reflecting properties. No significant difference could be found between an ordinary and this plastic plant cover. Low early morning soil temperatures for the August (12.0C) and September (15.3C) plantings probably contributed to the poor performance of their uncovered plots. The use of plant covers increased the early morning soil temperatures for the August and September plantings to 14.4C and 16.7C respectively. The soil temperature for the October planting with no plant cover was 18.3C, probably high enough and explaining why a plant cover had no significant effect for this planting date. Differences in yield, due to different soil mulch colours (transparent, brown, black), were insignificant, only where no plant covers were used. When black soil mulches were used in combination with any transparent plant cover, however, the midday temperature was substantially higher. This was due to the efficient transformation of light- into heat energy on the black soil cover and with the plastic cover to prevent IR heat loss from within the mini tunnel. Leaf temperatures were not measured but could have been increased where plant covers were used, increasing the RH. Plant covers increased midday air temperatures with 3.5oC but the leaf temperatures would have been at least 7 to 8oC higher. To understand this statement, it should be noted that transpiration on the uncovered plots, with RH~45% had a greater leaf cooling effect than under the covers at RH~80%. Using this information, the difference between dry and wet bulbs would be 4oC, due to the RH effect. With this 4oC added to the 3.5oC dry bulb difference, a substantial difference in leaf temperature of 7.5oC was possible. In addition, plant covers protected the seedlings from wind damage. Plant covers proved to be beneficial, only when used early in the season, before optimum soil and air temperatures were reached.

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Chapter 5
SOIL-LESS PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES

5a

Drain to waste system

With this system, a single plant is usually grown in a container, filled with an organic or inert root medium. These containers are fertigated individually to add nutrient solution to sustain growth but also to leach some of the old solution (remains of previous application) out of the container. More than one plant may be used per container but most South-African growers use 10 to 20 L plastic bags, depending on the crop. It is up to the grower to choose a container and a root medium. Many combinations (containers & media) are used. Containers may be bought or homemade, depending on costs and the objectives of the grower. All containers in a fertigate to waste system need drainage holes and should be filled with an affordable medium that drains well. Rennie bags are used for the semi-intensive production systems in the RSA. These bags have a buffer against unpredictable irrigation problems such as where something goes wrong with the irrigation system. The drainage holes are not at the bottom but at 20-50 mm above the base of the container, creating an extra reservoir, to bridge difficult situations in practice. Although any type of medium may be used to fill containers, the chosen medium should drain well but should also have the ability to retain a reasonable volume of water. The smaller the particle size of the medium, the better the water retention will be. However, at some stage, a point is reached where the good water retention will restrict normal aeration, leading to water logging. Root media performing well with a drain-to-waste system include gravel (2mm-8mm) or coarse sand, LECA (light extended clay aggregates) perlite, vermiculite, vulcanic rock, rockwool, poly-urethane, pumice stone, grape seed, crushed stone fruit kernels, coarse pine sawdust or fine pine shavings, pine bark, compost, peat, or mixes. In the RSA, two short tomato crops are mostly grown in autumn and spring, rather than one 11-month crop, such as is done under high-tech conditions in Europe. A local mix of pine-shavings and sawdust gives good results and may even be used for two successive short (5 month) crops. Although an inert rockwool medium is better (used in Europe) sawdust is much cheaper.

Daily need, pulse size and the optimum number of pulses per day (Irrigation frequency) 1) Volume per pulse: The correct quantity of nutrient solution to be applied per pulse (drip irrigation) is determined by the water holding capacity of a container with medium. a) The finer textured media hold more water per container volume 89

b) The bigger containers can hold more medium and nutrient solution c) Containers with elevated drainage holes hold extra nutrient solution. (To determine the water holding capacity of a container with medium, subtract its dry mass from its mass after wetting and draining. Say the difference is 800 g (800 ml). It should be remembered that not all of this will be available for the plant. Subtract at least 25% from this value to end up with about 600 ml. This value should still be re-tested in practice as will be discussed later).

2) Volume per day: The total volume of nutrient solution needed per day depends on the following factors: a) Plant size. Bigger plants with large leaf areas transpire more per day. b) Climate. Conditions such as high temperatures and light intensities and a low relative humidity may increase the volume of water transpired per day. c) High concentrations of dissolved salts in nutrient solutions limit the uptake of water and restrict transpiration.

3) Optimum irrigation frequency? By dividing the estimated volume of water needed per day (2) by the calculated pulse volume (1), an optimum irrigation frequency may be predicted. However, this should be checked in practice, as explained in the following paragraphs.

With the 'drain to waste' system, a time switch, small computer or solar integrator may be used to schedule the irrigation program (frequency).

In a well-managed system, an application of 110% of the needed amount of water may ensure that each container drains after every irrigation. This will prevent under-irrigation and salts from building up in the containers (further restricting water uptake). Using spaghetti tubing as drippers, the accuracy of distribution is not good. Some of the containers may be underirrigated while over-irrigation or excessive drainage may occur elsewhere. Some growers believe that the aim should be to supply 120-130% of the needed volume per day. It seems to be the safest strategy for the crop to over-irrigate. The fact that 20-30% of the applied fertilizers and water are wasted, polluting rivers, does not make sense. Sooner or later the sterilization of run-off nutrient solutions should be implemented in the RSA. This will encourage higher (safer) nutrient solution applications without the fear of losing expensive fertilizers and water. 90

Where under-irrigation is suspected, confirmation may be found by testing the nutrient solution at the bottom of the container. When the EC is more than 50% higher than that of the applied solution, the volume of irrigation water may be too small. White crystals (CaSO4) are sometimes visible at the surface of some root media. This is no indication of under-irrigation. By lifting a bag, an experienced grower can tell whether the bag is too dry (light) or wet enough (heavy). Green algae generally occur on the medium surface directly underneath the drippers, however, too much green algae may be symptomatic of over-irrigation or poorly drained root media. Some growers believe that the accuracy of irrigation may be improved by slower feeding rates or longer dripping periods. By doing this, the time between irrigations may be too short for excess water to drain out and for oxygen-fresh air to be sucked into the medium. This induced water logged condition may limit water and nutrient uptake. Media with poor waterholding capacities have less water logging or root disease problems. Gravel, LECA, vulcanic rock, wood-shavings and coarse sand drain well but retain less water than sawdust, perlite, vermiculite and rock wool. Media with poor water-holding capacities should be irrigated more frequently to prevent drying of root hairs but smaller applications should be used. Media with better water-holding abilities should be fertigated less frequently with bigger volumes per irrigation, to allow oxygen-rich air to move into the root zone between irrigations. In both cases, with plants of even sizes and under the same conditions, the final volume applied per plant per day will be the same. Managers are continually confronted with several problem areas. Even with the applied volume per day at 120%, drying of young root tips may occur between irrigations, should the frequency be too low. With the same volume, but the frequency too high, root aeration (respiration) may be hampered, especially on fine textured media. With the applied volume per day exactly equal to the volume needed per plant per day (100%), salts will accumulate in the bags and will eventually restrict water uptake.

The shape of a container also affects the water-holding capacity. A high but thin container tends to be too dry at the top and too wet at the bottom. By using the same volume in a shorter and thicker container, the moisture distribution may be improved. Although not easily implemented in practice, a coarse textured medium should do well at the bottom of a container (usually too wet) with a finer textured medium at the top. Most growers use a single dripper per container. Dry mediums should be soaked or properly wetted a day or two prior to transplanting. Without this pre-transplant-wetting, nutrient solution from a dripper will follow the way of least resistance and the water may not spread to moisten the full volume of the container. In addition to water soaking, sand may be added onto the top of a coarse root 91

medium to improve the lateral spreading of water and to increase the water-holding capacity of the medium. The optimum root-medium volume differs between crops, with bigger bags needed for cucumbers, followed by tomatoes and peppers. Smaller plants need smaller root volumes. This is only a rough guide since the type of medium, production system and climatic conditions may all affect the optimum root volume needed. It should, however, not be forgotten that bonsai plants are produced using small root volumes. * Irrigation techniques may be changed to suit specific needs. Drippers with pressure control are ideally suited to distribute nutrient solutions evenly to containers where steep slopes occur in the production area. For levelled areas, a cheaper option may be to use spaghetti tubing (inside diameters of 1 to 2 mm). These are less prone to blockages but distribution of water is less accurate. Since the length of these tubes affect the resistance to water flow, they should be cut to the same length. The cut should be done at an angle of 45 o in order to limit blockages. General problem areas with drain to waste systems Try to keep the black plastic pipes that carry the nutrient solution shaded to prevent heat build-up. Without a shading option, the pipes may be coated with white PVA to alleviate the problem to some extent. This can easily be done using a knapsack sprayer (clean directly after use). Protection of nutrient solutions from light is needed to prevent algal growth. Darken nutrient solution reservoirs, cover transparent filters and use black plastic elbows rather than red ones that allow some light to be transmitted. Algae rob nutrients and O2 and in addition, block filters and drippers. * A big advantage of the drain-to-waste system is the insurance against the spread of root diseases. However, plants should be placed in such a way that drainage water does not flow from one container to the next. Contact between drain water and root media of plants lower down the line should be avoided. In Australia containers are lifted from the floor surface with horizontal wires. A cheaper option, but just as effective, is to shape the soil in such a way that drainage water runs from the containers to a furrow, running alongside the containers. Furrows may be lined with plastic and then filled with gravel, as platform for the bags. Drained nutrient solution will then flow at the base of these furrows, isolated from the bags by the gravel. * In any production system, care should be taken not to carry insects or diseases from one plant or greenhouse to the next. Pruning knifes and hands should be cleaned from time to 92

time and especially when moving from one greenhouse to the next. No smoker should be allowed to touch plants with unwashed hands, due to the possibility that tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) may be transmitted mechanically. 5b) Closed systems Drip on substrate A drain-to-waste system may be transformed into a closed system, simply by re -using all the drained nutrient solution. This is the most popular system in the Netherlands and all over Europe where rock wool is used as substrate. Most of the growers use UV to sterilize their nutrient solutions before re-using it. The clearer the solution, the better the penetration of UV rays. They seldom use organic substrates due to the brownish colour of re-used solutions from organic substrates, detrimentally affecting the penetration of UV rays.

Ebb and flood In the thirties, Prof Gericke (University of California) developed a water culture method, using gravel as root medium. Nutrient solution was pumped in and out of 70cm-deep gravel beds, sub-irrigating the plants, held by the gravel. Using an inert medium such as gravel, it can be used over and over again. An advantage of the ebb and flood system is die forced pushing of air out of the root medium as the water rises (flood cycle), followed by the lowering of the nutrient solution level where fresh air (oxygen) is drawn into the root medium. A variant of this method is not to fill the beds (shallow dams) with gravel but to place small pots (with drainage holes at their bottoms and lower sides) as plant containers into the beds (dams). By pumping nutrient solution into the bed, to reach a 2 to 4 cm flood level for some time, the root media in the pots sucks the needed volumes of water into the pots with capillary action. After a few minutes, the nutrient solution is drained from the bed, allowing the pots to drain and the floor to dry.

Capillary mats Some Azalia growers in Europe have out-door cement floors in the open, at a slight slope. A plastic sheet isolates the floor and on top of this sheet, a capillary mat is placed. Nutrient solution seeps from the highest ridge and drains via the capillary mat to a gully at the lower end from where it is recirculated. Pots with drainage (contact) holes at their bottoms, filled with medium and Azalia plants, are placed on this mat. Capillary mats are also used as extra reservoir for ebb and flood systems used for potted ornamentals in European greenhouses. Commercial, easy moveable ebb and flood beds are available at table height with reservoirs and pump systems below. 93

Constant flood level The same type of structures, used for ebb and flood systems may be used. The nutrient solution in the pool is continuously re-circulated, but stays at the same level. With an ebb and flood system, pots may be filled with any well-drained medium with the alternating nutrient solution levels to force water and gas in and out of the medium. With the constant level system, a fine-textured root medium with capillary action is needed. The nutrient solution is absorbed through holes at the bottom of the pots at the same rate as absorbed by the roots and used by the pot plants. A problem with this system is that algae and duckweed may grow in the solution, blocking filters in the recycling process.

Water culture The deep-water culture method was developed from examples in nature. Duckweed and water hyacinth grow well in water enriched with nitrates and phosphates from animal dung in nature. Nutrient rich waters are nowadays found in rivers flowing through industrial areas or over-fertilized agricultural land. The green water of the Hartebeespoort dam is a well-known example. The concentrations of nutrients in some dams are high enough to grow lettuce in floating rafts. This can be described as hydro-culture, currently practiced in a dam close to Windhoek in Namibia. Tobacco seedlings can be grown in polystyrene seedling trays, floated in dams with nutrient solution. With a large area of water exposed to gas exchange, the oxygen levels remain high in dams and rivers with water plants. Trying to use this production system for intensive production systems, using small containers with nutrient solution for root development, the first problem arising as soon as the root volume starts increasing, will be a lack of oxygen. The plants will wilt with their roots in the water due to a lack of respiration and root energy to absorb water and nutrients (waterlogged). To be able to grow a plant with its roots submerged into a small container with nutrient solution, air should be supplied to the solution, using a fish tank or other pump to aerate the medium. Harvested witloof chicory roots are forced to form chicons in dark rooms. The 200 mm long taproots are placed in containers standing 30 mm deep in nutrient solution at a constant level. The nutrient solution is continuously re-circulated with aeration-, pH-, EC- and temperature adjustments before moving back to the forcing trays. The Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) is the best-known system where only nutrient solution is used as root medium. It was developed by Dr. Cooper who used gullies with a thin layer of nutrient solution flowing through it, with the roots developing in the gullies. The nutrient solution inflow rate as well as the gradient and width of the gullies may all affect the thickness of the layer. According 94

to Cooper, about 2 litres per minute, flowing into a 20cm wide gully, should give good results. For smaller crops, smaller gullies (10cm) with lower flow rates (1 litre per minute) should do. With the NFT system, inert media are sometimes used to anchor the roots of transplanted seedlings. Small plastic containers, rockwool blocks, nets or gravel may be placed at the base of the gully. Apart from anchoring the plant, these materials may be used to lift small seedlings out of deep gullies to lift the leaves into the open. Dr. Cooper did his research at the Glasshouse Crops Research Institute at Littlehampton, Engeland. He succeeded to increase tomato yields to 357 t ha-1 with the NFT-system, compared to 284 t ha-1 produced with the conventional drain-to-waste bags with `peat moss', used in those days (seventies). The thin layer (3mm) of nutrient solution, needed at the bottom of a gully for the NFT system, should flow for 24h day-1. Using a gully with a flat base, it should be installed absolutely horizontally. With an uneven bottom surface, the solution may follow the lowest area (channel) instead of forming a thin, even layer on the whole bottom surface. The gullies (pipes) are sealed after transplanting, allowing the humidity in the root zone to increase. Roots also develop above the water level. According to Dr. Cooper, a film of water, also containing nutrients, covers the roots and that is why he chose the name Nutrient Film Technique. This film offers an ideal gas exchange opportunity, one of the great advantages of the system, allowing effective water and nutrient uptake. For a whole NFT set-up, the pumping need may be calculated as about 4 litres per hour for each metre of gully. With 25 000 plants per ha (1m rows x 0.4m within rows), 10 000 m gullies would be needed per ha. The total pump rate needed should then be 4 x 10 000 = 40 000 litre per hour per ha. A gradient of at least 1:100 (1%) should be used. However, when the nutrient solution depth increases due to excessive root development, the gradient should then be increased or the flow rate reduced. NFT Variants developed. The aeroponic system was designed to further improve root aeration and to solve problems with roots blocking the gullies. It lost popularity due to high costs involved to spray hanging roots with a nutrient solution. Larger gullies are needed for an aeroponic system with sprayers fitted along the lengths of the gullies to keep the roots moist with continuous or intermittent nutrient solution sprays. The problem with an aeroponic system is that the roots ultimately reach the bottom of the gully, bringing it back to an expensive NFT system. Power failures may cause serious losses with a NFT production system, due to the quick drying of roots when the flow of nutrient solution suddenly stops. Some NFT variants may reduce this risk: 95

1) Add gravel to the gully to increase the water retention. This means transforming it from the NFT to the gravel flow technique (GFT). An additional problem with a NFT system is that the temperature of the re-circulated nutrient solution will rise in hot areas. This may enhance the development of fungal root diseases. Where open gullies are used in GFT systems, lower temperatures are found in the re-cycled water, probably due to evaporative losses from the gravel beds. 2) The conventional NFT system can be transformed into a Puruvian pool system. This system is used on the highlands of Peru (cool climate) to cut on electricity costs. The gullies are blocked with dam walls (5mm high) every 30 to 50 cm to form shallow pools along the way. Once the pools are filled up, the pumps may be stopped for about an hour before starting up again for a few minutes.

Potential problems and advantages of a closed system * To prevent the accumulation of ions such as Na+ and Cl-, in cases where the quality of the feeding water is not very good, it is suggested that the re-cycled nutrient solution be analysed occasionally to be drained from time to time. In stead of draining the whole system every six weeks, it may be easier to drain only 1/6 of the volume every week, e.g. using it to irrigate lawns or gardens or to enrich fishponds (stimulate algae growth for tilapia). * To improve the quality of poor feeding water, fresh water (rainwater) may be collected from roofs (preferably not galvanised surfaces), or seawater may even be desalinated, using expensive techniques such as reversed osmosis. Solar energy may even be used to evaporate water from saline water sources to be used for saline sensitive crops. (A mini tunnel, covered with transparent plastic, covers a black plastic gully. A thin layer of seawater slowly flows through the mini tunnel in the black gully. Due to the accumulation of heat, the water evaporates, increases the humidity in the tunnel, condensation on the cool plastic cover causes droplets to be gathered by small gullies and taken to the distilled water reservoir). * Closed water culture systems may even be used to purify nutrient rich water, such as the wastewater from sewage systems or fishponds. Waterweeds remove the nutrients from rivers and dams but should be physically removed, not allowing it to decompose and return to the water. These weeds should be used as animal feed of for the preparation of compost. * Using good quality feeding water, the water may be re-used with no need to flush. The efficiency can be further increased in an isolated capsule, such as will possibly be erected on the moon or Mars. 96

Temperatures of root media can be accurately controlled with water culture methods, to the benefit of some crops. At low (<12oC) environmental temperatures at night, a nutrient solution, re-circulating at 20oC, may serve as some source of heat, especially for small plants close to the gully. It should be kept in mind that with a crop such as tomatoes, a cold (<10oC), or hot nutrient solution (>35oC) will stop root functions. Most winter crops as well as roses are sensitive to high root medium temperatures (>20oC). Most crops prefer root zone temperatures of 19 to 25oC with only a few summer crops such as maize that may grow well in root media temperatures of 25 to 30oC. However, all plants grow better with night temperatures lower than day temperatures. High root temperatures at night may increase root respiration to unneeded high levels, burning away carbohydrate reserves. When black plastic pipes are exposed to direct sunlight, temperatures may easily exceed 50oC. This is the reason why all gullies are usually white, not absorbing but reflecting light to be used for photosynthesis by the lower leaves.

The temperature of re-circulating nutrient solutions may easily increase in summer. Oxygen is poorly taken up by hot water. At 10oC, 11.3 mg O2 dissolves per litre of water, compared to only 6.9 mg O2 taken up per litre at 35 oC. Aeration of root media at high temperatures is a bigger problem than most growers are prepared to believe.

Disease and insect control may be simplified with the use of systemic fungicides and insecticides, applied via the nutrient solution. However, this aspect needs to be approached with caution (residue risks) but justifies further investigation. This may eliminate the risk of operators being exposed to spray fumes at the early vegetative stages of production. Chemicals with a long withholding period may be dangerous to use in this way. Residues of toxic chemicals in fresh produce are increasingly monitored. With ornamental plants, chemical residues are less important.

* *

The NFT system offers great opportunities for mechanisation. The chances to pollute rivers is limited with closed systems, provided that special care is taken to prevent spills from GFT systems, operated in the open. In case of rain, the volume of nutrient solution running down in gravel beds may increase to such an extent that the overflow may pollute rivers. The same may happen in cases of a power failure, where the bottom reservoir (with the inactive pump) overflows. This is, however, a much smaller problem than the polluting potential of the conventional open drain to waste system, used by 90% of the commercial growers in the RSA. They have to irrigate at least 110% of what the crops needs to avoid accumulation of salts. A calculation with cucumber or tomatoes as 97

example, shows that for each 1 ha grown in summer, at least 6000 liters of nutrient solution will run to waste (rivers or subsoil). * Accumulation of pathogens is a mayor problem in closed systems. Only one infected plant may produce enough spores to infect or wipe out the whole crop. The longer the growth period of a crop, the greater the risk. Crops such as lettuce (4 to 6 weeks) are popular choices for NFT/GFT systems. Should losses occur, a new crop can quickly be replanted. To avoid pathogen build-up, most cucumber and tomato growers use the drain to waste system. The sterilisation of re-circulating nutrient solutions is a common practise in the Netherlands, forced upon them by a law, preventing any nutrient-rich water to be released into their drainage systems. As soon as cheaper sterilisation techniques are developed, recirculating systems will grow in popularity in the RSA. * Due to the poor root anchorage provided in water culture such as the NFT system, winds may uproot freshly transplanted seedlings when used in the open. * Apart from the NFT-variants mentioned as alternatives to decrease the risk involved with power failures, an automatic switch to municipal water (or to other water sources under pressure such as elevated reservoirs) may keep the plant alive, although without nutrition. To implement this, a ball valve system may be installed (Class discussion).

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Chapter 6
CALCIUM RELATED DISORDERS a) SENSITIVE CROPS Climate affects plant development in many ways but also due to its effect on the uptake, distribution and utilisation of nutrient elements. Calcium is affected most of all the nutrients, due to the fact that it is passively taken up and transported via the transpiration stream. Plant parts fix calcium as it passes by. This element is of great importance, determining the quality of fruits and vegetables. Since Ca++ moves via the transpiration stream, it is easy to understand why its distribution is affected by climatic conditions. Since climate can be controlled in most greenhouses, the opportunity to manage Ca movement and utilisation should be utilised. A few Ca-related quality problems are shortly discussed as introduction. Potatoes Calcium (Ca) deficiency symptoms can be seen on leaves (cupping / tipburn) or as necrotic brown discoloured areas in tubers. These tubers have a short shelf life and rot easily. In extreme situations, the Ca-content in or around a planted seed tuber may be so low that the tips of developing shoots die back. before breaking the soil surface. The situation may be aggravated where high K or N fertilizer levels are applied under hot and long day conditions, especially on acidic or Ca-poor soils. Tomatoes Blossom-end rot (BER) is a well-known problem on tomatoes and peppers, although it is also a problem on Cucurbits with long fruits. In spite of the use of balanced nutrient solutions by greenhouse growers, this disorder is common on tomatoes. This illustrates that BER should be considered as a multi-factor problem. Conditions, which were associated with the occurrence of BER, include extremely high or low atmospheric moisture levels, poor irrigation practices, associated with high temperatures in summer. Other examples Bitterpit on apples, black heart on celery and internal necrotic areas in chicory, pears are well known Ca-related disorders. "Tipburn" is a well-known Ca-related disorder and will be used to discuss the Ca-problem, using a review article written by Collier (1982).

b) CONDITIONS AND FACTORS INVOLVED Calcium is needed to strengthen cell walls and to maintain membranes. This explains some of the symptoms associated with Ca-deficiencies. As soon as cell walls are damaged, enzymes are 99

released in the affected area, inducing cell division (damage control) and producing a brown byproduct. The brown discoloration can be seen when an apple was left for some time, after it was cut (damaged cell walls). The other problem, insufficient Ca for membranes to function, is best illustrated when a Ca-deficient cucumber fruit is allowed to age. The ability of the membranes to retain chlorophyll, lengthen the shelf life. With insufficient membrane functions, chlorophyll is broken down and yellowing of the fruit occurs. (Boron has a similar action on membranes). Apart from its effect on chlorophyll retention, membranes also help to retain moisture and fruit with poorly developed membranes may wilt quicker. Ca-related disorders affected by three different conditions: a) b) c) Low functional Ca levels / fast growth Poor Ca uptake Insufficient water movement in plants

a) Low functional Ca levels / Fast growth With environmental conditions optimised, (temperature, CO2, N-nutrition, irrigation, day length, light radiation), maximum growth is expected. During this phase of accelerated metabolic activity, organic acids are rapidly produced. The available Ca ions may be used to neutralise these acids, forming insoluble Ca-salts in the vacuoles. Ca-oxalate crystals are a well-known example of such an insoluble salt. Although the plant retains its Ca, the functional Ca reserve may be too low, to the detriment of developing cell walls and membranes. A high light intensity, typically found in summer, may also increase the polyphenol concentration, inhibiting the breakdown of auxins (hormone stimulating cell enlargement). The result may be large cells with thin or poorly developed cell walls, easily damaged during growth, followed by necrotic lesions. Associated with this, poorly developed membranes may enhance senescence and shorten shelf life of fresh produce.

b) Poor Ca - uptake * No serious grower will neglect Ca nutrition. A problem may, however, arise when other elements (cations) are added to nutrient solutions at unrealistically high levels. Too much K+, Mg++ or NH4+ will increase the competition for Ca-uptake. However, over reaction may also be dangerous. With too much Ca, cell walls may stiffen to such an extent that normal fruit expansion may be restricted, resulting in fruit cracks. * Ca enters plants only via young root tips (thin cell walls). This means that damage to the young roots will prevent Ca-uptake. Root hairs should be protected against drying or exposure to high 100

EC conditions that may limit water uptake but more importantly restrict Ca-uptake.

c) Insufficient water movement in plants * Without normal root pressure, the upward movement of water will be restricted as well as the plants Ca-transporting potential. Ca is absorbed from the transpirattion stream by developing plant tissue. When all the water moves to the leaves to cool it down (low RH, windy, high temperatures), Ca accumulates in the leaves. Low transpiring organs (fruit) will be neglected with water and Ca should the root pressure be at sub-optimum levels. The following conditions may enhance this problem: Poor irrigation scheduling with salts accumulating in the root zone (salt induced draught). Damage to young roots or root hair slowing water uptake down (dry media/high EC) Waterlogged conditions; insufficient water uptake (anaerobic-induced draught) Low root temperatures (cold-induced draught) Never under estimate the power of roots to pump water at night. Water uptake can be increased by lowering the EC or by application of pure feeding water at night. This may force too much water into the fruits, cracking it open.

Insufficient daily fluctuation in plant-water, restricting flushes of Ca-containing water. With all the plant organs 100% turgent the whole day and night, no fresh (Ca-rich) water can move in. The RH in greenhouses may be so high that transpiration is suppressed, not allowing room for freshly absorbed water to move in. With the RH too low, the plant roots may find it difficult to keep the organs turgent and the leaves may receive priority treatment, neglecting movement of Ca-rich water to the fruit. The ideal situation would be to keep the RH at 75%, allowing some moisture loss from fruits during the day but allowing Ca-rich water to fill the gaps in the fruit after milder conditions follow the midday stress period.

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