PEE 372: Transportation and Storage

Instructor : Dr. Salem S. Al-Marri

Office: Building No. 6 Office No. 149
Petroleum Engineering Technology
College of Technological Studies (CTS)
Public Authority for Applied Education
and Training (PAAET)

Email: smalmarri@hotmail.com

Course Contents

Fluid Properties
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Course Grade System

Lecture Grade: 100%


The lecture grades will be divided as
follows:

Attendance 10%
H.W. & Quizzes 10%
Mid-Terms 40%
Final Exam 40%
Total 100%

Lecture: Section# 1: Thursday 3-5 PM
1
Transportation and Storage
Lecture # 1
Introduction to
Fluid Properties
2
3
Classification of Reservoir Fluid
Chemical Properties
PNA and combinations (Paraffinic-Naphthenic-
Aromatics)
Resin and asphalthene content
Physical Properties
Phase density (liquid, gas, solid)
Compressibility
Viscosity
Formation volume factor
Gas Oil Ratio
Surface tension
Heat capacity
Thermal conductivity
Pour and Cloud points
4
Classification of Reservoir Fluid
Chemical Properties (Compositions)
Organic Components (Hydrocarbon)
PNA and combinations
Paraffinic
All normal paraffins to C10H22
Isobutane
2-Methylbutane
2,3-Dimethylbutane
2-Methylpentane
3-Methylpentane
2-Methylhexane
3-Methylhexane
2-Methylheptane
2,6-Dimethylheptane
2-Methyloctane
5
Classification of Reservoir Fluid
Chemical Properties (Compositions)
Organic Components (Hydrocarbon)
PNA and combinations
Naphthenic
Cyclopentane
Cyclohexane
Methylcyclopentane
1,1-Dimethylecyclopentane
Methylcyclohexane
1,3-Dimethylecyclohexane
1,2,4-trimethylecyclohexane
6
Classification of Reservoir Fluid
Chemical Properties (Compositions)
Organic Components (Hydrocarbon)
PNA and combinations
Aromatics
Benzene
Toluene
Ethylbenzene
Xylene
1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene
Inorganic Components
Nitrogen
Carbon Dioxide
Hydrogen Sulfide
7
Classification of Reservoir Fluid
Physical Properties
Phase density (liquid, gas, solid)
Compressibility
Viscosity
Formation volume factor
Gas Oil Ratio
Surface tension
Heat capacity
Thermal conductivity
Pour and Cloud points
8
Classification of Reservoir Fluid
Physical Properties
Phase density (liquid)


Specific gravity of a liquid



API gravity

o
m
V
=
) , (
) , (
1 1
1 1
T P
T P
w
o
o

=
141.5
131.5
o
o
API

=
Phase Density (Liquid)
Example : The density of a stock-tank oil at 60
o
F is
51.25 lbm/cu ft. Calculate the specific
gravity and gravity in
o
API.
Solution


3
51.25
o
o
w
lbm
ft

= =
3
62.37
lbm
ft
o
Second, calculate gravity in A
0.8217
141.5 141.5
131.5 131.5 40.7
0.8
PI:
217
o o
o
API API

=
= = =
10
Classification of Reservoir Fluid
Physical Properties
Phase density (gas)
From real gas law
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g g g g
g
g g
m
V
PV
Z
n RT
m
n
M
PV M m PM
Z
m RT V ZRT

=
=
=
= = =
11
Classification of Reservoir Fluid
Physical Properties
Phase density (gas)
Gas Specific Gravity








Assumption Z-factor is very close to one for standard conditions
g
g
PM
Z RT
Gas Density
SG
Air Density
= =
air
air
PM
Z RT
28.92
28.92
g g
air
g
M M
M
M
SG
= =
=
Phase Density (Liquid)
Example : Calculate the mass and density of methane
gas contained at 1000 psia and 68
o
F in a
cylinder with volume of 3.20 cu ft.
a) Assume that methane is an ideal gas.
b) Assume that methane is an real gas.
Solution:

a) Assume ideal g
,
100
s
0
a
PMV
m where Z is equal one for ideal gas
ZRT
psia
m
=
=
16.04
lbm
lbmol

3
3.20 ft
10.732
psia
3
. ft
lbmol .
o
R
(68 460)
o
R +
3 3
9.1
9.1
2.844
3.20
lbm
m lbm lbm
V ft ft

=
= = =
Phase Density (Liquid)
Example : Calculate the mass and density of methane
gas contained at 1000 psia and 68
o
F in a
cylinder with volume of 3.20 cu ft.
a) Assume that methane is an ideal gas.
b) Assume that methane is an real gas.
Solution:

, 0.89(from McCain fig
a
ure 3
) Assume real gas
.2)
1000
PMV
m where Z is equal
ZRT
psia
m
=
=
16.04
lbm
lbmol

3
3.20 ft
0.89 10.732
psia

3
. ft
lbmol .
o
R
(68 460)
o
R +
3 3
10.2
10.2
3.18
3.20
lbm
m lbm lbm
V ft ft

=
= = =
0.89
15
Pseudocritical Properties of
Natural Gases
Pseudoreduced Pressure



Pseudoreduced Temperature

pc
pr
P
P
P =
pc
pr
T
T
T =
16
Pseudocritical Properties of
Natural Gases
If only the specific gravity and Mw
of of the gases is known then
charts are available to estimate
these pseudocritical properties
(McCain figure 3-10 ).
17
Pseudocritical Properties of
Natural Gases
Naturally the degree of accuracy is
reduced substantially. We well see
methods when compositional
information is available, in this
case:

ci i
N
i
pc
P y P
c
=1
ci i
N
i
pc
T y T
c
=1
18
Pseudocritical Properties of
Natural Gases
Once Z is evaluated you can find
the gas density as

3
/ ft lbm
V
M
g
19
Z-factor
chart for
low
reduced
pressures
20
Classification of Reservoir Fluid
Physical Properties
Compressibility
Definition





Derivative is evaluated at constant T=T
A
and
specified pressure P=P
A

( )
1
,
A
g A A
T
V
C P T
V P
c
(
=
(
c

Isothermal Gas
Compressibility
P
1

V
2
V
1

T
B


P
2

V
ave
= (V
1
+V
2
)/2
( )
( )
( )
A
T
ave
A A g
P P
V V
V
T P C
(

~
2 1
2 1
1
,
T
A

P
A

21
22
Classification of Reservoir Fluid
Physical Properties
Compressibility
Definition


Derivative is evaluated at constant T and specified pressure P


( )
1
,
g
T
V
C P T
V P
c
(
=
(
c

|
.
|

\
|
c
c
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
P
Z
Z P P
V
V
C
g
1 1 1
Isothermal Compressibility
Using ideal gas equation
The simplest equation of state is that for ideal gas


23
2
2
1
T
g
nRT
PV nRT or V
P
V nRT
P P
nRT P
C
V P
= =
c
| |
=
|
c
\ .
| || |
= =
| |
\ .\ .
nRT
nRT
| |

|
\ .
2
1
for ideal gas
P P
| |
=
|
\ .
Isothermal Compressibility
Using real gas equation


24
2
1
T
T
g
T
Z
V nRT
P
Z
P Z
V P
nRT
P P
V P
C
V P nRT
=
c
| |

|
c c
| |
\ .
=
|
c
\ .
c
| || |
= =
| |
c
\ .\ .
nRT
Z
(
(

2
1
for Real gas
1 1
T
g
T T
Z
P Z
P P
Z
C P
Z
Z P
Z
P Z P P

(
c
| |

`
( |
c
\ .


)
(
c c
| |

|
( | |
= =
( |
(
c c
\ . \ .

Isothermal Compressibility (Cg) of an Ideal Gas
Example 1: The following table gives volumetric data at
150
o
F for a natural gas. Determine the
coefficient of isothermal compressibility
for the is gas at 150
o
F and 1000 psia.

Pressure
psia
Molar Volume
Cu ft/lbmole
700 8.5
800 7.4
900 6.5
1000 5.7
1100 5.0
1200 4.6
1300 4.2
Isothermal Compressibility (Cg) of an Ideal Gas
Solution
26
Isothermal Compressibility (Cg)
3
3
7.1 5
0.007
800 1100
,
1 1
5.7
m
g
m
g
ft
slope
lbmole
Second compute
V
C
V p
ft
lbmole
C

= =

| | c
= =
|
c
\ .
3
0.007
ft
lbmole

6 1
1300 10 psi
psia

| |
|
|
=
|
|
|
\ .
Isothermal Compressibility (Cg) of an Real Gas
Example 2: Compute the coefficient of isothermal
compressibility of ethane at 1000 psia
and 212
o
F.




Isothermal Compressibility (Cg) of an Real Gas
Solution
0.8
0.65
1250
750
0.725
Isothermal Compressibility (Cg) of an Real Gas
Solution




Z = 0.72 from figure3-2






( )
1
1 1
o
g
slopeof tangent to212 F
isotherm at p = 1000 psia, fromfigure3-2
second calculate C
1413.79 1
0.8 0.65
0.0003
750 1250
1 1 1 1
0.0003 0.00141379
1000 0.
0
725
T
g
T
g
Z
psi
p
Z
C psi psi
p Z p psia
C

| | c
= = =
|
c
\ .
| | c
= = =

c
\ .

|
=
6 1
psi

Example
The following gas contained in 43560 cu ft. at 9300 psia and 290F
1) Calculate the molecular weight
2) Calculate the gas specific gravity
3) Calculate the pseudocritical temperature
4) Calculate the pseudocritical pressure
5) Calculate the pseudoreduced temperature
6) Calculate the pseudoreduced pressure
7) Calculate the mass, assume ideal gas
8) Calculate the number of moles, assume ideal gas
9) Calculate the density, assume ideal gas
10) Determine the Z-factor
11) Calculate the mass, assume real gas
12) Calculate the number of moles, assume real gas
13) Calculate the density, assume real gas
14) Calculate the gas formation volume factor
15) Calculate isothermal gas compressibilty




component Composition
Mole fraction
Methane 0.850
Ethane 0.090
Propane 0.040
n-Butane 0.020
Total 1.000
Example
Solution




component Composition
Mole fraction
M
i
T
ci
, R P
ci
, Psia y
i
M
i
y
i
T
ci
y
i
P
ci
Methane 0.850
16.04 343.3 666.40 13.634 291.805 566.44
Ethane 0.090
30.07 549.9 706.50 2.7063 49.491 63.585
Propane 0.040
44.097 666.1 616.00 1.76388 26.644 24.64
n-Butane 0.020
58.123 765.6 550.60 1.16246 15.312 11.012
Total 1.00
19.26664 383.252 665.677
1) Calculate the molecular weight




2) Calculate the gas specific gravity



( )
1
19.26
c
N
g i i
i
lbm
M y M
lbmol
=
= =
E
19.26
0.66
29 29
g
g
M
= = =
Example
3) Calculate the pseudocritical temperature




4) Calculate the pseudocritical pressure





5) Calculate the pseudoreduced temperature






6) Calculate the pseudoreduced pressure





( )
1
383.25
c
N
o
pc i ci
i
T y T R
=
= =
E
( )
1
665.67
c
N
pc i ci
i
P y P psia
=
= =
E
750
o
pr
pc
T R
T
T
= =
383.25
o
R
1.96 =
9300
pr
pc
psia
P
P
P
= =
665.67 psia
13.97 14 = ~
Example
7) Calculate the mass, assume ideal gas










8) Calculate the number of moles, assume ideal gas





9) Calculate the density, assume ideal gas



,
9300
PMV
m where Z is equal one for ideal gas
ZRT
psia
m
=
=
19.26
lbm
lbmol

3
43560 ft
10.732
psia
3
. ft
lbmol .
o
R
(290 460)
o
R +
969694.4lbm =
969694.4 m lbm
n
M
= =
19.26
lbm
50330.23lbmol
lbmol
=
3 3
969694.4
22.26
43560
m lbm lbm
V ft ft
= = =
Example
10) Determine the Z-factor
Z = 1.346 (McCain figure 3-10 ).




1.346
Example
11) Calculate the mass, assume real gas










12) Calculate the number of moles, assume real gas





13) Calculate the density, assume real gas



, 1.346
9300
PMV
m where Z is equal for real gas
ZRT
psia
m
=
=
19.26
lbm
lbmol

3
43560 ft
1.346 10.732
psia

3
. ft
lbmol .
o
R
(290 460)
o
R +
720426.7lbm =
720426.7 m lbm
n
M
= =
19.26
lbm
37392.4lbmol
lbmol
=
3 3
720426.7
16.54
43560
m lbm lbm
V ft ft
= = =
Example
14) Calculate the gas formation volume factor









15) Calculate isothermal gas compressibility, assume ideal gas






ZT
0.0282 0.0282
P
g
psia
cuft
B
scf
= =
o
R
1.346 750
o
R
| |

|
|
\ .
9300 psia
6
0.003061065
0.003061065
3061.065 10
g
B

= =
=

Assume ideal gas

1 1
g
C
p
Z
=
1
Z
p
| | c
|
c
\ .
1
1
1 1
0.000107527
0.000107
9300
7
0
52
T
g
C
p
ps
si
p sia
i
p

= = =
=
38
Classification of Reservoir Fluid
Physical Properties
Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of the resistance to flow exerted by a
fluid, This is called dynamic viscosity and has units of
centipoise = g-mass / 100 sec cm
Kinematic viscosity is dynamic viscosity per density, units are
in
centistokes = centipoise /g/cc
Needs of Crude Oil Viscosity
Calculation of two-phase flow
Gas-lift and pipeline design
Calculate oil recovery either from natural depletion or
from recovery techniques such as waterflooding and gas-
injection processes


Variation of Oil Viscosity
O
i
l

V
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y


T = constant
P
b

Single Phase Flow

Two Phase Flow
Gas Out of
Solution
39
40
Classification of Reservoir Fluid
Physical Properties
Formation volume factor
Gas formation volume factor B
g


Reservoir Conditions
V
R
Standard Conditions
V
SC
41
Classification of Reservoir Fluid
Physical Properties
Formation volume factor
Gas formation volume factor B
g



B
g
=
R
g
SC
V
B
V
=
[res bbl/SCF] or [ft
3
/SCF]
Gas Formation Volume
Factor
SC
SC SC
P
nRT Z
P
ZnRT
Bg =
42
Gas Formation Volume
Factor
43
Since T
sc
= 520
o
R, P
sc
=14.696 psia, for all
practical purposes Z
sc
= 1, then

14.6
ZT
0.02
96
1 520
82
P
sc
g
o
sc sc sc sc
sc sc
sc c
g
s
ZnRT ZnRT
P Z T Z T psia
P P
B
Z nRT Z nRT
Z T P R P
cuft
B
cf
P P
s
( (
(
= = = =
( (
=
(


Gas Formation Volume Factor
B
g
4
3.47 10 ( )
g
T
B Z T in K and Pin MPa
P

| |
=
|
\ .
0.0282 ( )
g
T
B Z T in Rand Pin psia
P
| |
=
|
\ .
( )
g
sc sc sc
P V T
Z V Expelled Gas
P V T
| || || |
= =
| | |
\ .\ .\ .
44
[res bbl/SCF] or [ft
3
/SCF]
Gas Formation Volume
Factor
Gas Formation Volume Factor
B
g
Pressure
45
Oil Formation Volume Factor


46
Volume of Oil + Dissolved gas at Reservoir Pressure & Temperature
Volume of Oil entering Stoc
Reservoir barrels (bbl)
Stock tank barrels (
k tank at Standard Pressure & Temper
STB)
ature
o
Units
B
=
=
Total Formation Volume Factor
Also called Two-phase formation
volume factor
( )
s sb g o t
R R B B B + =
Units
bbl/STB + bbl/SCF * (SCF/STB)

47
Total Formation Volume Factor Bt
Hg
Oil
B
ob

Hg
Gas
Oil B
o

B
g
(R
sb
-R
s
)
P
b

48
General Shape of Bt
B
o
,

B
t

Reservoir Pressure
Pb
Reservoir T = constant
Bt=Bo
Bt
Bo
49
50
Classification of Crude Oils
Physical Properties
Solution Gas Oil Ratio, R
s
How much gas is dissolved in the oil
volume per volume basis
R
s
depends upon pressure

Units [= ] SCF gas /STB oil

General Shape of Solution Gas
Oil Ratio (Rs)
Rs
Reservoir Pressure
Pb
Reservoir T = constant
51
52
Classification of Reservoirs
based on Phase Diagram
Gas Reservoirs (Single Phase)

Gas Condensate Reservoirs (Dew-
Point Reservoirs):
Undersaturated Solution-Gas
Reservoirs (Bubble-Point
Reservoirs):
DRY GAS RESERVOIRS:
GOR > 100,000 SCF/STB
No liquid produced at surface
Mostly methane
53
Classification of Reservoirs
based on Production and PVT
data
54
Classification of Reservoirs
based on Production and PVT
data
GAS CONDENSATE RESERVOIRS:
GOR between 70,000-100,000
SCF/STB
Density greater than 60 API
Light in color
C
7
+
composition < 12.5%
55
Classification of Reservoirs
based on Production and PVT
data
VOLATILE OIL RESERVOIRS:
GOR between1,000-8,000 SCF/STB
Density between 45-60 API
Oil FVF greater than 2.00 (high
shrinkage oils)
Light brown to green in color
C
7
+
composition > 12.5%
56
BLACK OIL RESERVOIRS:
GOR less than 1,000 SCF/STB
Density less than 45 API
Reservoir temperatures less than 250
F
Oil FVF less than 2.00 (low shrinkage
oils)
Dark green to black in color
C
7
+
composition > 30%
Classification of Reservoirs
based on Production and PVT
data
Separators
iST
x
) STB / scf ( GOR and
y
iST
) STB / scf ( GOR and
y
iSP
iST
x
Wellhead
iSP
x
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
ST
oil gas
ST
gas
v
ST
oil gas
SP
oil
SP
oil gas
SP
gas
v
mole lb mole lb
mole lb
f
mole lb mole lb mole lb
mole lb mole lb
mole lb
f
ST
SP
+

=
+ =
+

=
57
Separators
) STB / scf ( GOR and
y
iST
) STB / scf ( GOR and
y
iSP
iST
x
Wellhead
Usually vented
Note for a black oil have more liquid produced than for a wet gas
Less oil shrinkage and lower GOR
58
PETE 310

Lecture # 17
Chapter 10 Properties of Black
Oils - Reservoir Fluid Studies
59
Fluid Properties for Reservoir
Engineering Processes
The fluid properties of interest to the
Reservoir Engineer are those that affect
the mobility of fluids within the
reservoirs these are used in material
balance calculations
Properties at surface conditions for
transportation and sales (API, viscosity,
oil quality)
60
Fluid Properties for Reservoir
Engineering Processes
PVT properties are determined from 5
specific lab procedures

Flash liberation tests
Differential Liberation Tests
Viscosity Measurements
Separator Tests
Compositional measurements


61
Fluid Properties Determined
Oil Properties
Bubble Point Pressure
B
o

R
s

B
t

C
o
and
o

Gas properties
z
B
g
and
g

Compositions oil & gas


62
Oil Sampling Procedures
Bottom hole or subsurface samples

Separator Samples

SAMPLE BEFORE RESERVOIR
PRESSURE DROPS BELOW Pb

63
Flash Vaporization Test
Temperature of Test = Reservoir Temperature
V
t1
V
t2
V

t
3


=


V

b


V
t5
V
t4
oil oil
oil
oil
oil
gas
gas
Hg Hg
Hg
Hg
Hg
P
1
>> P
b
P
2
> P
b
P
3
= P
b
P
4
< P
b
P
5
< P
4
1 2 3 4 5
64
Flash Vaporization Test
Properties determined
P
b

C
o

65
Flash Vaporization Test
Example : The data from a flash
vaporization on a black oil at
220
o
R are given below.
Determine the bubble-point
pressure and prepare a table
of pressure and relative
volume for the reservoir
fluid study





Pressure, psig Total volume, cc
5000 61.030
4500 61.435
4000 61.866
3500 62.341
3000 62.866
2900 62.974
2800 63.088
2700 63.208
2605 63.455
2591 63.576
2516 64.291
2401 65.532
2253 67.400
2090 69.901
1897 73.655
1698 78.676
1477 86.224
1292 95.050
1040 112.715
830 136.908
640 174.201
472 235.700
Flash Vaporization Test
Example :
Solution




2619.3 psig
63.284 cc
Flash Vaporization Test
Example :
Solution




Pressure, psig Total volume, cc Relative Volume
5000 61.030 0.9644
4500 61.435 0.9708
4000 61.866 0.9776
3500 62.341 0.9851
3000 62.866 0.9934
2900 62.974 0.9951
2800 63.088 0.9969
2700 63.208 0.9988
2619.3 63.284 1.0000 Bubble Point
2605 63.455 1.0027
2591 63.576 1.0046
2516 64.291 1.0159
2401 65.532 1.0355
2253 67.400 1.0650
2090 69.901 1.1046
1897 73.655 1.1639
1698 78.676 1.2432
1477 86.224 1.3625
1292 95.050 1.5020
1040 112.715 1.7811
830 136.908 2.1634
640 174.201 2.7527
472 235.700 3.7245
Lecture 2.1: Continuity and Bernoullis Equation
Incompressible Fluid Flow
Todays Lecture
Volume and Mass Flow Rate
Continuity equation
Energy in a fluid
Flow Work
Bernoullis Equation
Lecture 2.1: Continuity and Bernoullis Equation
Incompressible Fluid Flow
Volumetric Flow Rate
Volume flowing per second along a pipe





Volume of fluid in element = V = AL
Velocity of fluid = L/t = c
Volumetric Flow Rate = Volume/t = AL/ t = Ac


3
s
V Ac
m
=
Lecture 2.1: Continuity and Bernoullis Equation
Incompressible Fluid Flow
Continuity Equation






Density of entry =
1
Density of entry =
2
Area at entry = A
1
Area at entry = A
2
Velocity at entry = C
1
Velocity at entry = C
2



1 1 1
m AC =
2 2 2
m A C =
Lecture 2.1: Continuity and Bernoullis Equation
Incompressible Fluid Flow
Continuity Equation



For incompressible flow, density remains constant



1 2
1

=
1 1 2
AC =
2 2
1 1 2 2
1 2
A C
AC A C
V V
=
=
Lecture 2.1: Continuity and Bernoullis Equation
Incompressible Fluid Flow
Continuity Equation
Kinetic Energy (Energy due to velocity as a whole):


Potential Energy (Energy due to the height of the fluid):


Flow Work Energy (energy required to displace fluid):


Internal Energy (energy due to temperature of fluid): U
(Normally assume temperature change to be zero, so not normally considered)




2
1
2
k
E mC =
p
E mgz =
W pV =
Lecture 2.1: Continuity and Bernoullis Equation
Incompressible Fluid Flow
Continuity Equation
Flow Work





Force being applied to fluid in plane XX = pressure x area = pA
Force is moving, so is doing work (work is a form of energy)
Work done = Force x Distance = pAL
Volume of element = AL = V

Lecture 2.2: Continuity and Bernoullis Equation
Bernoullis Equation
Energy in a fluid
No energy added or extracted from fluid
Principle of conversion of energy applies









2 2
1 2
1 2
1 1 2 2
1 1
2
1 2
2
mC Kinetic Energy mC
mgZ Potential Energy
Energ
mgZ
pV
y at Ener
Flo
gy a
wWork Energy p
t
V
= =
+
= =
=
= =
+
Lecture 2.2: Continuity and Bernoullis Equation
Bernoullis Equation





Incompressible so V is constant: V
1
= V
2
= V







2 2
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
1 1
2 2
pV mC mgZ p V mC mgZ constant + + = + + =
2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
1 1
2 2
1 1
2 2
m m m m
p C gZ p C gZ constant
V V V V
m
=
V
p C gZ p C gZ constant

+ + = + + =
+ + = + + =
Lecture 2.2: Continuity and Bernoullis Equation
Bernoullis Equation











2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
1 1
2 2
p C gZ p C gZ constant + + = + + =
2
1
2
p C gZ Total pressure + + =
Static Pressure Hydrostatic Pressure
Dynamic Pressure
Lecture 2.2: Continuity and Bernoullis Equation
Bernoullis Equation

Conditions
No heat transfer (adiabatic)
No work done (no pump or turbines)
Flow is frictionless (no Temperature change)
Flow is incompressible ( = constant)
Liquids
Gases < 100 m/s











2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
1 1
2 2
p C gZ p C gZ constant + + = + + =
Lecture 2.2: Continuity and Bernoullis Equation
Summary
Volume Flow rate
Mass Flow rate
Continuity Equation (conservation of mass/volume)
Fluid Energy
Flow Work
Bernoullis Equation













V AC =
m AC =
2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
1 1
2 2
p C gZ p C gZ constant + + = + + =
Lecture 2.2: Continuity and Bernoullis Equation
Example
Water flow through a pipe shown below at the rate
80 L/s. If the pressure at point 1 is 180 kPa, find (a)
the velocity at point 1, (b) the velocity at point 2, and
the pressure at point 2.


Lecture 2.2: Continuity and Bernoullis Equation
Example-Solution
a)

b)

c)


1 1 1
2
80 80
80
lt lt
V lt
s
AC C
t s r t
= = = =
2 2
(16/100)
s
m t
3
1m

1000 lt
0.99432
m
s
=

1 1
AC =
1 1
2 2 2
2
AC
A C C
A
t
= =
2
1
r
t
2
1
2 2
2
0.16
0.99432 3.9773
0.08
m
C
s r
= =
2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
1
180 100
1
0
2
1
2 2
p C gZ p C
a
gZ
kP

+
=

+ + + +
kg
m
3
2
2
0.99432
m

2
s
1 N

1kg . m
2
s
1
1000
kPa

N
2
m
3 2
1000 9.81 0
kg m
m s
| |
+
|
\ .
2
1
1000
2
p
=
+
kg
m
3
2
2
3.9773
m

2
s
1 N

1kg . m
2
s
1
1000
kPa

N
2
m
1000 +
kg
3
m
9.81
m

2
s
2 m
1 N

1kg . m
2
s
1
1000
kPa

N
2
m
2
2
0.4943 7.91 19.6 180 0
152.
2
965
kPa kP kP a
p
Pa
a
p a
kP
k + + + + =
=
Lecture 2.2: Continuity and Bernoullis Equation
Example
Water enters atypical garden hose of diameter 1.6 cm
with velocity of 3 m/s. Calculate the exit velocity of
water from the garden hose when a nozzle of
diameter 0.5 cm is attached to the end of the hose.
Solution

1 1
AC =
1 1
2 2 2
2
AC
A C C
A
t
= =
2
1
r
t
2
1
2 2
2
0.008
3 30.72
0.0025
m m
C
s s r
= =
Lecture 2.2: Continuity and Bernoullis Equation
Example
Oil flows throw a pipe of radius R with speed V.
Some distance down the pipeline, the pipe narrows
to half its original radius. What is the speed of the oil
in the narrow region of the pipe?
Solution:

1 1
AC =
1 1
2 2 2
2
AC
A C C
A
t
= =
2
R
t
1 2
2 1
1
4
2
4 C
C C
R
C
=
| |
.
=
|
\
Lecture 1.1 flow with Friction &
Laminar Flow
Part I: Introduction,
Fluid Flow with Friction & Type of Flow
Todays Lecture
Fluid flow with friction
Nature of flows: Laminar and Turbulent
Shear Stress and Fluid Viscosity
Laminar Flow
Flow Velocity
Flow Rate
Pressure drop
Power
Example


Lecture 1.1 flow with Friction &
Laminar Flow
Fluid Flow with Friction
Assumption has been no friction
Bernoullis equation:


2
2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
Total Pressure p C gz constant
p C gz p C gz


= + + =
+ + = + +
Lecture 1.1 flow with Friction &
Laminar Flow
Fluid Flow with Friction
Now, shear stresses in fluid and with pipe
Shear stress works against flow


Lecture 1.1 flow with Friction &
Laminar Flow
Fluid Flow with Friction
Bernoullis equation:









How do we determine pressure drop (P)?


2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
1 1
2 2
p C gz p C gz P + + = + + + A
Lecture 1.1 flow with Friction &
Laminar Flow
Nature of Flow
P due to shear stress
Vary depending on nature of flow
Two types (in general)
Laminar
Turbulent


Lecture 1.1 flow with Friction &
Laminar Flow
Laminar Flow:
Layers of adjacent fluid slide over each other
Streamlines are straight
Flow near wall slower than centre
Example: honey falling off spoon

Lecture 1.1 flow with Friction &
Laminar Flow
Turbulent Flow:
Particle paths irregular and chaotic
Large scale mixing
Flow in radial direction
Example: smoke billowing from chimney

Lecture 1.1 flow with Friction &
Laminar Flow
Transition Flow:
Transition between laminar and turbulent flow related to fluid
density, fluid viscosity, flow velocity and pipe diameter
The Reynolds number is as the following:




Where
Re: Reynolds number
: Fluid density
c: Flow velocity
D: Pipe diameter
: Fluid viscosity


cD
Re

=
Lecture 1.1 flow with Friction &
Laminar Flow
The Reynolds number non-dimensional number:






cD
Re

=
Reynolds Number Flow
Less than approx. 2000 Laminar
2000-4000 Critical Region
Above 4000 Partial or fully turbulent
Lecture 1.2 flow with Friction &
Laminar Flow
Fluid Viscosity & Flow Velocity
Fluid Viscosity
Relative movement of sliding fluids layers
Shear Stress


= dynamic viscosity
As increases, shear stress increase
Hi viscosity: honey, toothpaste
Low viscosity: water, alcohol
Generally, viscosity decreases with increase in temperature


Difference in speed (between layers)
Distance between layers
t =
Lecture 1.2 flow with Friction &
Laminar Flow
Shear Stress & Fluid Viscosity
= dynamic viscosity
= kinematic viscosity
Relationship:


Reynolds number


cD
Re
v
=

=
Lecture 1.2 Laminar Flow-Flow
Velocity
Element of Fluid
Pipe radius R
Element radius r
Length dx
Force on LHS: pA
Force RHS: -(p+dp)A
Shear stresses: t
Velocity in pipe is:
2
2
1
4
R dp r
C
dx R
| |
| |
=
|
|
|
\ .
\ .
Lecture 1.2 Laminar Flow-Flow
Velocity
Velocity:


Quadratic equation
Parabolic velocity profile
If r = R
Velocity = 0
If r = 0
Velocity = C
max

2
2
1
4
R dp r
C
dx R
| |
| |
=
|
|
|
\ .
\ .
Pipe walls
F
l
o
w

D
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

C
e
n
t
e
r

l
i
n
e

o
f

p
i
p
e

C
mix
0
0
Turbulent and Laminar Flow Profile

Lecture 1.3 Fluid Flow with Friction &
Laminar Flow
Part 3: Volumetric Flow Rate, Pressure Drop,
Power & Summary
Volumetric Flow Rate
Cannot just use
Velocity not constant across cross section

V AC =
4
8
dp
V R
dx
t

=
V
Lecture 1.3 Fluid Flow with Friction &
Laminar Flow
Fluid element:


Consider pipe:
dp P
dx L
A
=
Lecture 1.3 Laminar Flow-Pressure
Drop
Using:


Velocity:

Flow rate:

4 4
8 8
dp
V R
dx
P
V R
L
t t

=
A
=
dp P
dx L
A
=
2
2
2
2
1
4
1
4
R dp r R P r
C
L R
C
dx R
| |
| |
=
|
|
|
| |
A
| |
=
|
|
|
\ .
\
\ .
. \ .
Lecture 1.3 Laminar Flow-Pressure
Drop
From Flow rate:


Rearranging:


Bernoullis Equation:

4
8
V
P
V R
L
t

=
A
=
4
8 LV
P
R

t
A =
2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
1 1
2 2
p C gz p C gz P + + = + + + A
Lecture 1.3 Laminar Flow-Pressure
Drop
Average Flow Velocity
Pressure Drop
Power
Consider force applied to fluid





Power = Force x Velocity
Force = pA
Velocity = C


Power pAC pV Power Loss pV = = = A
Lecture 1.3 Laminar Flow-Pressure Drop
Laminar Flow: Example
Fluid flow with friction:
Friction produces pressure drop
Bernoullis Equation



Nature of flow determined by Reynolds number:



Re < 2000 Laminar
Re < 2000 Turbulant
Flow Velocity:
Parabolic profile





2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
1 1
2 2
p C gz p C gz P + + = + + +A
cD cD
Re

v
= =
2
2
1
4
R P r
C
L R
| |
A
| |
=
|
|
|
\ .
\ .
Lecture 1.3 Laminar Flow-Pressure Drop
Summary of Todays Lecture
Flow rate:




Pressure Drop:



Power Consumed:


Power consumed pV = A
4
8 LV
P
R

t
A =
4
8
P
V R
L
t

A
=
Lecture 1.3 Laminar Flow-Pressure Drop
Summary of Todays Lecture
Example
Oil of density 900 kg/m
3
and viscosity 0.17 Pas is pumped through a
75 mm diameter pipe 750 m long at the rate of 2.7 kg/s. if the critical
Reynolds number is 2300, show that the critical velocity is not
exceeded and calculate the pressure required at the pump and the
power required. The pipe is horizontal.


Lecture 1.3 Laminar Flow-Pressure Drop
Summary of Todays Lecture
Example
Oil of density 900 kg/m
3
and viscosity 0.17 Pas is pumped through a
75 mm diameter pipe 750 m long at the rate of 2.7 kg/s. if the critical
Reynolds number is 2300, show that the critical velocity is not
exceeded and calculate the pressure required at the pump and the
power required. The pipe is horizontal.


Lecture 1.3 Laminar Flow-Pressure Drop
Summary of Todays Lecture
Solution
Mass flow is given, we need velocity in order to find the Re and
volumetric flow in order to find the p and power



3
2
900 , 0.17 . , 75 , 750
2.7 Re 2300 ? ?
2.7
4
kg
Pa s D mm l m
m
kg
m P power
s
kg
m m
m Ac c
A
D

= = = =
= = = =
= = = =

900
s
kg
3
m
2
0.075
4
m
t

0.679
900
Re
m
s
kg
cD

=
= =
m
3
0.679
m

s
0.075 m
0.17 . Pa s
. Pa s

kg
m. s
The flow is l
2
a
69.
ar
6
min
=
Lecture 1.3 Laminar Flow-Pressure Drop
Summary of Todays Lecture
Solution
Mass flow is given, we need velocity in order to find the Re and
volumetric flow in order to find the p and power



3
900 , 0.17 . , 75 , 750
2.7 Re 2300 ? ?
2.7
kg
Pa s D mm L m
m
kg
m P power
s
kg
m
V

= = = =
= = = =
= =
900
s
kg
3
3
4
0.003
8 0.17 .
8
m
s
m
Pa s
LV
p
R

t
=

A = =
750 m
3
0.003
m

4
4
0.075
2
s
m t
| |

|
\ .
.
.
kg
ms
Pa s

2
492795.5
.
492795.5
kg
ms
kg
p
=
A =
2
. m s
1
1
N
kg

2
.m
s
2
2
492795.5
492795.5
N
m
N
p
m
=
A =
2
1
100000
bar
N
m

9
4.93
4. 3
bar
p bar A =
=

Lecture 1.3 Laminar Flow-Pressure Drop

Summary of Todays Lecture
Solution
Mass flow is given, we need velocity in order to find the Re and
volumetric flow in order to find the p and power



3
2
900 , 0.17 . , 75 , 750
2.7 Re 2300 ? ?
492795.5
kg
Pa s D mm L m
m
kg
m P power
s
N
power pV
m
= = = =
= = = =
= A =
3
0.003
m

.
1478.4
.
1478.4
N m
s s
N m
power
s
=
=
1
.
1
W
N m
s

1478.4
1478.4
power W
W
=
=

Introduction and Fluids at Rest

Fluids Lecture 1.1 Hydrostatic Pressure
Todays Lecture
Phases
Types of fluids
Density
Pressure
Hydrostatis Pressure
Measurement of atmospheric pressure
Measurements of liquid pressure
Measurement of gas pressure
Introduction and Fluids at Rest
Fluids Lecture 1.1 Hydrostatic Pressure
Phases
A substance can exist as
A solid
A liquid
A gas




e.g. Water: ice; water; steam
Introduction and Fluids at Rest
Fluids Lecture 1.1 Hydrostatic Pressure
Phases
Solids
Maintains shape
Can withstand tensile (pulling), compressive and shear
sliding stress
Fluids
Includes liquids and gases
Little resistance to a permanent change in shape
Take on the shape of container




Introduction and Fluids at Rest
Fluids Lecture 1.1 Hydrostatic Pressure
Phases
Fluids
Two types of fluids (generally)
Incompressible Fluids: Liquids
Molecules arranged so a given mass of fluid will retain
virtually the same volume irrespective of pressure
Compressible Fluids: Gases and Vapors
Free molecular arrangement, so tend to fill any vessel
Pressure changes produce considerable change in volume





Introduction and Fluids at Rest
Fluids Lecture 1.1 Hydrostatic Pressure
Phases
Density
Density is mass per unit volume


Density of water:


Relative density



3
( )
( )
mass kg m
Density
Volume m V
= = =
3
1000
w
kg
m
=
l
l
w

=
Introduction and Fluids at Rest
Fluids Lecture 1.1 Hydrostatic Pressure
Pressure
Closed cylinder






The pressure is the force exerted per unit area
Neglecting the weight of fluid:


Units:
N/m
2
or Pascal (Pa); 1 N/m
2
= 1 Pa
Bar: 1 bar = 105 N/m
2


2
( )
( )
Force N F
pressure p
Area m A
= = =
Introduction and Fluids at Rest
Fluids Lecture 1.1 Hydrostatic Pressure
Pressure in a Fluid
At rest:





Pressure in fluid acts equally in all directions
Pressure exerted on a surface is normal to the surface
At any two points in the same horizontal plane,
pressure is equal



Introduction and Fluids at Rest
Fluids Lecture 1.1 Hydrostatic Pressure
Hydrostatic Pressure
Column of liquid of height h
p










Pressure in fluid due to the weight of the fluid above:
p = gh
p
Hydrostatic equation, and h
p
= pressure head



p
p
p
p
Volumeof liquid =cross - sectional areaheight Ah
Mass of liquid =density volume Ah
Weight of liquid =mass g Ah g
Ah g
Pressure on base =weight of liquid/arae of base
A

=
=
=
=
Introduction and Fluids at Rest
Fluids Lecture 1.1 Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric Pressure p
atmos
Column of air: 1 m
2
cross sectional area
Weight, on average: 101300 N








Atmospheric pressure is nearly 1bar



2
2
5
2
101300
101.300
1.013 10 1.013
atmos
N
p
m
kN
m
N
bar
m
=
=
= =
Introduction and Fluids at Rest
Absolute and Gauge Pressure
Absolute Pressure
Vessel completely empty
Pressure in a vacuum is absolute zero of pressure
Gauge pressure
Subjected to p
atmos
, so only indicates pressures
that differ from p
atmos

Atmospheric pressure = zero gauge pressure
Absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure



abs g atmos
p p p = +
Introduction and Fluids at Rest
Pressure Measurement
Measurement: Barometer
Used to measure absolute pressure of the atmosphere
Pressure in the same horizontal plane is equal
Mercury will rise up until pressure due to
weight will balance p
atmos

At level xx:
p = p
atmos

where
p = gh
b
h
b
= barometric head

= density of mercury = 13600 kg/m
3



Pressure Measurement
Piezometer Tube
Measurement of liquid pressure
Gauge pressure at xx:
p
gauge
= gh
p

Absolute pressure at xx:
p = p
atmos
+ gh
p










h
p
= pressure head, measured in meters


Pressure Measurement
U-Tube Manometer
Gas pressure measurement
Gauge pressure at xx:
When p > p
atmos
:
Gauge pressure of gas:
p
gauge
= gh
p

Absolute pressure of gas:
p = p
atmos
+ gh
p

h
p
= pressure head, measured in meters


Gas at
Pressure
p
p
atmos
h
p
Pressure Measurement
Lecture Summary
Todays Lecture
Density, : mass per unit volume; kg/m
3
Pressure, p: force/area; N/m
3

Hydrostatic pressure: p = gh
p
where h
p
is pressure head
Atmospheric pressure: 101300 N/m
3
(avg)
Measurement of p
atmos
: barameter
Measurement of liquid pressure: Piezometer
Measurement of gas pressure: U-tube Manometer



Course Content

1. Fluid Properties Overview
2. Flow in Horizontal Pipeline
o Liquid Phase
o Gas Phase
o Multiphase
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
124
Oil and gas properties are very important in the pipeline
flow calculations
API, Oil specific gravity, and Oil formation volume factor
Gas density, gas formation volume factor, and gas specific
gravity.
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
125
Fluid Properties Overview
Specific gravity of a liquid




API gravity



Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
126
) , (
) , (
1 1
1 1
T P
T P
w
o
o

=
141.5
131.5
o
o
API

=
Crude Oil Properties
Phase density (gas)

Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
127
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g g g g
g
g g
m
V
PV
Z
n RT
m
n
M
PV M m PM
Z
m RT V ZRT

=
=
=
= = =
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
128
g
g
PM
Z RT
Gas Density
SG
Air Density
= =
air
air
PM
Z RT
28.92
28.92
g g
air
g
M M
M
M
SG
= =
=
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
129
P
b

O
i
l

V
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y


T = constant
Single Phase
Flow

Two Phase Flow
Gas Out of
Solution
Gas formation volume factor B
g


Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
130
Reservoir Conditions
V
R
Standard Conditions
V
SC
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
131
R
g
SC
V
B
V
=
B
g
=
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
132
[res bbl/SCF] or [ft
3
/SCF]
SC
SC SC
P
nRT Z
P
ZnRT
Bg =
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
133
Since T
sc
= 520
o
R, P
sc
=14.696 psia,
for all practical purposes Z
sc
= 1, then
14.6
ZT
0.02
96
1 520
82
P
sc
g
o
sc sc sc sc
sc sc
sc c
g
s
ZnRT ZnRT
P Z T Z T psia
P P
B
Z nRT Z nRT
Z T P R P
cuft
B
cf
P P
s
( (
(
= = = =
( (
=
(


Oil Formation Volume Factor

Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
134
Volume of Oil + Dissolved gas at Reservoir Pressure & Temperature
Volume of Oil entering Stoc
Reservoir barrels (bbl)
Stock tank barrels (
k tank at Standard Pressure & Temper
STB)
ature
o
Units
B
=
=
1. Introduction
We will talk about the transport of fluids from the
wellhead to the facility where processing of the fluids
begins.
For oil production:
The facility is typically a two or three phase separator.
For gas production:
The facility is a gas plant which is a compressor
station or a transport pipeline.
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
135
2. Flow in Horizontal Pipeline
We will study the flow in horizontal pipes for gas, liquid,
and multiphase.
Our main objective is to predict the pressure drop due to
friction.
The pressure drop due to potential energy is zero in
horizontal pipelines.
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
136

2.1 Single-Phase Flow: Liquid
The potential energy pressure drop is zero
Incompressible fluid and the pipe diameter is constant thus; the kinetic
energy pressure drop is zero.
The mechanical energy balance simplifies to
=
1

2
=
2

The friction factor is calculated from Moody diagram.
=

A=

4

2

=
4

2

: Velocity, ft/sec
A: Pipe cross-sectional area,
2

D: Pipe diameter, ft
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
137
Single phase flow can be characterized as being:
1. Laminar
2. Turbulent
Depending on the value of a dimensionless group known as the
Reynolds number, Nre.

=
1.48

q: flow rate STB/d
: density, lbm/ft3
D: Diameter, in
: Viscosity, cp
If Nre >= 2100 then the flow is turbulent.
If Nre< 2100 then the flow is laminar.



2.1 Single-Phase Flow: Liquid
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
138
Example
1000 bbl/d is supplied to the wellhead through a 3000 ft
long, 1 in I.D. flow line from a central pumping station.
The relative roughness of the pipe is 0.004. If the pressure
at the wellhead is 100 psia. What is the pressure at the
pumping station. The water has a specific gravity of 1.05
and a viscosity of 1.2 cp. Fresh water density is 62.4 lbm/ft3

2.1 Single-Phase Flow: Liquid
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
139
Solution
Solution
2
3
3
2 2 2
1000 3000 1.5 0.004
100 1.05 1.2 62.4
1.05 62.4 65.52
3.14286
1.5
4 4
fw
fw
bbl
q L ft D in
d
lbm
P psia cp
ft
lbm
ft
SOLUTI
A D in
ON
c


t
= = = =
= = = =
= = =
= =
2
2
1
144
ft
in

2
0.01227
1000
ft
bbl
q
V
A
=
= =
d
3
5.615 ft

2
1bbl
1d

2
24 60 60
0.01227
s
ft

5.298
ft
s
=
Solution
2
3
1000 3000 1.5 0.004
100 1.05 1.2 62.4
65.52
fw
Re
bbl
q L ft D in
d
l
SOLUTION
bm
P psia cp
ft
lbm
VD
N
c

= = = =
= = = =
= =
3
ft
5.298
ft

s
1.5
12
ft
1.2 cp
4
6.72 10
lbm

ft . s
1cp
0.8981
1.1098
2
0.8981
1.1098
53808
1 5.0452 7.149
4log log
3.7065 2.8257
1
0.0076
0.004 5.0452 0.004 7.149
4log log
3.7065 53808 2.8257 53808
Re Re
N N
f
f
c c
=
(
| |
| |
( |
= +
|
|
(
\ .
\ .

(
(
(
= =
(
(
| |
( | |
+ ( |
|
(
|
\ .
(
( \ .


Solution
Solution
2
3
2
3
2
1 2
1000 3000 1.5 0.004
100 1.05 1.2 62.4
65.52 0.01227 5.298
53808 0.0076
2*0.0076*65.52
2
fw
Re
c
bbl
q L ft D in
d
lbm
P psia cp
ft
lbm ft
A f
SOLU
t V
ft s
N f
lbm
f V L
P P P
TION
g D
c

= = = =
= = = =
= = =
= =
A = = =
3
ft
2
2
*(5.298)
ft
2
s
*3000 ft
1
*
12
32.174
ft
in
lbm. ft
2
.
f
lb s
2
1 2
144.8
*1.5
100 144.8 244.8
f
lb
in
in
P P P psi
=
= + A = + =
0.00764
Solution
=

= 1.05 62.4

=
1.48 1,000 65.52
1.5 1.2
= 53,872
f = 0.0076 from Moody chart.
=

We know 5.615
3
= 1
=
1000

4

1.5
12
2

5.615
3

1
86400
= 5.3 /
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
144
Lecture 3
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
145
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
The mechanical energy balance is

+
2

= 0

1
2

2
2
= 4.195 10
6

4
24

2

P
1
and p
2
are in psi, T is in
o
R, q is MSCF/d, D is in in and
L is in ft

= 20.09

2.2 Single-Phase Flow: Gas
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
146
Example
Gas production from a low-pressure gas well (wellhead
pressure = 100 psia) is to be transported through 1,000 ft of
a 3 in. I.D. (= 0.001) to a compressor station, ehre the inlet
pressure must be at least 20 psia. The gas has a specific
gravity of 0.7, a temperature of 100
o
F and an average
viscosity of 0.012 cp. What is the maximum flow rate
possible through this gas line? (Hint: when the pressure is
low z= 1). Final answer = 10,800 MSCF/d


2.2 Single-Phase Flow: Gas
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
147
Solution
Solution
1 2
2 2 2
100 1000 3 0.001
100 20 0.7 0.012
3.14286
3
4 4
o
g
T F L ft D in
P psia P psia c
SOL
p
A D in
UTION
c

t
= = = =
= = = =
= =
2
2
1
144
ft
in

2
Re
0.04911
500
0.7*10000
20.09 20.09 195319.4
3*0.012
g
ft
MSCF
Assume q
d
q
N
D

=
=
= = =
Solution
1 2
2
Re
0.8981
1.1098
100 1000 3 0.001 1
100 20 0.7 0.012
0.04911 500 195319.4
1
5.0452 7.149
4log log
3.7065 2.8257
o
g
Re Re
T F L ft D in Z
P psia P psia cp
MSCF
A ft Assume q N
SOLUTION
d
f
N N
c

c c
= = = = =
= = = =
= = =

=

(
| |
| |
( | +
|
|
(
\ .

\ .

2
2
0.8981
1.1098
1
0.00527761
0.001 5.0452 0.001 7.149
4log log
3.7065 195319.4 2.8257 195319.4
f

)




= =
`
(
| |
| |
+ ( |
|

|
\ .
(
\ .
)
Solution
Solution
( )
1 2
2
Re
2 2 4
1 2
7
100 1000 3 0.001 1
100 20 0.7 0.012
0.04911 500 195319.4 0.00527761
(4.195 10 ) 24
o
g
g
T F L ft D in Z
P psia P psia cp
MSCF
A ft Assume q N f
d
q is calculated again by the following :
P P D
q
L
ZT f
D
SOLUTION
c

= = = = =
= = = =
= = = =

=
(

( )
1
2
2 2 4
7
ln
100 20 3
10386.80102
1000 100
(4.195 10 ) 0.7 1 (460 100) 24 0.00528 ln
3 20
P
P
q

| |

+
` |
(

\ .
)

= =

( | |
+ +
`
|
(
\ .
)
Solution
1 2
2
Re
100 1000 3 0.001 1
100 20 0.7 0.012
0.04911 500 195319.4 0.00527761
10386.80102
By Trial and Error we get the following:
o
g
i
T F L ft D in Z
P psia P psia cp
MSCF
A ft Assume
SOL
q N f
UTION
d
q
c

= = = = =
= = = =
= = = =
=
q Nre f
500 195319.4 0.005278
10386.8 4057488 0.004927
10735.62 4193749 0.004927
10736.31 4194020 0.004927
10736.31 4194020 0.004927
2.3 Two Phase
Flow
Flow Regimes
Flow regime does not affect the pressure drop as
significantly in horizontal flow as it does in vertical flow,
because there is no potential energy contribution.
Most important, the occurance of slug flow nesessitates
designing separators or sometimes special pieces of
equipment. (Slug catchers) to handle the large volume of
liquid containes in a slug.
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
153
Segregated flow: two phases are separate
Intermittent flow: gas and liquid are alternating.
Distibutive flow: one phase is dispersed in the other
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
154
Segregated flow
Stratified smooth flow: consists of liquid flowing along the
bottom of the pipe and gas flowing along the top of the
pipe with smooth interface between the phases, occires at
tye low rates od both phases.
At higher gas rates, the interface becomes wavy, and
stratified wavy flow results.
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
155
Annular flow: occurs at high gas rates and relativley high
liquid rates and consists of an annulus of liquid coating the
wall of the pipe and a central core of gas flow, with liquid
droplets entrained in the gas.
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
156
Intermittent flow

Slug flow: consists of large liquid slugs alternating with
high velocity bubbles of gas that fill almost the entire pipe.
Plug flow: large gas bubbles flow along the top of the pipe.
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
157
Distributive flow
Bubble flow: gas bubble concentrated on the upper side of
the pipe.
Mist flow: occurs at high gas rates and low liquid rates and
consists of gas with liquid droplets entrained.
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
158
Determination of flow type
Flow regime in horizontal flow are predicted with flow
regime maps one of the first of these is Baker (1953). We
will study
1- Baker (1953)
2- Mandhane (1974)
Beggs and Brill (1973)
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
159
Baker flow regime map
The axes for this plot are

, where

and

are
the mass fluxes of liquid and gas, /
2

=

0.075

62.4
1
2

=
73

62.4

2
1
3

Where densites in lbm/ft
3
, viscosity is in cp, and

is in
dunes/cm
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
160
Mandhane flow regime map
This map uses the gas and liquid superficial velocities.

Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
161
The superficial velocity of a phase would be the average
velocity of the phase if that phase filled the entire pipe;
that is, if it were single phase flow. It is not a real velocity
that physically occurs.

Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
162
The Begges and Brill Correlation
Is based on a horizontal flow regime map that divides the
domain into the tree flow regime categories, segregated,
intermittent, and distributed. This map needs mixture
Froud number as

V
m
: v
sl
+ v
sg

V
m
: mixture velocity, ft/s
g: gravity constant 32.17 ft/sec
2

D: diameter, ft

Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
163
Example
Using the baker, Mandhane, and Beggs and Brill flow
regime maps, determine the flow regime for the flow of
2000 bbl/d of oil and 1 MM SCF/d of gas at 800 psia and
175
o
F in a 2.5 in I.D. pipe.

= 0.8 g/cm
3
,

= 2 cp,

= 30
dynes/cm
1 g/cc = 62.428 lbm/ft
3
, T
pc
= 374
o
R, P
pc
= 717 psia,

=
0.709,

= 0.0131 cp

Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
164
2.3.3 Multiphase flow in pipe lines
Multiphase flow the simultaneous flow of two or more
phases of fluid will occure in almost all oil pipelines and
gas pipelines.
In an oil pipeline, whenever the pressure drops below the
bubble point, a gas will evolve, and from that point, gas
liquid flow will occure.
Sometimes water also flows wicj will results in 3 phase
flow.

Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
165
Holdup behavior
In two phase flow, the amount of the pipe occupied by a
phase is often different from its proportion of the total
volumetric flow rate.

If we have this vertical pipe
Liquid is denser than gas
Gas will be moving faster because of this.

Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
166
Holdup phenomena occurs
The volume fraction of the denser phase will be greater
than the input volume fraction of the denser phase, that is,
the denser phase is "held up" in the pipe relative to the
lighter phase.

V
L:
Volume of liquid
V: Volume of pipe segment.
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
167
Another parameter used in describing two phase flow is
the input fraction of each phase, , defined as

= 1

q is the volumetric flow rates of the two phases.

Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
168
Slip velocity is defines as the difference between the
average velocities of the two phases. Thus
v

= v

=
1

Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
169
Example:
If the slip velocity for a gas-liquid flow is 60 ft/min and the
superficial velocity of each phase is also 60 ft/min, what is
the holdup for each phase.

Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
170
Begges and Brill Method
Begges and Brill method is applicable to any inclination
and flow direction.
This method is based on the flow regime that would occur
if the pipe were horizontally; corrections are then made to
account for the change in holdup behavior with inclination.
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
171
It is based on the following parameters:

1
= 316

0.302



2
= 0.0009252

2.468



3
= 0.1

1.4516

4
= 0.5

0.738

Flow regimes used in Begges-Brill are segregated, transition, intermittent,
and distributed

Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
172
Flow through chokes
The flow rate from almost all flowing wells is controlled
with a wellhead choke
The chock is a device that places a restriction in the flow
line.
Chock advantages:
Prevention of water conning
Prevention of sand production
Satisfying production rate or pressure imposed by surface
equipment.
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
173
single phase liquid flow
The flow rate is related to the pressure drop across the
chock by
=
2

Where C is the flow coefficient of the choke and A is the
cross sectional area of the chock.
C is given by Figure 10-11
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
174
Oil field units

= 22,800
2
2

Where
Q is bbl/d
D
2
: chock diameter in in.
: psi
: lmb/ft
3

The chock usually given in 64ths of an inch.

Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
175
Example

What will be the flow rate of a 0.8 specific gracity, 2 cp oil
through a 20/64-in chock if the pressure drop across the
chock is 20 psi and the line size is 1 in.

Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
176
Pressure drop through pipe fittings

When fluids pass through pipe fittings (tees, elbows, etc) or
valves, secondary flows and additional turbulence create
pressure drops that must be included to determine the overall
pressure drop in a piping network.
The effects of valves and fittings are included by adding the
"equivalent length" of the valves and fittings to the actual
lengths of straight pipe whrn calculating the pressure drop.
The equivalent lengths of many standard valves and fittings
have been determined experimentally (crane, 1957) and are
given in Table 10-1
The equivelant lengths are given in pipe diameters, this value is
multiplied by the pipe diameter to find the actual length of pipe
to be added.


Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
177
Surface gathering systems

In most oil and gas production installations, the flow from
several wells will be gathered at a central processing
station or combined into a common pipeline
When individual flow lines all join at a common point, the
pressure at the common point is equal for all flow lines.
The common point is typically a separator in an oil
production systems.
The flowing tubing pressure of an individual well (i) is
related to the separator pressure by

Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
178

Where

is the pressure drop through the flow line

is the pressure drop through the chock

is the pressure drop through fittings

Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
179
In a gathering system where individual wells are tied into a
common pipeline, so that pipeline flow rate is the sum of
the upstream well flow rates.

Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
180
Example

The liquid production from three rod-pimped wells is
gathered in a common 2 in line, as shown.
1 in flow lines connect each well to the gathering line, and
each well line contains a ball valve and a conventional
swing check valve. Well 1 is tied into the gathering line
with a standard 90
o
elbow, while wells 2 and 3 are
connected with standard tees.
The oil density is 53.04 lbm/ft
3
and its viscosity is 5 cp. The
separator pressure is 100 psig. Assuming the relative
roughness of all lines to be 0.001, calculate the flowing
tubing pressures of the three wells.

Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
181
Drag Reducing Agents

Drag reducing agnets (DRA) are added to crude oil to
allow a higher flow rate in a pipeline for the same pressure
drop.

They are effective with light crude oil.
DRA are expensive and not recoverable; their use must be
economically justified.
DRA increases the flow up to 90%
The effect of the DRA is to reduce the frictional pressure
drop in the turbulent flow; they reduce turbulence by an
unkown mechanism
Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
182
Heavy oil Transport

The viscosity of heavy oils is very high and highly sensitive
to the oil temperature.
Dilute oil wil a light hydrocarbon solvent lowers the
viscosity to an acceptable value and allows pumping at
reasonable flow rates.

Leak Detectiong
Visual Surveilance
Monitoring of flow and pressure.

Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
183
Pipe desiging
Petroleum pipelines should not
Exceed the maximum allowable working pressure
(MAWP)
Fall below the crude oil bubble point pressure.

Dr. Almarri
Eng. Aldousari
Petroleum Transportation & Storage
Engineering
184
Two Phase Flow


Two Phase Flow


Two Phase Flow


Example
During the calculation of a pressure traverse in a gas
well producing liquid, the following conditions were
determine at the average pressure and temperature in
the pipe increment. Using the Hagedorn and Brown
method, determine the pressure gradient.


3
3
1500 30
180 5
2.992 0.0006
0.012 50
0.45 8
25 /
sg
o
sL
g L
L g
ft
P psia V
s
ft
T F V
s
d in ft
lbm
cp
ft
lbm
cp
ft
dynes cm
c


o
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
=
Solution
Before finding H
L
and f, some preliminary calculations are made:



3
2
2
2
3 3
5 30 35
5
0.143
30
(1 ) 5 0.143 8 (1 0.143) 14
2.992
12
3.1416 0.0487
4 4
50
2 2
25
m sL sg
sL
L
sg
n L L g L
p
L
ft
V V V
s
V
V
lbm
ft
d
A ft
lbm lbm lbm
ft ft
dynes dynes
cm cm

o
= + = + =
= = =
= + = + =
| |
|
\ .
= = =
= = =
3
ft
dynes
cm
30.48 cm

1 ft
32.174
lbm

. ft
2
444820
s
dynes
2
3
907.2
s
ft
=
Solution
Before finding H
L
and f, some preliminary calculations are made:



1
1 4
1/ 4 4
4
2
3
2
1
1 4
1/ 4 4
4
2
3
2
1 1
5 907.2 5 28.2 11.52
32.18
1 1
30 907.2 30 28.2 69.13
32.18
L
Lv sL
L
gv sg
d
ft s ft s
N V
ft
g s ft s ft
s
ft s ft s
N V
ft
g s ft s ft
s
N d

o
| |
| |
|
| | | |
| = = = =
|
| |
|
\ . \ .
|
\ .
|
\ .
| |
| |
|
| | | |
| = = = =
|
| |
|
\ . \ .
|
\ .
|
\ .
=
1/ 2
2.992
32.18
12
L
ft
g ft

o
| |
=
|
\ .
2
s
2
907.2
s

3
ft
2
1
2
42.6
| |
= |
|
\ .
Solution
Before finding H
L
and f, some preliminary calculations are made:



1/ 4
2
3
3
32.18
1
0.45
50
25
L L
L
f
lbm
t
g
s
N cp
ft
dynes

o
| |
= =
|
\ .
cm
.
32.174
lbm ft

2
444820
s
dynes
30.48 cm

1 ft
1/ 4
3
1/ 4
3
2
2
3
6
2
3
32.18
0.45 18.14363402
50
32.18
0.45 5972.729287
50
L
L
ft
s
s
N cp
lbm
ft
ft
s
s
N cp
f
lbm
lb
t
m
| |
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\ .
\ .
| |
|
| |
| =
|
|
\ .
|
\ .
=
4
1/ 4
1/ 4
4 4
3 4
.
0.45 3844.048569
0.45
L
ft s
cp
lbm lbm
N cp
| |
|
| |
| =
|
|
\ .
|
\ .
=
.
7.874032746
ft s

lbm
4
6.74 10
lbm

. ft s
1cp
0.002388194 =
Example
Determine H
L
, from figure 3-6, CN
L
= 0.002



0.002
Example



0.1
0.575 0.1
0.1
-5
0.575 0.1
0.38
2.14
1. 0.0024
2. .3 6, 0.002
( )
3. , (14.7 )
11.52 (0.002) 1500
7.52 10
42.6 69.13 14.7
4. .3 7, 0.29
5.
L
L
L
L
Lv L
H a
d gv a
H
L
gv L
d
N
FromFig CN
N CN P
X where P base pressure psia
N N P
X
H
FromFig
N N
X
N
X

=
=
= =

= =

=
=
0.38
2.14
69.13 0.0024
0.002276199
42.6

= =
Figure 3-7. Liquid holdup factor correlation, P
a
=base pressure (14.7 psia).
0.29
Example



3
2 2
3
1 0.29 1 0.29
6. .3 8, 1
7. 1 0.29 0.29
(1 )
50 0.29 8 (1 0.29) 20.18
14
9.71
20.18
( ) ( ) 0.45 0.012 0.034
14
L L
L
L
m L L g L
m
n
f
m
H H
m L g
n m
Rem
m
FromFig
H
H
H H
lbm
ft
lbm
ft
cp
lbm
V d
N

=
| |
= = =
|
\ .
= +
= + =
= = =
= = =
= =
3
ft
35
ft

s
2.992
12
ft
0.034 cp
4
6.72 10
lbm

ft . s
1cp
5347222.222 =
Figure 3-8. Correlation of second correction factor,
Example



0.0006 ft
d
c
=
12 in

1 ft
2.992 in
0.9
Re
0.9
0.0024
.3 9 .3 15
0.025
1 21.25
1.14 2log
1 21.25
1.14 2 log 0.0024 6.373
5347222.2
0.157 0.024622659
m
from fig or Eq
f
d N
f
f
f f
c
=

=
| |
= +
|
\ .
| |
= + =
|
\ .
= =
0.025
Example



2
( cos )
2
32.2
f m
m
c c
f V
dP g
dh g g d
ft
dP
dh

| = +
=
2
s
32.174
lbm. ft
2
.
f
lb s
20.18
lbm

3
0.025 9.71
cos(0)
lbm
ft

+
2
2
3
35
ft
ft

2
s
2 32.174
lbm

. ft
2
.
f
lb s
0.249 ft
3
2
20.19630758 18.55927159 38.75 38.75
f f
lb lb
dP
dh ft
ft
= + = =
2
1
1
ft
ft

2
2
144
1
0.269 0.269
f
in
lb
dP psi
dh in ft ft
= =
200
APPENDIX A
CONVERSION FACTORS
Thermodynamics
201
APPENDIX A: CONVERSION FACTORS
Mass 1.0 Kg Mass 1.0 lb
m

= 1000.0 g = 16.0 oz
= 0.0010 metric ton = 0.00050 ton
= 2.20462 lb
m
= 453.59300 g
= 35.27392 oz = 0.45359 Kg
Length 1.0 m Length 1.0 ft
= 100.0 cm = 12.0 in
= 1000.0 mm = 1/3 yd
= 1000000.0 microns meter = 0.3048 m
= 10000000000.0 angstroms = 30.4800 cm
= 39.370 in
= 3.280800 ft
= 1.093600 yd
= 0.000621 mile
Volume 1 m
3
Volume 1 ft
3

= 1000 liters = 1728 in
3

= 1000000 cm
3
= 7.4805 gal
= 1000000 mlt = 0.028317 m
3

= 35.3145 ft
3
= 28.317 liters
= 220.83 imperial gallons = 28317 cm
3

= 264.17 gal = 0.1781076 bbl
= 6.2898106 bbl
= 1056.68 qt
Force 1 N Force 1 lb
f

= 1 Kg.m/s
2
= 32.174 lb
m
.ft/s
2

= 100000 dynes = 4.4482 N
= 100000 g.cm/s
2
= 444820 dynes
= 0.22481 lb
f

202
APPENDIX A: CONVERSION FACTORS
Pressure 1 atm Energy 1 J
= 101325 N/m
2
= 1 N.m
= 101325 Pa = 10000000 ergs
= 101.325 Kpa = 10000000 dyne.cm
= 1.01325 bars = 0.0000002778 Kw.h
= 1013250 dynes/cm
2
= 0.23901 cal
= 760 mm Hg at 0
o
C = 0.7376 ft-lb
f

= 760 torr = 0.0009486 Btu
= 10.333 m H
2
O at 4
o
C
= 14.696 lb
f
/in
2

= 14.696 psi
= 33.9 ft H
2
O at 4
o
C
= 29.921 in Hg at 0
o
C
Power 1 W g
c
1 Kg.m/N.s
2

= 1 J/s = 1 g.cm/dyne.s
3

= 0.23901 cal/s = 32.174 lb
m
.ft/lb
f
.s
2

= 0.7376 ft.lb
f
/s
= 0.0009486 Btu/s g/g
c
9.8 N/Kg
= 0.001341 hp 980 dyne/g
Temperature 1
o
C T(
o
K) = T(
o
C) + 273.15
274.15
o
K T(
o
R) = T(
o
F) + 459.67
33.8
o
F T(
o
R) =1.8* T(
o
K)
493.47
o
R T(
o
F) =1.8* T(
o
C) +32
203
APPENDIX A: CONVERSION FACTORS
Water density 1 g/cm
3
H
2
O at 4
o
C Air density 1.210 g/cm
3
Air at 20
o
C
1000 Kg/m
3
H
2
O at 4
o
C 1210 Kg/m
3
Air at 20
o
C
62.3664 lb
m
/ft
3
H
2
O at 4
o
C 75.5381 lb
m
/ft
3
Air at 20
o
C
Gas 1 lbmol
379 ft
3

Gas Constant 8.314 m
3
.Pa/mol.
o
K 1 Kmol 1000.000 mol
8314 cm
3
.kPa/mol.
o
K 1000.000 gmol
83.14 cm
3
.bar/mol.
o
K 2.2046 lbmol
82.06 cm
3
.atm/mol.
o
K
62356 cm
3
.torr/mol.
o
K 1 lbm 0.45359 Kmol
0.08314 lt.bar/mol.
o
K 453.59 mol
0.08205 lt.atm/mol.
o
K 453.59 gmol
62.3601283 lt. mm Hg/mol.
o
K
0.7302 ft
3
.atm/lbmol.
o
R 1 mol 1 gmol
10.7310 ft
3
.Psia/lbmol.
o
R 0.001 Kmol
1545.0000 ft.lb
f
/lbmol.
o
R 0.0022046 lbmol
8.314 J/mol.
o
K
1.98712914 cal/mol.
o
K
1.98740775 Btu/lbmol.
o
R