N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3. Final Report On Archaeological Investigations at Site 34 in The Townland of Newrath, Co Kilkenny Volume 3

Project Code: NWB 03
Client: Waterford Co. Council
Date: May 2009

N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3. Final Report on Archaeological
Investigations at Site 34 in the townland of Newrath, Co. Kilkenny
Volume 3

Appendix 9: Palaeoenvironmental Analyses Report, Site 34, Newrath Townland,
Co. Kilkenny

By: Dr Scott Timpany
(With contributions by Prof Simon Haslett, Dr Sue Dawson and Dr Jason Jordan)
Excavated under Licence: 04E0319
Director: Brendon Wilkins
Chainage: 670
NGR: 25921 11446

Project Code: NWB 03
Client: Waterford Co. Council
Date: May 2009

N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3. Final Report on
Archaeological Investigations at Site 34 in the townland of
Newrath, Co. Kilkenny
Volume 3

Appendix 9: Palaeoenvironmental Analyses Report, Site 34, Newrath
Townland, Co. Kilkenny

By: Dr Scott Timpany
(With contributions by Prof Simon Haslett, Dr Sue Dawson and Dr Jason Jordan)
Excavated under Licence: 04E0319
Director: Brendon Wilkins
Chainage: 670
NGR: 25921 11446
Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34 Final Report Volume 3
Contents

Abstract 3

Introduction 3

Methods 3
Pollen and non‐pollen palynomorphs 3
Microscopic charcoal analyses 4
Plant macrofossil analyses 4
Wood identification analyses 4
Loss on Ignition 5
Foraminifera 5
Diatoms 5

Results 6
Radiocarbon dating 6
Stratigraphy 9
Loss on Ignition 10
Pollen 11
Plant macrofossils 15
Foraminifera 19
Diatoms 19

Discussion 20
Stratigraphy, Loss on Ignition and Sea‐level rise 20
Vegetational History and Human agency 23

Conclusion 34

References 35

Appendices 41

Figures and Tables
Figure 1 – Loss on Ignition Results 10
Figure 2 – Monolith1 pollen diagram 12
Figure 3 – Monolith 2 pollen diagram, 13
Figure 4 – Monolith 1 plant macrofossil diagram 16
Figure 5 – Monolith 2 plant macrofossil diagram 17
Figure 6 – Reconstructed sea‐level curve for Newrath 22
Table 1 – Radiocarbon results from SUERC 6
Table 2 – Idealised stratigraphy for Area 1 9
Table 3 – Evidence for Neolithic Agriculture in the 28
Waterford Area

2
Abstract

The excavation of a former wetland area at Newrath, Co. Kilkenny as part of construction of the new
N25 Waterford Bypass has shown it to be an important multi‐period site with finds ranging from Bann
flakes of the Later Mesolithic, to scatters of brushwood from the medieval period. Here the
palaeoenvironmental evidence from the site is presented, where a multi‐proxy approach was taken
using pollen, non‐pollen palynomorph, plant macrofossil, foraminifera and diatom analyses. Results
show Newrath was an increasingly wet environment from the Neolithic onwards with a successional
sequence of dry land surface ‐ carr‐woodland – reedswamp – saltmarsh. Analyses also show evidence
for agricultural practice in both the Neolithic and Bronze Age, with the former taking place during a
period of increased storminess. Evidence has also been found for the presence of Trichuris sp, which
may be the first archaeological find within Ireland.

Introduction

This report is a continuation of palaeoenvironmental work previously undertaken at Site 34
(NGR 14485/59125 and Chainage 600‐710, see Timpany, 2006) and is a progression of the
work from that assessment phase, based on the recommendations that were made. Work
presented here is concentrated on the sedimentary sequences contained within Monoliths 1
and 2 taken from Area 1 of the site. Following on from results gained during the assessment
it was decided that the analyses should focus on the bottom 1m part of the sequence, which
consists of primarily peat layers. This conclusion was reached after pollen and stratigraphic
assessments showed high potential of sediment mixing and disturbance in the upper 1m part
of the sequence, which is dominated by estuarine silts. The lower half of the sequence also
contains the stratigraphic layers where the majority of the archaeological features from the
site have been found within.

The Monoliths were subject to a suite of multi‐proxy analyses that included pollen, non‐
pollen palynomorph, microscopic charcoal, plant macrofossil, wood identification, loss on
ignition (LOI), diatom and foraminifera analyses together with further accelerated mass
spectrometry (AMS) dating.

This report aims to not only present that data, which has been collected from this study but
also to relate this back to the multi‐period archaeology present at the site (see Wilkins, main
report). In particular discussion will be focused on the changing environment of Newrath
and the Waterford area, palaeoenvironmental evidence for the presence of people in the
landscape, interaction of people with the landscape and other disturbance factors that can be
identified in the palaeoenvironmental record, in particular those relating to tidal influence in
relation to sea‐level rise.

Methods

Pollen and non‐pollen palynomorphs
Pollen analysis was undertaken on samples of 1cm3 from the two monoliths. Samples were
taken at intervals of approximately 2cm to 8cm from both monoliths. Pollen samples were
prepared using standard preparation methods (cf. Barber, 1976). A counting method of
recording 500 pollen grains excluding spores and obligate aquatics was employed for the
assessment of the pollen. Plant taxonomic nomenclature follows the order of Stace (1997).
Cereal‐type pollen grains have been identified using the criteria given by Faegri et al (1989)
and take into account suggestions of Moore et al (1991). Non‐pollen palynomorphs (e.g.
3
fungal spores and testate amoeba) were identified using illustrations and descriptions in
publications including van Geel (1978, 1986), van Geel et al (2003) and Ellis and Ellis (1997).
All rare types are shown as a cross, where one cross denotes one grain/spore.

Pollen diagrams were constructed using the TILIA and TG view; versions 2.0.2 packages
(Grimm 2004), and have been zoned using the CONISS package. The pollen diagrams are
given in Figures 2 and 3.

Microscopic charcoal analyses
During pollen counting microscopic charcoal was identified as either grass‐type (to include
Poaceae and Cyperaceae charcoal) or wood microscopic charcoal, where enough of the
structure was complete to identify. These counts have been added to the pollen diagrams as
total number counted and are not intended to show all microscopic charcoal present, only
that which can be safely identified. These counts have been added to aid in sighting trends
between the vegetational and microscopic charcoal records.

The microscopic charcoal area using the point count method (Clark, 1982) is also given in
each pollen diagram, as this shows more clearly the fire history of the site. Microscopic
charcoal was counted using the points of the graticule (200 points), with those pieces
“touching” the graticule point being added to the count. Generally 10 fields of view were
recorded per traverse of the slide, at a magnification of x100. Microscopic charcoal was
counted until 50 Lycopodium spores were recorded. This data is presented in the pollen
diagrams shown in Figures 2 and 3.

Plant macrofossil analyses
The monoliths were sub‐sampled for plant macrofossil analysis at intervals of 4cm. All of the
remaining sediment from each level (c. 50ml in volume) was removed for analyses following
sub‐sampling for other analyses such as pollen. A glass vial was also filled with sediment
from each level of approximately 10g, in case any further study is warranted.

Samples were washed through a small stack of sieves with 1mm and 500μm meshes. The
remains were sorted and identified using a binocular microscope at magnification of x10, and
x40 where greater magnification was needed for identification. Identifications were
confirmed using modern reference material and seed atlases including Cappers et al (2006).
Plant taxonomic nomenclature used in the table follows the order of Stace (1997). Data is
presented in diagram form using the TILIA package outlined above and are shown in Figures
4 and 5.

Wood identification analyses
Samples were thin sliced along radial, tangential and transverse sections using a razor blade
and then stained using bleach before being mounted on a slide in glycerol and examined
under a microscope at x100 and x400 when required. Wood sections were identified using
features described by Schweingruber (1978, 1990) and IAWA (1989). The identified wood
fragments form part of the plant macrofossil analyses and are included within the diagrams
for each monolith.

Radiocarbon dating
Samples were washed and sorted using the same method as for the plant macrofossil
analysis, with the exception of distilled water being used to wash the samples through the
sieves to avoid contamination. Identified plant material was used for dating and was stored
in glass vials in distilled water in a refrigerator, again to avoid contamination before being
4
sent for AMS radiocarbon dating at SUERC (Scottish Universities Environmental Research
Centre). A further eight samples were sent for dating and the results of these and the
previous five (see Timpany, 2006) are presented in Table 1.

Loss on Ignition
Loss on ignition is used to assess the relative organic content of the samples, and thus detect
mineral inwash levels through the peat profile. Dry samples are weighed before and after
prolonged heating: the difference in mass being taken as a measure of organic content. The
method employed for this analysis was high temperature (800+° C) ignition, to allow full
ignition of the relatively high organic content of the peat. The samples were not thought to
contain a significant carbonate component, so it was not necessary to use low temperature
ignition to avoid the decomposition of carbonates (Rowell 1994).

Foraminifera (Prof Simon Haslett)
Twelve foraminifera samples were sub‐sampled from Monoliths 1 and 2 and sent to Professor
Simon Haslett at Bath University for analysis. For details on method see separate report on
foraminifera given in Appendix I.

Diatoms (Dr Jason Jordan)
Twelve diatom samples were taken from Monoliths 1 and 2 and sent to Dr Jason Jordan at
Coventry University for analysis. For details on method see separate report on diatoms given
in Appendix II.
5
Results

Radiocarbon dating
The radiocarbon dating results are presented in Table 1. Radiocarbon dates have been
calibrated using OxCal version 3.10 (Bronk Ramsay, 2005) to 95.4% probability.

Table 1 Radiocarbon results from SUERC
Monolith Sample Dating Date BP Date Radiocarbon determination
no depth material Calibrated
(cm)
Atmospheric data from Reimer et al (2004);OxCal v3.10 Bronk Ramsey (2005); cub r:5 sd:12 prob usp[chron]
1 84‐85 Monocotyledon 1870±35 Cal AD 1870±35BP 2100BP

68.2% probability
Radiocarbon determination
80AD (57.5%) 170AD
plant tissue (SUERC‐ 60‐240 2000BP
1900BP
190AD (10.7%) 210AD
95.4% probability
60AD (95.4%) 240AD
10124) 1800BP
1700BP
1600BP
200CalBC CalBC/CalAD 200CalAD 400CalAD

Calibrated date
Atmo sp h eric d ata fro m Reimer et al (2 0 0 4 );Ox Cal v 3 .1 0 Bro n k Ramsey (2 0 0 5 ); cu b r:5 sd :1 2 p ro b u sp [ch ro n ]
1 99‐100 Monocotyledon 1665±35 Cal AD 1900BP

1665±35BP
68.2% probability
plant tissue (SUERC‐ 250‐530 1800BP
1700BP
340AD (68.2%) 425AD
95.4% probability
250AD (91.1%) 440AD
480AD ( 4.3%) 530AD
14680) 1600BP
1500BP
1400BP
1300BP
CalBC/CalAD 200CalAD 400CalAD 600CalAD

Calibrated date
Atmo sp h eric d ata fro m R eimer et al (2 0 0 4 );Ox Cal v 3 .1 0 Bro n k Ramsey (2 0 0 5 ); cu b r:5 sd :1 2 p ro b u sp [ch ro n ]
1 124‐125 Monocotyledon 1965±35 50 Cal BC 2200BP 1965±35BP

68.2% probability
2100BP 20BC ( 0.9%) 10BC
plant tissue (SUERC‐ to Cal AD 2000BP
AD (67.3%) 75AD
95.4% probability
50BC (91.0%) 90AD
14681) 50 1900BP

100AD ( 4.4%) 130AD
1800BP
1700BP
200CalBC CalBC/CalAD 200CalAD 400CalAD

Calibrated date
1 149‐150 Monocotyledon 2045±40 170 Cal BC 2400BP 2045±40BP

2300BP 68.2% probability
plant tissue (SUERC‐ to Cal AD 2200BP

150BC ( 1.9%) 140BC
110BC (66.3%) 10AD
95.4% probability
14682) 60 2100BP
2000BP
170BC (95.4%) 60AD
1900BP
1800BP
400CalBC 200CalBC CalBC/CalAD 200CalAD 400CalAD

Calibrated date
1 168‐169 Rubus sp. Seeds 4150±35 2880‐2620 4400BP

4150±35BP
68.2% probability
4300BP 2870BC (14.7%) 2830BC

(SUERC‐ Cal BC 4200BP
2820BC ( 5.7%) 2800BC
2780BC (47.8%) 2660BC
95.4% probability
10125) 4100BP
2880BC (95.4%) 2620BC
4000BP
3900BP
3000CalBC 2800CalBC 2600CalBC 2400CalBC

Calibrated date
6
1 209‐210 Prunus spinosa 4505±35 3360‐3090 4800BP
4700BP
4505±35BP
68.2% probability
fruit stone (SUERC‐ Cal BC 4600BP

3340BC (11.3%) 3310BC
3300BC ( 7.6%) 3260BC
3240BC (49.4%) 3100BC
14687) 4400BP
3360BC (95.4%) 3090BC
4300BP
4200BP
4100BP
3600CalBC 3400CalBC 3200CalBC 3000CalBC 2800CalBC

Calibrated date
1 233‐234 Quercus and 4850±35 3710‐3620 5200BP 4850±35BP

68.2% probability
5100BP
Betula buds and (SUERC‐ Cal BC 5000BP
3700BC ( 7.0%) 3680BC
3670BC (51.2%) 3630BC
3560BC ( 9.9%) 3540BC
bud scales. 10126) 4900BP 95.4% probability
3710BC (73.7%) 3620BC
4800BP 3580BC (21.7%) 3530BC
4700BP
4600BP
4500BP
4000CalBC 3800CalBC 3600CalBC 3400CalBC 3200CalBC

Calibrated date
2 124‐125 Monocotyledon 2360±35 540‐370 2700BP 2360±35BP

68.2% probability
plant tissue (SUERC‐ Cal BC 2600BP 510BC (31.0%) 430BC
420BC (37.2%) 380BC
10127) 2400BP
720BC ( 2.1%) 690BC
540BC (93.3%) 370BC
2300BP
2200BP
2100BP

Calibrated date
Atmospheric d ata from Reimer et al (2004);OxCal v3.10 Bronk Ramsey (2005); cub r:5 sd:12 prob usp[chron]
2 134‐135 Monocotyledon 2210±40 390‐180 2500BP

2210±40BP

plant tissue (SUERC‐ Cal BC 360BC ( 8.5%) 340BC
330BC (59.7%) 200BC
2300BP
95.4% probability
14688) 2200BP
390BC (95.4%) 180BC
2100BP
2000BP
1900BP
600CalBC 400CalBC 200CalBC CalBC/CalAD 200CalAD

Calibrated date
2 157‐158 Rubus fruticosus 3935±35 2500‐2290 4300BP

3935±35BP
68.2% probability
fruits (SUERC‐ Cal BC 4200BP 2490BC (68.2%) 2340BC
95.4% probability
2570BC ( 7.7%) 2520BC
14689) 4100BP
2500BC (87.7%) 2290BC
4000BP
3900BP
3800BP
3700BP
3000CalBC 2800CalBC 2600CalBC 2400CalBC 2200CalBC 2000CalBC

Calibrated date
2 189‐190 Alnus and 4540±40 3370‐3090 4540±40BP

68.2% probability
3370BC (19.1%) 3320BC
3280BC ( 0.8%) 3260BC
3240BC (48.3%) 3110BC
bud scales 14690) 4600BP 95.4% probability
3370BC (95.4%) 3090BC
4400BP
4200BP

Calibrated date
7
2 200‐201 Quercus and 4580±40 3380‐3260 4580±40BP
68.2% probability
3500BC (12.5%) 3460BC
3380BC (32.3%) 3330BC
3220BC (12.3%) 3180BC
bud scales 14691) 4600BP 3160BC (11.1%) 3120BC
95.4% probability
3500BC (18.8%) 3430BC
4400BP 3380BC (39.7%) 3260BC
3240BC (36.9%) 3100BC
4200BP

Calibrated date
2 211‐212 Quercus and 4765±35 3640‐3380 5000BP

4765±35BP
68.2% probability
3640BC ( 8.7%) 3620BC
3610BC (59.5%) 3520BC
95.4% probability
bud scales. 10128) 4800BP 3640BC (86.0%) 3500BC
3430BC ( 9.4%) 3380BC
4700BP
4600BP
4500BP

Calibrated date
8
Stratigraphy
The stratigraphic units from within the monoliths have been previously discussed during the
assessment stage but are returned to here briefly to present an addendum of that information,
particularly in regard to the added radiocarbon dates (see Table 1). The radiocarbon dated
levels have been used as index points in the construction of a sea‐level curve for the site and
this is presented in Figure 6.

Table 2 Idealised stratigraphy for Area 1.
Unit Stratigraphy description Context Dates Depth Relevant
numbers (cm) pollen
zone
IX Topsoil 34008 Modern 0‐10 ‐
VIII Series of estuarine silts –
34001 10‐100 ‐
base of which is probable
34002
erosion surface 34003
34045
34035
VII Estuarine silt/reed peat 34034 Top: c. 1870±35 BP (GU‐ 100‐ NWB1f
transition 34013 13996; 60‐240 cal AD) 125/150 NWB1e
34038
NWB2f
NWB2e
VI Reed peat 34033 B Top; 2045±40 (SUERC‐14682; 125/150‐ NWB1e
170 cal BC to cal AD 60) to 160 NWB1d
2360±35 BP (GU‐13999; 540‐
370 cal BC) NWB2d
V Reed/wood peat 34004 B Top: 3935±35 (SUERC‐14689; 160‐170 NWB1c
transition (possible non‐ 34031 2500‐2290 cal BC)
sequence here) NWB2c
IV Wood peat – with 34004 A Top: 4150±35 BP (SUERC‐ 170‐230 NWB1c
intercalated silts* 34003 A 10125; 2880‐2620 cal BC) NWB1b
34021* NWB1a
34046 Silt layer: 4540±40 (SUERC‐
14690; 3370‐3090 cal BC) to NWB2c
4580±40 (SUERC‐14691; 3380‐ NWB2b
3260 cal BC) NWB2a

Base: 4765±35 BP (GU‐14000;
3430‐3380 cal BC) to 4850±35
BP (SUERC‐10126; 3710‐3620
cal BC)
III Dryland surface 34100 Late Mesolithic ‐ ‐
II Glacial till 34021 235‐? ‐
I Bedrock? Not seen ‐ ‐

9
Loss on Ignition
Results for the Loss on Ignition study are provided below in Figure 1.

Figure 1 ‐ Loss on Ignition Results

% L.O.I. NWB Monolith 1
100.00
90.00
80.00
70.00
60.00
% L.O.I.
50.00 %L.O.I.
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
226 210 194 162 154 138 132 123 114 106 94 80
Depth (cm)
% L.O.I. NWB Monolith 2
100.00
90.00
80.00
70.00
60.00
% L.O.I.
50.00 %L.O.I.
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
208 198 196 193 176 160 148 130 122
Depth (cm)

10
The Loss on Ignition study shows a general increase in organic content following the
initiation of peat. The curve for Monolith 1 increases sharply from 20% to 51% as peat
develops and then begins to level out with organic content remaining high within the 50%
margin throughout the wood peat (Unit IV) and wood peat‐reed peat transition stage (Unit
V). The curve for Monolith 1 shows an initial dip after peat develops, falling from 30% to
22%. This dip ties in with a layer of silt being present within the wood peat and highlights
the high minerogenic content of this layer. Following this initial deposition of silts organic
content begins to rise as peat accumulation increases, with values increasing to over 70%
within Unit V. Organic content values are then seen to decline in both Monoliths as
sediments change from being predominantly peat based to minerogenic based signalled by a
change in the stratigraphic record from reedswamp (Unit VI) to eventual estuarine conditions
(Unit VIII) as the site becomes inundated. In Monolith 1 this change can be seen by a rapid
fall in values from 50‐20% and then levels out at around 10% as the site is submerged.
Monolith 2 also shows a rapid decline in values of organic content from 72‐28%, however,
values then rise to 54% within the reedswamp‐estuarine silts transition stage (Unit (VII),
highlighting a period within this stage of high organic content, possibly of renewed peat
development.

Pollen
Results of pollen analysis for both monoliths are shown in the pollen diagrams given in
Figures 2 and 3.

Monolith 1

Zone NWB1a (234‐210cm)
The pollen assemblage indicates that Quercus (oak) woodland dominated the landscape with
values of 40‐60% TLP (Total Land Pollen). Along with Quercus, pollen values for Alnus
glutinosa (alder) and Corylus avellana (hazel) are also high at 10‐20% TLP indicating they
formed significant parts of the wooded landscape. Poaceae (grasses) and Cyperaceae
(sedges) are present at around 10% TLP suggesting they formed the dominant field layer.
Small peaks in herbaceous species such as Aster‐type (michaelmas daisies) and Plantago
lanceolata (ribwort plantain) can be seen together with the appearance of Hordeum group
(barely) pollen. Some background micro‐charcoal can also be seen

Zone NWB1b (210‐185cm)
Quercus pollen values remain high in this zone although fall slightly from the previous zone
to c.40% TLP. Alnus glutinosa and Corylus avellana values gradually rise in this zone to form
approximately 20% TLP by the end of the zone. A small peak in Ilex (holly) pollen occurs in
this zone. Poaceae pollen values fall slightly to the end of the zone from around 10‐5% TLP.
A large peak can be seen in Filipendula (meadow sweet) pollen values of up to 15% TLP, while
smaller peaks occur in Aster‐type and Galium‐type (bedstraws). Micro‐charcoal is again
present at low values. No pollen was recorded on slides from 206‐208cm indicating high
minerogenic content of these levels.

Zone NWB1c (185‐160cm)
Alnus glutinosa, Quercus and Corylus avellana pollen continue to dominate the arboreal
assemblage at between 17‐40% TLP. There are small rises in the pollen of Salix (willow) and
Fraxinus excelsior (ash) within this zone. There is a small rise also in Cyperaceae pollen to
c.17% TLP, Poaceae values remain consistent at around 10% TLP, while Filipendula pollen
declines. Micro‐charcoal levels increase slightly during this zone.

11
Dates (BP)
2045±40
1965±35
1665±35
4150±35
4850±35
4505±35
Depth (cm)
95
235
230
225
220
215
210
205
200
195
190
185
180
175
170
165
160
155
150
145
140
135
130
125
120
115
110
105
100
Lithology
Pin
u
Ul s
m
Qu u s
er c
us
20 40 60
Be
tu
Aln la
us
g
20
lu t
noi
Ti l sa
ia
Ile
NWB03 Monolith1 pollen diagram (500 counts)
xa
Fr q u
ax ifo
Trees
Co inu lium
r yl s e
20
us xce
Sa a v ls
lix ell io r
an
So a
rb u
Pu s-
nu typ
Pr s s e
un p.
Pr us s
un p
Cr us ino s
a ta pa a-
Vib eg d us typ
ur n u s - typ e
Vib u sp e
ur n m o .
He u pu
d e m l lus
Lo r a h a nt
n e a
Ca ice ra lix na
Shrubs
ll
Ra un a pe ric
n v ly
Ur un c u lg a m e
t ic ula r is n u
My a ce m
r ae
Ch ica g
e a
Ca no po le
r d
Ly yop h iace
ch yl a
Dwarf shrubs
Di nis lace e
an - ty a
Po t hu pe e in
ly s- de
Ru gon typ e t.
m e um
Hy x o - ty
pe bt pe
Ri ric usi
be u m fo
Ro s- ty sp liu s
sa p e . -ty
Ch e c pe
r ys a e
Fil os sp
ip e p l .
20
nd eni
Po ula u m
ten off
Fa til ici
b a la na
le-
Lo ce typ
tu s ae e
Tr -t y ind
if o pe e t.
Ly lium
t hr -t
Ap um ype
ia s
Er cea p .
yn e
An g iu
thr m -t
Ap isc ype
ium us-
Ci t
cu inu yp e
Pe ta v nda
uc iro tu m
He e d sa- - t
r ac a nu typ yp e
Pla le m e
nta um p al
Pla go sp us
nta ind h on t re -
Pla g
n o e t. dy t yp
liu e
Herbs
Pla ta g cor o m-
o n t yp
nta m op
Me g a r e
l o it i
us
Ga am p lanc m a
liu yr u e ol
Va m- t m- at a
ler yp typ
Su ia n e e
c a
As cisa dio
t er p r ica
La -t y a te -t yp
c pe n s e
La tu ca is
ctu e
Ta ca
ra s
Ar xa c a tiva
te m um - t
An is - ty yp e
the ia- t pe
Cy m yp
pe is- t e
20
ra c yp
Po ea e
ac e
20
ea
e
Po
a
Ho ce a
r de e >
M i um 3 5
cr o um
g
-ch ro
10
ar c up
tr e oa
es l
sh
ru
bs
dw
a rf
s hr u
he
r b s
bs
20 40 60 80 100
Zone
NWB1f
NWB1c
NWB1a
NWB1b
NWB1d
NWB1e
Dates (BP)
1665±35
4150±35
2045±40
1965±35
4850±35
4505±35
Depth (cm)
95
235
230
225
220
215
210
205
200
195
190
185
180
175
170
165
160
155
150
145
140
135
130
125
120
115
110
105
100
Lithology
Ny
m
N u ph
ph aea
M ar a
yri s lba
M oph p.
en y
St yan llum
ra t h a
Po tiot es lte
t a es trif rnif
T y mo alo olia lor
p g id t u
Eq ha l et on es a m
NWB03 Monolith1 pollen diagram (500 counts)
uis atif
Pt et oli
er um a
op
20
Os sida
m (m
Ad un on
ian da o
Aquatics
Pi t u reg let e
lul m a ) in
a
H y ria ap s c l i de
m g illu t.
Po n e l o s
ly p oph bulif -ve
Pt od yll era ne
er iu um ris
20
idi m
um
Th
ely
D r pt
yo eri
Sp pt e s p
ha ris alu
T y gn st r
pe um is
Ty 2
p (G
Spores
T y e 3B ela
p s
T y e 4 (Ple inos
p (A o p
T y e 7A nt h s po ora
p r ra r
T y e 8 (C h ost o s p etic u
pe (A ae me p) lis
T y 10 -G) tom lla po
ra
pe (C ium fue )
T y 11 on
pe sp ian g
idi .)
T y 14 a) a)
pe `(
T y 1 Me
pe 6 lio
T y 19 la
pe cf .
T y 20 nie
pe ss
T y 22 lea
p na
T y e 25 (H er )
pe (c po
T y 27 f. C tric
p h
T y e 2 (T ill last iella
pe 8 ( eti ero s
T y 44 Sp a s sp pp
pe (U erm ph ori )
T y 47 st a agn um
pe uli top i) ca
T y 55 na ho ri c
pp A/ de res inu
T y e 7 B (S us o m
pe 2 o ta) f C )
T y 90 Al da ( r o pe
pe on ria dp
Ty 1 a s od
pe 12 ru pp a)
st i )
T y 11 (C
pe 6 erc c a)
T y 12 (C y op
pe 1 m he
T y 12 ati ra
pe 5 os sp
T y 14 ph . )
pe 0 ae
ra
T y 14
pe 3 )
T y 16 (D i
p 9 po
Ty e 1 ro
pe 0 7 the
T y 20 (R ca
pe 7 ivu rh
T y 26 Gl ar ( l iz o
p
NPP's
2 om ia-t ph
T y e 35 us yp ilia
pe 7 e )
T y 35 Pu ( cf . )
fas
pe 9d c c cic
T y 40 (B ini ula
pe 6 ac a-t
Ty 4 tro ype tum
pe 94 de ) )
T y 52 sm
p 7 ium
T y e 70
pe 7 be
T y 70 C u ( tu
lic
pe 8a lc ola
T y 70 it a )
pe 8b lna
T y 72 ac
pe 9 hr
Am 9 as
p 3 0 po
ra
Ba alli c
c tr fer )
Ba od ina
c tr es la
Sp od miu uri
or es m
T r os miu ob
ich ch m o
M uri is m ab v atu
icr s - a
o- ty p mi rupt m
10
c h e ra um
ar bil
Fo co e
ra al
W min
oo if
Gr d m era
5 5
as icr
t re s m o-c h
es ic ro ar
-ch coa
ar l
sh co
ru al
bs
dw
ar
fs
he hr
rb ub
s s
20 40 60 80 100
Zone
NWB1f
NWB1c
NWB1a
NWB1b
NWB1d
NWB1e
D ates BP
2210±40
2360±35
4540±40
3935±35
4765±35
4580±40
D epth ( c m)
215
210
205
200
195
190
185
180
175
170
165
160
155
150
145
140
135
130
125
120
115
110
105
100
95
Lithology
P in
u
Ul s
mu
Qu s
er
cu
s
20 40 60
Be
tu
A ln l a
us
gl u
tin
os
20 40
a
NWB03 Monolith 2 pollen diagram (500 counts)

Ca
rp
Ti l i nus
ia be
Il e tul Trees
xa us
Fr q
ax ui fo
Co i nus li um
ry l ex
20
us c e
Sa av l s io
li x ell
an r
So a
rbu
Ma s-t
lu y p
P u s -ty e
n p
P r us s e
un p.
P r us s
un p
Cr us p i nos
at a a-
V ib aeg dus- ty pe
urn us s ty p
V ib um p. e
u
V ib rnum sp.
u
He rnum opul
d u
Shrubs
Ca era lant s
l lu he an
E m na li x a
pe vul g
Ra tr u ar
nu m is
Ur n
ti c cul a
My a ce
r ic ae
Ch a g
e al
Ca nopo e
r d
S c y oph i ace
le y a
Dwarf shrubs
Ly rant ll ace e
c h hu ae
Ru nis - s -ty i nd
me typ pe et.
Hy x a e
p c
Ro er ic u etos
sa m a-t
Ch c ea s p. ype
r e
Fi l y sos s p.
i pe pl
Ru ndu eniu
bu l a m
P o s- ty o ff
ten pe ic in
Fa ti ll al e
ba a -ty
Lo cea pe
tu e
V ic s-ty i nde
ia- pe t.
Tr ty p
ifo e
Ly l ium
thr -t
A p um y pe
ia s
E r c ea p.
yn e
A p gi um
iu -
Ci m in type
cu u
P e ta v n d a t
uc i ros um
He eda a- t - ty
rac nu ype pe
Lit le m
ho um pa
S y s pe sp lus t
m r m ho re
P la phy um ndy -ty p
nta tum - ty p l ium e
P la go of e -ty
nta in fic in pe
P la go det al
nta co . e- t
yp
P la go ron
n ta m o p e
S c go ar it us
r im
Herbs
Ga ophu lanc a
l iu l ar eol
V a m-t ia- ata
ler y p ty p
S c i an e e
ab a d
S u i os i oic
cc a c a-t
S e is a ol u ype
rra pr a mb
A s tula ten ari a
te - s
La r- typ type is
c e
Ci tuc a
ch e
La ori u
ctu m
Ta c a i nch
rax s a ub
A r ac tiv a us-
tem um -ty ty
Cy is i -ty p pe pe
pe a-ty e
ra
20
ce pe
Po ae
ac
ea
e
20 40
Po
a
A v c eae
e
Ho na-T >35u
rd r m
S e eumiti cum
c
Mi al e c grou grou
c ro er p p
-c h eal
10
arc e g
tre oa rou
es l p
sh
ru
bs
dw
arf
sh
he ru
rbs bs
20 40 60 80 100
Zone
NWB2f
NWB2c
NWB2a
NWB2b
NWB2d
NWB2e
Dates BP
2210±40
2360±35
4540±40
3935±35
4765±35
4580±40
Depth (cm)
95
215
210
205
200
195
190
185
180
175
170
165
160
155
150
145
140
135
130
125
120
115
110
105
100
Lithology
Nu
p
Hy ha r
dr o sp
Ca co .
litr tyle
Ali ich
sm e- vu lg
St a- typ a ri
ra t typ e s- t
i yp
Po ote e
tam s a e
Ty o lo i
ph ge d e
Eq a la t on s
ui ti
Pt set u folia
er o m
20
ps
Os id a
(m
NWB03 Monolith 2 pollen diagram (500 counts)
mu
Ad n d on
ian a r ole
t e)
Aqautics
Po t u eg
lyp m c alis ind
Pt od ap et.
er i iu illu
20
d iu m s-v
Th m en
e ri
e ly
Dr pte s
yo ri
Sp pt er s p a
h is lus
Ty a gn t ris
pe um
Ty 1
pe (G
Ty 2 ( elas
pe G e sin
Spores
Ty 3B las o s
pe ( P ino po
Ty 4 l s ra
pe (A n eo sp po ra sp p
Ty 7A th r o ra r e )
pe ( C os
Ty 8 h to sp t icu
p lisp
pe (A -G ae to me l ) or a
Ty 10
pe ( C ) m i la f
um u e )
Ty 11 on s p
g ia
pe id i .) na )
Ty 14 a )
pe ` (M
Ty 16 eli
p ola
Ty e 19 cf.
pe nie
Ty 20 ss
pe lea
Ty 22 na
pe ( H )
Ty 25 er
pe ( c po
Ty 27 f. C tr ich
pe ( T la ie
Ty 28 ille ster lla s
pe ( S t ia os p p
Ty 44 p e sp p or )
pe ( U r m hag ium
Ty 47 stu a to ni) ca
pe lin pho r ic
Ty 55 A a d re inu
pe /B eu s o m)
Ty 61 (S sta f C
pe ( Z or d ) op
Ty 72 yg a r ed
pe ( A m i po
a as da
Ty 90 lon t ac pp
pe a r ea ) )
Ty 11 u s cf
pe 2 tic . g
Ty 11 Ce ( a) r ac
pe 6 r co illim
Ty 12 Cy ph ( a)
pe 1 m a e r
Ty 12 tio a s
pe 5 sp p .)
Ty 14 ha
pe 0 er a
Ty 14 )
pe 3
Ty 16 (Dip
pe 9 o ro
Ty 17 the
pe 0 ca
Ty 20 (Riv
pe 7 u rh i
zo
Ty 26 (G lo lar ia ph
pe 2 mu - ty ilia
Ty 35 s c e) p )
p 3 f. f
NPPs
Ty e 35 A as
pe 7 cic
Ty 35 (P u la
pe 9d ucc tu m
Ty 40 ( B inia )
pe 6 act - ty
Ty 49 ro d p e
pe 4 es )
Ty 52 mi
pe 7 um
Ty 56 be
pe 9 t ul
Ty 70 ico
pe 7 la)
Ty 70 Cu (
pe 8a lci
Ty 70 ta l
pe 8b na
Ty 72 ac
pe 9 hr a
An 93 sp
or a
Am st
tho 0c )
p o m
Ba a llife e lla
c r f
Ba tr od in a o rm
ctr esm la u osa
Pe od ri
zic esm iu m
Pr ula iu ob o
ot o liv m v
Sp cr e ide ab r a tum
or o a a up
Tr sc f a t um
ich h i rin o
M i ur i sma sa
cr o s-t
-ch ype m ir a
10
b il
Fo
ar c
oa e
r am l
20
ini
W fe r
a
oo
Gr m d
as ic
tr e s m ro -c
e s icr h a
sh o- c r co
50
ru ha a l
dw s b rco
a rf al
100
he shr u
r bs bs
Zone
NWB2f
NWB2c
NWB2a
NWB2b
NWB2d
NWB2e
Zone NWB1d (160‐144cm)
Quercus pollen values begin to fall during this zone to c.20% TLP, while pollen values of
Alnus glutinosa and Corylus avellana rise slightly from the previous zone. Cyperaceae pollen
values remain at around 10‐20% within this zone, with Poaceae pollen rising to around 15%
TLP by the end of the zone. Plantago lanceolata pollen values begins to rise towards the end of
this zone as do Pteridium (bracken), Pteropsida (monolete) indet (ferns) and micro‐charcoal
values.

Zone NWB1e (144‐114cm)
Pollen values of Quercus and Alnus glutinosa decline slightly through this zone to around 17%
TLP and 15% TLP, respectively. Corylus avellana values remain consistent through this zone,
while small increases are seen in the pollen values of Salix, Fraxinus excelsior and Betula.
Poaceae pollen now dominates the herbaceous assemblage at over 20%, while Cyperaceae
pollen remains level at around 10% TLP before gradually declining to the end of the zone.
Hordeum‐group pollen appears in this zone, wile Plantago lanceolata and Lactuca sativa‐type
(lettuces) become more consistent through the zone. A large increase in Pteridium values
takes place as do micro‐charcoal values.

Zone NWB1f (114‐96cm)
A slight rise occurs in pollen values of Corylus avellana and Salix, while there is a very slight
decline in the values of Quercus and Alnus glutinosa to around 15% and 10% TLP, respectively.
Cyperaceae values also slightly fall to around 7% TLP, while Poaceae pollen remains high at
around 20% TLP. Chenopodiaceae (goosefoot) pollen values rise slightly in this zone, while
Lactuca sativa‐type pollen also remains at around 2.5% TLP. Hordeum‐group pollen is again
present. Pteropsida (monolete) indet and Pteridium values decline during this zone while
there is a large increase in micro‐charcoal.

Monolith 2

Quercus pollen dominates this zone with values of up to 50% TLP, while Alnus glutinosa and
Corylus avellana pollen values are also high at around 20% TLP. Pinus (pine) pollen is also
present at around 5% TLP. Poaceae and Cyperaceae pollen values dominate the herbaceous
assemblage at around 10% TLP. Micro‐charcoal is present in low values.

Pollen values of Corylus avellana and Alnus glutinosa remain consistent at around 15‐20% TLP
during this zone, while Quercus pollen continues to dominate the assemblage at around 40%
TLP. There are peaks in Ilex pollen during this zone at up to 10% TLP, together with smaller
peaks in Ulmus (elm). Poaceae and Cyperaceae pollen values are around 10% TLP, while
cereal type pollen is present with the appearance of Hordeum‐group and Avena‐Triticum‐
group (oat‐wheat). Peaks in Filipendula, Plantago lanceolata and Cicuta virosa‐type (cowbane)
pollen also occur in this zone. There is a peak in micro‐charcoal in this zone.

There is large increase in Alnus glutinosa pollen values in this zone, peaking at over 40% TLP,
while Quercus pollen values remain high at around 40% TLP, as do Corylus avellana values at
c.15% TLP. Cyperaceae pollen values increase slightly in this zone to just over 10% TLP,
while Poaceae values remain consistent at around 5‐10% TLP. There is an appearance of
Avena‐Triticum‐group pollen in this zone, with small peaks in Ranunculaceae (buttercup) and
14
Potentilla‐type (cinquefoils) pollen, while Filipendula pollen is consistently present. Micro‐
charcoal values also rise slightly towards the end of this zone.

Alnus glutinosa and Quercus pollen values dominate the arboreal assemblage both at around
35% TLP. Corylus avellana values continue to increase slightly up to around 17%, while there
are small peaks in Ulmus, Fraxinus excelsior and Salix. Cyperaceae and Poaceae pollen values
rise towards the end of the zone, while there are appearances of Avena‐Triticum‐group and
Secale cereale‐group (rye) pollen. There are also small peaks of Plantago lanceolata and
Heracleum sphondylium‐type (hogweed) towards the end of this zone. Pteropsida (monolete)
indet values rise towards the end of the zone as do micro‐charcoal values.

Quercus pollen values begin to decline slightly in this zone to around 20% TLP, while values
of Alnus glutinosa and Corylus avellana pollen continue to gradually rise to 40% and 20% TLP
respectively. Pinus values also rise slightly in this zone. Poaceae and Cyperaceae pollen
values continue to rise during this zone peaking at around 15% TLP; Hordeum‐group pollen
also appears. Pteridium values rise rapidly in this zone, while there is also an increase in
Pteropsida (monolete) indet and micro‐charcoal values remain high.

There is a decline in the pollen of Quercus and Alnus glutinosa in this zone as they fall to
around 15% and 10% respectively. Corylus avellana values remain consistent at around 15%
TLP. Poaceae values rise sharply in this zone up to around 35% TLP, while Cyperaceae
pollen values also rise to around 15% TLP. There is a more consistent presence of Hordeum‐
group pollen in this zone, together with rises in the pollen of Plantago lanceolata, Aster‐type
(michaelmas daisies), Filipendula and Plantago coronopus (buck’s horn plantain). Pteridium
values and Pteropsida (monolete) indet values remain high, while there is significant increase
in micro‐charcoal values.

Plant macrofossils
The plant macrofossil results are presented in Figures 4 and 5 and have been zoned using the
corresponding zones given in the pollen diagrams.

Monolith 1

Plant macrofossils of Quercus and Betula buds and scales dominate this zone with buds and
scales of Crataegus (hawthorn) also present. A fruit stone of Prunus spinosa (blackthorn) was
also recovered alongside herbaceous plant macrofossils from species including Rubus
fruticosus (bramble), Schoenoplectus lacustris (common club‐rush) and Ranunculus flammula
(lesser spearwort). Some charcoal fragments are also present within this zone.

There is a decline in the number of plant macrofossils of Quercus and Betula in this zone
compared to that previous. Alnus glutinosa seeds ands buds appear in this zone as do seeds of
Carpinus betulus (hornbeam). Fruit stones of Prunus spinosa and Prunus padus (bird cherry) are
more prominent within this zone, while there are also increases in the abundance of
Ranunculus flammula and Rubus fruticosus.

15
Plant macrofossils from arboreal species are seen to decline within this zone as do
indeterminate wood fragments. There is a general decline to in herbaceous macrofossils,
although there is an increase in the fruits of Rubus fruticosus and Rubus sp. (bramble sp.)
during this zone and appearances from species such as Polygonum aviculare (knotgrass) and
Carex sylvatica (wood sedge).

There is a virtual absence of plant macrofossils during this zone with only fungal sclerotia
present in any numbers and a single Betula sp seed. Monocotyledon fragments remain at
high numbers with some small number of wood fragments indet also present.

There is a significant increase in the numbers of plant macrofossil present within this zone
with particularly high representation of herbaceous species. Ranunculaceae species are well
represented with high numbers of Ranunculus sceleratus (celery‐leaved buttercup) present
together with Ranunculus flammula and Ranunculus aquatilis (common water crow‐foot). Small
number of other herbaceous species such as Carex rostrata (bottle sedge), Schoenoplectus
lacustris and Persicaria minor (small water pepper) are also present. Some arboreal taxa are
also represented with small numbers of Betula and Alnus glutinosa seeds also recovered.
Some charcoal fragments are also present in this zone.

Herbaceous macrofossils continue to dominate this zone, in particular the fruits of Ranunculus
sceleratus with Ranunculus lingua (greater spearwort) and Ranunculus aquatilis fruits also
present from this family. Smaller numbers of other taxa such as Persicaria minor, Carex
aquatilis and Eleocharis sp (spike rushes) are also present, together with a small number of
Alnus glutinosa seeds.

Monolith 2

High numbers of Betula buds and bud scales dominate this zone, particularly towards the
base of the zone. Other arboreal species are also evidenced as being present with the
recovery of Quercus, Alnus glutinosa and Viburnum sp (viburnums) wood fragments. A
limited number of herbaceous species are present in the form of Rubus fruticosus fruits and
nutlets of Carex sp (sedges) and Carex aquatilis (water sedge). Charcoal fragments are also
present in this zone.

This zone sees an increase in the numbers of plant macrofossils present particularly those
relating to arboreal species with Quercus, Betula, Alnus glutinosa, Carpinus betulus and
Crataegus among those represented. There is an increase to in the numbers of Rubus sp and
Rubus fruticosus fruits, with smaller numbers of herbaceous taxa such as Carex rostrata, Carex
acuta (slender tufted sedge) and Schoenoplectus lacustris present.

Arboreal taxa continue to be well represented in this zone with a high presence of Quercus,
Betula and Alnus glutinosa in particular. Other arboreal species represented include Viburnum
sp, Crataegus monogyna (midlands hawthorn), Prunus padus and Corylus avellana. Herbaceous
species are also well represented in this zone with Rubus fruticosus fruits present in significant
18
numbers together with smaller numbers of Lychnis flos‐cuculi (ragged robin) seeds, Persicaria
minor fruits and Carex acuta nutlets. Wood fragments are also prominent within this zone.

There is a gradual decrease in the number of arboreal macrofossils during this zone, with
only Alnus glutinosa, Betula sp and Quercus sp present in any number. Outside of these
species Prunus spinosa and Salix are also represented. There is a large increase in the fruits of
Rubus sp and Rubus fruticosus during this zone, together with nutlets of Carex species. This
zone also sees a large peak in moss fragments.

Arboreal species are now near absent in the plant macrofossil record during this zone, with
only Betula, Alnus glutinosa, Viburnum and Crataegus monogyna present in small numbers.
Other plant macrofossils are also sparse throughout this zone with small numbers of
herbaceous species such as Carex rostrata and Ranunculus lingua present. A significant decline
is also seen in the numbers of Rubus sp and Rubus fruticosus fruits. A large peak in fungal
sclerotia, however, does take place in this zone.

Plant macrofossils from arboreal taxa are again sparse during this zone with only buds of
Salix present in any volume. There is a large increase in the numbers of Ranunculus sceleratus
during this zone and herbaceous species as a whole are better represented, with species such
as Schoenoplectus lacustris, Carex aquatilis and Ranunculus flammula also present. There is an
increase in the number of monocotyledon plant fragments also during this zone.

Foraminifera (Prof Simon Haslett)
An additional 12 samples were sent for foraminiferal analyses, following the results garnered
from the assessment report (see Haslett, 2006). Only seven of all the samples sent for analyses
were found to contain foraminifera, all from Monolith 1 (samples 70, 82, 98, 110, 112, 142 and
190cm); no samples from Monolith 2 were found to contain foraminifera. Samples 70, 82, 110
and 142cm contained only Jadamina marascens, which represents the monospecific assemblage
of Haslett et al, (2001), which inhabits the lower part of the tidal zone between MHWST
(Mean High Water Spring Tide) and HAT (Highest Astronomical Tide). Samples 98, 122 and
190cm contained the most diverse range of foraminifera containing Trochammina inflata,
Miliammina fusca and Jadamina marascens. This assemblage is typical of deposition around
MHWST. Although containing no foraminifera, samples 50, 118, 134, 147, 158, 209 and 230cm
(all from Monolith 1) did contain sponge spicules, which may represent a non‐marine
depositional environment. For further details see Appendix I.

Diatoms (Dr Jason Jordan and Dr Sue Dawson)
Twelve additional diatom samples were prepared for analysis from Monoliths 1 and 2 by Dr
Jason Jordan. Unfortunately only two of the additional samples were found to yield any
diatoms; Sample 110cm from Monolith1 and Sample 128cm from Monolith 2. Sample 110cm
contained only two diatoms both of which were Paralia sulcata, a marine diatom indicative of
storm deposits. Sample 128 was fund to contain only a single diatom, identified as
Gramatophora serpentine a marine diatom indicative of marine waters and coastal deposits.

Of the first twelve samples analysed by Dr Sue Dawson, from Monolith1 only one sample
(230cm) was found to contain no diatoms, while three samples (98, 118 and 122cm) were
found to contain abundant numbers, where full counts of 300 diatom valves could be
obtained. The remaining seven samples (18, 34, 50, 70, 82, 142, 158 and 190cm) contained
19
sparse numbers of diatoms. The diatoms indicate deposition within an initial freshwater
environment through species such as Fragilaria construens, which then changes to a high
intertidal environment highlighted by the presence of species including Diploneis interrupta.
There is then a gradual increase in marine waters, from freshwater through to brackish and
finally deep, marine waters by the upper sediments sampled, signalled by the presence of
species such as Podosira stelliger and Cocconeis scutellum. For further details on both sets of
analyses see Appendix II.

Discussion

Stratigraphy, Loss on Ignition and Sea‐level rise

Below is a discussion of the stratigraphic sequence outlined in Table 2, together with the Loss
on Ignition data and the reconstructed sea‐level curve for Newrath based on radiocarbon
dated index points from within the monolith sequences. It is important to understand the
sedimentary history of the site in order to be able to interpret the vegetational and
anthropogenic history of the site.

The deepest parts of the stratigraphic sequence (Units I to III) are not present within the
studied monoliths and have been included here from recorded section drawings taken during
excavation in the field. The dryland surface has been dated from the finding Bann flakes
indicating this surface was present until at least the later Mesolithic (Woodman et al, 1999).
This report focuses on those organic layers overlying these units, following the initiation of
peat development (Units IV to VII), the more minerogenic and modern units (VIII to IX) have
been omitted from this study due to the problems of sediment mixing and disturbance
outlined in Timpany (2006).

At approximately 4850±35 BP (SUERC‐10126; 3710‐3620 Cal BC) wood peat (Unit IV)
developed on the dryland surface indicating a rise in ground water occurred at this time.
This elevation in ground water would have been caused by rising sea‐level, which can be
seen in the reconstructed sea‐level curve shown in Figure 6. Pollen and plant macrofossil
evidence show that this peat was soon colonised by woodland species including Quercus and
Betula with Alnus glutinosa colonising at around 4500 BP. This local woodland period lasts for
c. 600 years to approximately 4150±35 BP (SUERC‐10125; 2880‐2620 Cal BC).

Within this unit there is evidence for a possible marine incursion with a band of silt within
Monolith 2 at 190‐200cm. This band has been radiocarbon dated to have been deposited
between 4540±40 BP (SUERC‐14690; 3370‐3090 Cal BC) and 4580±40 BP (SUERC‐14691; 3380‐
3260 Cal BC). This narrow date range suggests a rapid period of deposition likely to have
been caused by a short‐lived event such as a tidal surge. Unfortunately foraminifera and
diatoms proved to be absent from samples sent to specialists from these levels (see above),
however, some foraminifera were observed on pollen slides from corresponding depths,
suggesting some evidence of tidal deposition (see Figures 2 and 3). Although no
corresponding silt band has been observed in Monolith 1 it is suggested from pollen
preservation as at around 4500 BP within this monolith pollen becomes sparse (between 208‐
206cm pollen is absent from the slides) indicating increased minerogenic content. This
increase in minerogenic content is likely to be part of the same event as that, which can be
witnessed in Monolith 1. Unfortunately this has not been picked up in the Loss on Ignition
results for Monolith 1, with this area of the monolith not having been sampled. However, the
Loss on Ignition curve for Monolith 2 (see Figure 1) does show a decrease in the amount of
organic content from the level of peat initiation (211cm) to when the minerogenic silt began to
20
be deposited (c. 198cm) from 30% to 22%. Organic content then begins to increase again
suggesting that the main period of deposition was at the base of this silt layer with organic
content remaining high for the rest of this unit at between 42‐58% (see Figure 1). There is
some foraminifera evidence for the site being affected by tidal events during this period with
species indicative of MHWST (Mean High Water Spring Tide) being found in Monolith 1 at
190cm.

From approximately 4150±35 BP (SUERC‐10125; 2880‐2620 cal BC) to 3935±35 BP (SUERC‐
14689; 2500‐2290 cal BC) a retrogressive succession begins to take place with the stratigraphic
evidence from wood peat (Unit IV) to a wood‐reed peat transition (Unit V). This is signalled
in the sequence by a change within the peat as wood fragments decrease within this layer,
which is also shown in the plant macrofossil records (see below). This change is once more
thought to have been brought on by rising sea‐level causing the backing up of water along
the growing estuarine environment and heightening the watertable. This does not seem to
have affected the organic content of the deposits, however, as it remains high at between 51‐
72% (see Figure 1).

This change to reedswamp is shown in Unit VI and lasts from around 3935±35 BP (SUERC‐
14689; 2500‐2290 cal BC) to between 2045±40 BP (SUERC‐14682; 170 cal BC to cal AD 60) and
2360±35 BP (GU‐13999; 540‐370 cal BC). The sea‐level curve together with foraminifera and
diatom evidence shows that the site had now become truly intertidal within this period,
placing it in the MHWST tidal window (see Figure 6). The corresponding increase in
minerogenic sediments being brought in by the tide can be seen in the Loss on Ignition
results, where in Monolith 1 organic content can be seen to rapidly decline from 50% to 20%
(see Figure 1).

There is some evidence of sediment mixing within this layer seen from the radiocarbon dates
from this unit in Monolith 2, where a date from monocotyledon plant tissue from below the
date from the top of this unit (also dated from monocotyledon plant tissue) has provided a
younger date; 2210±40 BP (SUERC‐14688; 390‐180 cal BC). Further concern is raised by the
short depth of sediment for this unit in Monolith 1, where approximately 10cm of sediment is
banded by dates of 4150±35 BP (SUERC‐10125; 2880‐2620 cal BC) to 2045±40 BP (SUERC‐
14682; 170 cal BC to cal AD 60); in Monolith 2 where this unit has a depth of 35cm. Despite
some mixing of sediments it appears likely that this short depth of sediment for this layer
represents a period where sediment deposition/accumulation was in equilibrium with tidal
action thus the sea‐level curve can be seen to almost “flat‐line” during this period (see Figure
6), leading to relatively stable conditions for the area. This period of stability also sees the
greatest period of anthropogenic activity at Newrath as preserved in the archaeological
record, with people accessing and utilising this reedswamp environment, evidenced by the
construction of trackways and platforms (see below).

Following the period of relative stability a significant environmental change takes place,
evidenced in the stratigraphic record from a change from reed peat (Unit VI) to estuarine
silt/reed peat (Unit VII) as a rapid rise in sea‐level (see Figure 6) occurs, which inundated the
site. This is shown in the Loss on Ignition data for Monolith 1 where organic content drops
further to 11‐10% (see Figure 1). Again there is further evidence of sediment mixing within
this layer, likely to have been caused by tidal action. This is shown in the radiocarbon dates
in Monolith 1, where again a younger date lies below an older date (again dated material was
monocotyledon plant tissue); 1665±35 BP (SUERC‐14680; cal AD 250‐530) underlying 1870±35
BP (SUERC‐10124; 60‐240 cal AD). It is likely that this rapid increase in sea‐level led to the
abandonment of the area by people as the tidal action destroyed structures such as trackways
21
Diatom Foraminifera
3 Study Study
2
Estuarine Saltmarsh
Intertidal (Barren Zone)
1870+-35
MHWST to HAT
1665+-35
1 Intertidal
2360+-35
1965+-35
2210+-40
2045+-40
3935+-35
Altitude m OD
MHWST
4150+-35
4540+-40
Terrestrial
4580+-40
4765+-35
0 MHWST
4850+-35
4505+-35
Freshwater
Terrestrial
-1
-2
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Radiocarbon Years BP (Uncalibrated)

as the site was submerged. The submergence of the site was complete by the deposition of
Unit VIII an estuarine silt layer, overlying this unit. There is some Loss on Ignition data for
this unit within Monolith 1, which again shows low organic content at around 12‐10% (see
Figure 1).

Vegetational history and human agency

The following part of the discussion focuses on the vegetational history of the site as
reconstructed through the pollen, non‐pollen palynomorph and plant macrofossil analyses. It
will also focus on evidence for human agency discovered within these records together with
looking at the archaeological evidence from the site and those other sites, which have been
excavated from this part of the road scheme around Newrath and Waterford. The discussion
will take place chronologically covering those periods represented in the study levels, namely
the Neolithic through to the Iron Age.

The Neolithic period ‐ 4500‐2300 cal BC
(Pollen Zones: NWB1a‐c, NWB2a‐c)

The palaeovegetational record for Newrath begins with the initiation of peat development at
approximately 4850±35 BP (SUERC‐10126; 3710‐3620 cal BC) (see Zones NWB1a and NWB2a).
The pollen and plant macrofossil assemblages show that the peat was soon colonised by
vegetation. Local growth of plants on this peat surface is shown in the plant macrofossil
record with trees such as Betula and Quercus being early invaders into this forming wetland
environment. Although the plant macrofossil data has been unable to define these taxa to
species level it is likely that they represent the more damp tolerant taxons of Betula pubescens
(downy birch) and Quercus robur (sessile oak), which are the more common species found in
wet woodlands (Clapham et al, 1962; Rodwell, 1991) . The plant macrofossil assemblage also
shows other wet‐tolerant tree types as being present with the occurrence of Crataegus
monogyna buds, together with wood fragments of Salix and Alnus glutinosa. The plant
macrofossil assemblage suggests that this zone depicts the beginnings of carr‐woodland
formation with Betula, Alnus and Salix often among the first arboreal species to invade such
developing wetlands (Rodwell, 1991). This is also reflected in the pollen record, albeit in low
values for Salix and Betula. Salix is commonly underrepresented in pollen diagrams due to it
being insect pollinated (Faegri et al, 1989), therefore having its pollen dispersed by insects
rather than being wind dispersed. The low value of Betula pollen, however, is likely to be a
result of the location of the sampling site.

The location of Area 1 on the intermediate area between the dryland and wetland (see
Wilkins, main report) places it in a catchment where pollen within the sediments will be
recruited from both the local wetland environment and the surrounding dryland
environment. Therefore, the pollen record contains information about both environments,
with the plant macrofossil record aiding in distinguishing one from another. The wooded
environment of the Neolithic shown in both the pollen and plant macrofossil record also has
implications for the taphonomy of the site and interpretation of the pollen record. The
density of the woodland canopy will have an impact on the size of catchment from which
pollen can be expected to represent. Dense woodland, with only minor interruptions in the
canopy space will provide a very local pollen signal (Mitchell, 1988, Brown 1997a), dominated
by local source components, often leading to high representation of arboreal taxa and low
representation of herbaceous taxa (Tauber, 1965; Delcourt and Delcourt, 1991; Odgaard,
1999). It is this high arboreal woodland signal that can be seen in the pollen diagrams. For
Zones NWB1a and NWB2a it is the dryland woodland signal, which dominates the
23
assemblage. This is due to the woodland on the wetland only beginning to develop at this
time, in comparison to the well‐established woodland of the dryland. This later begins to
change as woodland on the wetland further develops.

The dryland woodland can then be seen to be dominated by Quercus and Corylus, a trend,
which has been suggested from palaeoenvironmental evidence from other sites in the area
such as Rathpatrick (Site 17), Granny (Site 27) and the pollen study at Woodstown (Farrell
and Coxon, 2004). This woodland‐type also ties in well with that suggested by Bennett (1989)
for this part of the southeast of Ireland at c.5000 BP from collated pollen studies. Together
with these two taxa a number of other arboreal species can be seen in the pollen evidence to
have been part of the composition of this woodland including Pinus, Ulmus, Prunus spinosa
and Prunus padus, together with other canopy component such as Hedera helix (ivy). The
variety in species type within this woodland shows that it had a mosaic character with these
taxa either growing as integrated components of the woodland or as individual stands within
the canopy. It is likely that this dryland woodland would have had a dense canopy,
investigations by other authors into the character of this woodland, that authors such as
Rackham (2003) and Peterson (1996) have termed “Wildwood” or “Primeval”, respectively
have leaned towards this view (e.g. Mitchell, 2005; Timpany, 2005; Bell, 2007), despite recent
posturing that it was a more open environment (e.g. Vera, 200). Openings, within this
woodland would have existed though, created through anthropogenic mechanisms, such as
woodland clearance together with natural mechanisms, such as storm damage, allowing
periods where more shade‐intolerant species could flourish and there is evidence for this in
the pollen record (see below).

In comparison to the dense nature of the dryland, the emerging woodland environment of the
wetland would have been much more open at this time as trees begin to colonise the forming
peat surface. The wet and boggy nature of this surface is illustrated by the presence of a
number of taxa in the plant macrofossil and pollen assemblages that inhabit wet places such
as Ranunculus flammula fruits together with Lotus‐type (birds‐foot trefoil), Hypericum sp (St
John’s wort), Potentilla, and Galium‐type pollen (Clapham et al, 1962) (see Zones NWB1a and
NWB2a). These taxa, together with Poaceae and Cyperaceae pollen are indicative of the
formation of tall‐herb fen communities spreading across the wetland, which are likely to have
been similar to modern communities such as the S26 Phragmites australis‐Urtica dioica tall‐herb
fen (Rodwell, 1995). Previous plant macrofossil analyses by Lyons (2006) also recovered taxa
indicative of tall herb fen such as Wahlenbergia hederaceae (ivy campanula). Such communities
remain as field layer vegetation to present day carr‐woodland (Rodwell, 1991). There are also
indicators of a stream nearby, which are likely to reflect the early River Suir, which as Carter
(2007) has observed would have been smaller in nature than the modern channel seen today.
Such indicators include Schoenoplectus lacustris and Carex aquatilis nutlets, which grow at the
margins of rivers and streams, respectively (Clapham et al, 1962). Pooling of water on the
peat surface is also indicated by species such as Apium inundatum (lesser marshwort),
Potomegeton (pond weed) and Typha latifolia (bulrush) together with Type 72 (zoological
remains of Alona rustica) (Clapham et al, 1962; van Geel, 1986).

At around 4500 BP (c.3240‐3100 Cal BC) Alnus glutinosa can be seen to spread across the
wetland, leading to the formation of Alnus carr‐woodland (see Zones NWB1b‐c and NWB2b‐
c). This rise can be viewed in Alnus pollen values and the increased representation of this
species in the plant macrofossil assemblages with numbers of seeds, buds and wood
fragments all increasing. The succession to Alnus carr‐woodland across wetland areas from
initial tall‐herb fen communities is a common transition and has been observed in the
palaeoenvironmental records of a number of wetland sites (e.g. Walker, 1970; Smith and
24
Morgan, 1989). Other arboreal taxa are also present within this woodland with the pollen
and plant macrofossil assemblages showing the continued presence of Betula, Salix and
Crataegus monogyna, while other trees such as Viburnum opulus (guilder rose) and Fraxinus
excelsior, which will also grow in wet woodlands (Clapham et al, 1962; Rodwell, 1991) may
have been part of this community. The plant macrofossil diagram indicates that Quercus and
Corylus avellana were both present locally from the occurrence of buds, wood fragments and
even an acorn. Rodwell (1991) notes that both of these species may grow within wet
woodland; their presence within Neolithic carr‐woodlands has been evidenced in places such
as the Severn Estuary (Timpany, 2005). There is evidence also of the field layer component of
the vegetation, which is likely to have remained as a tall‐herb fen community through species
such as Lychnis flos‐cuculi, Urtica dioica (common nettle), Veronica sp (speedwell), Cicuta virosa‐
type, Valeriana dioica‐type (marsh valerian) and Ribes‐type (black current). These species
together with NPPs (Non‐Pollen Palynomorphs) such as Types 8 and 61 (Zygnamataceae cf.
gracillima) show that the ground within this woodland was boggy and wet with pooling of
water occurring on the pea surface (van Geel, 1986). While the high number of Rubus
futicosus fruits in the macrofossil assemblage indicate its local abundance, sprawling across
the mire surface. It is suggested that this Alnus dominated carr‐woodland would have been
somewhat similar to today’s W5 Alnus glutinosa‐Carex paniculata community, with many of
the taxa present within the palaeovegetational assemblages occurring in these woodlands still
today. This woodland type is known to succeed fen vegetation and develop across areas of
tall‐herb fen (Rodwell, 1991). This period of Alnus carr‐woodland domination of the wetland
is seen to last some 400 years until declining at approximately 4150±35 BP (SUERC ‐10125;
2880‐2620 cal BC). This phase of Alnus carr‐woodland is also seen at Woodstown, where
Farrell and Coxon (2004) record a similar period of such wet woodland, which is seen to
decline at 4300±35 BP (Beta‐19584; 3100‐2880 cal BC).

During this period (Zones NWB1b‐c and NWB2b‐c) the dryland woodland remains
dominated by Quercus and Corylus avellana and is seen to change little in composition from
that described above, although additional species are more represented such as Sorbus‐type
(whitebeam), Ilex aquifolium (holly) and Carpinus betulus (hornbeam). The local presence of
hornbeam during this period shown by the presence not only in the pollen record but also in
the plant macrofossil record with the finding of seeds and buds of this taxon is of particular
interest. Carpinus has been thought of as not migrating into Ireland during the early
Holocene (Huntley and Birks, 1983). Its representation in palaeoecological records from
across Ireland is so low that it is not even mentioned in recent studies of tree migration and
expansion (e.g. Mitchell, 2006). However, pollen grains of Carpinus have been recorded in
studies from the early Holocene in the south of Ireland (Timpany, 2001) and in the Waterford
area (Branch and Batchelor, 2007), suggesting it was present in southern Ireland. The
Carpinus seeds in the plant macrofossil assemblage of Monolith 1 clearly vindicate the pollen
evidence that it was growing in southern Ireland during the Neolithic. Rackham (2003) has
noted that Carpinus is likely to have been present in the British Isles during the Neolithic,
from its presence in pollen diagrams at sites such as Hockham in Norfolk (Godwin, 1975),
expanding in distribution during this period, becoming widespread but not abundant. In
terms of ecology it is likely that Carpinus would have been growing in pure stands within the
dryland woodland (Rackham, 2003). Rodwell (1991) observes that Carpinus occurs in modern
Quercus woodland communities, such as the W10 Quercus robur‐Pteridium aquilinium‐Rubus
fruticosus woodland. This woodland is common in the lowlands of England and Wales and
may be the closest present day comparative to the prehistoric Quercus woodlands (Timpany,
2005). Openings in the canopy can be seen to have taken place, particularly in Zone NWB2b
indicating some disturbance to the woodland (see below), with fluctuations in the pollen of
25
Quercus, Alnus glutinosa and Corylus avellana and small peaks in the pollen of Ilex aquilinium
and Ulmus. It is also during this period where cereal pollen appears in the pollen record.

This disturbance event seen in the pollen records takes place at levels in the sediment column
where a layer of silt can be seen to have been deposited in the Monolith 2 sequence. This
deposit has been interpreted as representing deposition of estuarine sediments during an
event of marine transgression such as a storm surge (see stratigraphic discussion above).
Foraminifera, although absent in the samples sent for specialist analysis have been observed
on pollen slides from the Monolith 2 sequence (see Figure 3), indicating some maritime
element to the deposit.

Radiocarbon dates from plant macrofossils within the peat stratified above and below the silt
deposit show deposition took place between 4540±40 BP (SUERC‐14690; 3370‐3090 cal BC)
and 4580±40 BP (SUERC‐14691; 3380‐3260 cal BC). While LOI data indicates initial inwash of
minerogenic silt took place at the earliest date of the two (see above). The absence of pollen
on the slide from Monolith 1 from around 4500 BP also point to high minerogenic content of
sediments during this period. There is also NPP evidence for minerogenic sediment
deposition, in particular Type 707 (Culcitalna achraspora) has been linked to mudflat and
saltmarsh environs, with en Bakker and van Sneerdyke (1981) noting its presence on dead
wood fragments found in such locations. It is interesting to note that the curve for Type 707
closely follows that for Foraminifera seen in Monolith 2 and may further indicate re‐
deposition of sediments from this environment onto the wetland. A rise in Type 207 (Glomus
cf. fasciculatum), is also seen, which has been linked to show increases in inwashed
minerogenic sediments in lake deposits (van Geel et al, 1989). Here it is suggested that it
further represents minerogenic sediments being deposited on to the wetland.

It is following this initial deposition of silts in Monolith 2 that cereal pollen of Hordeum‐group
begins to appear at 198cm (Zone NWB2b). The appearance of cereal pollen in Monolith 2 at
this level follows a sharp decline in Quercus pollen at 200cm when silts begin to be deposited.
It is noticeable that cereal pollen of Hordeum‐group and Avena‐Triticum‐group appears
consistently during the phase of silt deposition but disappear as [wood] peat again begins to
accumulate. It is suggested that this period of agricultural activity and marine transgression
are linked. The transgression appears to have made an impact on both the wetland and
dryland woodlands, which can be seen in the fluctuating values of Alnus, Quercus and Corylus
pollen. Dips in the pollen of dryland arboreal taxa (e.g. Quercus) are accompanied by peaks
in lesser represented species, such as Ulmus and Ilex aquilinium signalling an increase in trunk
space allowing for a rise in the representation of species further from the sampling location.
Declines in the pollen of Alnus, Salix and Betula during this phase signal the loss of trees
within the wetland woodland. These falls in tree pollen of the wetland are accompanied by
peaks in herbaceous taxa such as Filipendula and Cicuta virosa‐type, indicating an increase in
openness within the woodland and a decrease in shade. It is suggested this transgression
phase represents a period of increased storminess, which caused the potential storm surge
that deposited the silts and would have been accompanied by high winds leading to tree fall.
The role of storms in palaeoenvironmental records is often underplayed but as Allen (1996,
1998) observes high winds can have a significant impact on woodlands causing the felling of
trees, which can often have a domino‐effect; the felling of one tree causing the felling of those
around it (Blackburn et al, 1988; Denslow et al, 1998). It is such events, which are believed to
be being witnessed in this initial period of declines in arboreal taxa.

The opening of the woodland particularly on the dryland is soon taken advantage of by
Neolithic people as space for agricultural activity to commence. This is seen in the pollen
26
diagram of Monolith 2, with the presence of cereal pollen of Hordeum‐group and Avena‐
Triticum‐group, together with a rise in Plantago lanceolata pollen, which is often linked with
arable activity in the pollen record (e.g. Mighall et al, 2007). Following the decline in arboreal
pollen and the appearance of cereal pollen, a peak can be seen in the micro‐charcoal curve,
some of which had enough surviving structure to be identified as wood micro‐charcoal
(shown in the pollen diagram). The increase in micro‐charcoal following the dip in arboreal
pollen is suggested to represent the burning of deadwood on the ground and dead standing
trees damaged by the storm by people in order to maintain the clearing, which was being
used for arable land. The burning of deadwood is indicated by the NPP assemblage, which
shows declines in fungal spores associated with decaying wood at this level, such as Types
55 A/B (Sordaria spp.), and 359d (Bactrodesmium betullicola), together with Bactrodesmium
obovatum and Bactrodesmium abruptum (van Geel, 1978; van Geel et al, 1981 Ellis and Ellis,
1997).

Similar trends in dips in tree pollen followed by increase in burning (micro‐charcoal) in
prehistoric contexts have been noted elsewhere (e.g. Brown, 1997b). Such activities are often
more strongly linked to Mesolithic clearance episodes (e.g. Simmons and Innes, 1996) where
opportunistic openings in the tree canopy enabled people to maintain the space through
burning to promote open areas for the grazing and hunting of wild animals (Simmons, 1996).
The evidence at Newrath suggests that such opportunism was also seized upon in the
Neolithic. However, it is debatable as to whether this should be looked upon as simple
opportunism or as people using their knowledge of the environment and the area to
capitalise on natural clearings. The effort needed to use and maintain such clearings being
less than that to create the clearing in the first place, especially given the absence of metallic
tools during this period (Brown, 1997b). With the initiation of wood peat once more at the
site, this phase of agricultural activity is seen to end. The steady increase in arboreal pollen
also seen is likely to indicate the regeneration of woodland and abandonment of this part of
the Newrath area for arable use. This phase of use and abandonment is similar to that seen
during the Neolithic in other parts of Ireland (O’Connell and Molloy, 2001) and also draws
comparisons with the traditional “landnam” clearance models.

Other periods of possible agricultural activity may be seen earlier and later in the pollen
records from Newrath. Hordeum‐group pollen can be seen to occur in Monolith 1 at
approximately 4700 BP (c.3440‐3370 Cal BC) within pollen Zone NWB1a, again during a
period where Quercus, Corylus avellana and Alnus glutinosa pollen is seen to decline. This dip
in arboreal pollen is also preceded by a peak in Foraminifera seen on the pollen slides, which
again could indicate a period of storminess, leading to openings used for agriculture. There
is also a further appearance of Avena‐Triticum‐group pollen in Monolith 2 at around 4400 BP
(c.3696‐3523 cal BC). However, at this level arboreal pollen is rising and this together with the
absence of increases in pollen types indicative of arable activity, suggests this pollen may
represent the remnants of previous agricultural crops still growing around the site.

The presence of cereal‐type pollen is frequently challenged as to whether on its own it should
be representative of agricultural activity taking place (e.g. O’Connell, 1987; Behre, 2007;
Brown, 2007). This is largely based around the difficulty of separating wild grass pollen from
cereal pollen (Edwards et al, 2005; Tweddle et al, 2005) and to the poor distribution of cereal
pollen; it’s large size being non‐conducive to travelling large distances (Hall et al, 1993).
However, the separation of cereal from wild grass pollen is possible through careful
measurement of the grain and its annulus (Faegri et al, 1989) allowing the ability to
distinguish the two groups and this is shown in the pollen diagrams. Recent work has also
questioned the long held paradigm of short distance of cereal pollen, suggesting it may travel
27
further than was previously thought (e.g. Behre, 2007). Thus the cereal pollen signal present
here could come from the dryland. Perhaps the best and more readily accepted evidence of
agriculture around Newrath during the Neolithic is the presence of charred cereal grain
dating to this period found at Newrath (Site 35) and Granny (Site27). The presence of both
cereal pollen and charred grain therefore provides definitive evidence for agricultural activity
at Newrath during the Neolithic. The dates and species of the pollen and cereal grains are
shown in Table 3.

Table 3 – Evidence for Neolithic Agriculture in the Waterford Area

Site Name Evidence Date BP Date Cal BC
Site 27 Charred grain of Triticum dicoccum, 5054±38 (UB‐6315) 3977‐3728 to
Granny Hordeum vulgare var nudum and cf. to 4776±39 (UB‐ 3645‐3383
Avena sp 6634)
Site 35 Charred grain of Triticum dicoccum 4827±39 (UB‐6639) 3695‐3523
Newrath
Site 34 Pollen grain of Hordeum‐group in c.4700 c.3440‐3370
Newrath Monolith 1
Site 34 Pollen grain of Hordeum‐group and 4580±40 (SUERC‐ 3380‐3260 to
Newrath Avena‐Triticum‐group in Monolith 2 14691) to 4540±40 3370‐3090
(SUERC‐14690)
Site 34 Pollen grain of Avena‐Triticum‐group in c.4400 c.3696‐3523
Newrath Monolith 2

The earliest evidence of agriculture can be seen to come from Granny (Site 27), where charred
grain of Triticum dicoccum (emmer wheat), Hordeum vulgare var nudum (naked barley) and cf.
Avena sp (possible oat) have been identified from samples taken within two buildings a
possible dwelling (Structure 1) and the second (Structure 2), a potential animal shelter
(Gleeson, 2006a). Although no radiocarbon dates are available for the grain their association
with the buildings, which have been dated from charcoal to between 5054±38 BP (UB‐6315;
3977‐3728 cal BC) and 4776±39 BP (UB‐6634; 3645‐3383 cal BC) indicates an early Neolithic
date for the adoption of agriculture. At Newrath (Site 35) charred grains of Triticum dicoccum
were recovered from a small sub‐circular pit, which also contained charred Corylus avellana
nutshell and charcoal fragments (unidentified) suggesting the pit was used for the disposal of
domestic food waste. The charred grain here was radiocarbon dated to 4827±39 BP (UB‐6639;
3695‐3523 cal BC), while the charred nutshell fragments, also from the pit produced a near
identical date of 4821±38 BP (UB‐6640; 3694‐3521 cal BC) indicating the contemporaneity of
the material (Hughes, 2006a).

The finding of charred grain from Neolithic sites at and around Newrath helps to put the
cereal pollen grains in context. The identification of the majority of the charred cereal grains
as Triticum dicoccum and Hordeum vulgare var nudum suggests it is likely it is these species that
are being represented in the pollen record as Avena‐Triticum‐group and Hordeum‐group. The
finding of possible Avena sp in the charred grain assemblage at Granny is of interest as oat is
more readily associated with a later prehistoric date, although oat from Balbridie in Scotland
has been dated to the Neolithic (Fairweather and Ralston, 1989), whereas Hordeum vulgare var
nudum and Triticum dicoccum are known from Neolithic assemblages (e.g. Monk, 1985/86).
The charred grain together with the pollen evidence indicate agricultural activity took place
throughout the Neolithic in this area of southeast Ireland, with pollen evidence indicating the
exploitation and maintaining of natural clearings used for agricultural land. The dates of the
grain, when placed in comparison with recent surveys for the start of agriculture in the
28
Neolithic (e.g. Brown, 2007) shows them to be among the earliest dated sites in Britain and
Ireland. Thus adding to the debate of where agriculture actually began in the British Isles
and Ireland.

The presence of Neolithic people at Site 34 is also evidenced by the presence of the remains of
a trackway (Structure 341512), which has been dated to 4068±35 BP (UB‐6909; 2855‐2488 cal
BC). Identifications of the wood used to construct the trackway indicate that local wet
woodland resources were used, with Alnus glutinosa, Betula, Salix and Fraxinus excelsior
among the wood types used in its construction (see Lyons and O’Donnell, wood report). The
use of a trackway across the wet woodland floor would have enabled easier access to land
that would have been wet, boggy and hard to traverse (see above). The presence of fruit
bearing plants known to have been growing in this wetland from the pollen and plant
macrofossil assemblages such as Rubus fruticosus suggests these access ways into the wetland
could have been used for gathering of wild food resources as well as means to cross the
wetland. The construction of such trackways was soon to become common place across
Newrath.

The Bronze Age period ‐ 2300‐700 cal BC
(Pollen Zones: NWB1c‐d, NWB2d)

In comparison to the Neolithic period within the sedimentary record when peat developed at
a fairly consistent rate, allowing for a substantial period of palaeobotanical material
recruitment, the Bronze Age is somewhat under‐represented. Due to the nature of sea‐level
rise and sediment accumulation during this period (see above) there is only around 10‐20cm
of sediment containing palaeoenvironmental information relating to this period. Despite this,
the record shows the start of a significant change occurring in the local wetland environment
during the Bronze Age with the decline of Alnus dominated carr‐woodland and its gradual
replacement with a reedswamp environment.

The decline of the carr‐woodland on the wetland can be seen more clearly in the plant
macrofossil assemblage. In Monolith2 (Zone NWB2d) macrofossils from arboreal species can
be seen to decline in abundance, particularly Quercus, with declines also seen in the
representation of Betula, Alnus, Crataegus and Viburnum. In Monolith 1 (top of Zone NWB1c
to NWB1d) a sharp decline can be seen in all arboreal taxa, with only a small number of
Betula seeds present in Zone NWB1d. The decline in local woodland is also shown clearly by
the gradual decline in wood fragments within the Monolith 1 sequence and to a lesser degree
in the Monolith 2 sequence. These declines witnessed in the plant macrofossil assemblage are
not as clear in the pollen assemblages, largely due to trees such as Alnus being such large
pollen producers (Waller et al, 1999). However, a small dip in Alnus pollen can be seen
towards the top of Zone NWB2d at the same point where macrofossils of Alnus are seen to
decline in the Monolith 2 macrofossil assemblage, which is likely to signal some local decline
of this taxon on the wetland. A similar dip in Alnus pollen is seen in Monolith 1 toward the
top of Zone NWB1c and again corresponds with a decline in Alnus in the plant macrofossil
assemblage. Small dips can also be seen in the pollen and plant macrofossils of Quercus in
both Monolith 1 and 2 (Zones NWB1d and NWB2d). This decline in local wet woodland is
also recorded in the NPP assemblage with a decline in spores’ representative of decaying
wood, such as Sporoschima mirabile, Bactrodesmium obovatum, Bactrodesmium abruptum and
Types 55 A/B (Sordaria sp) (van Geel, 1978; Ellis and Ellis, 1997). However, peaks can be seen
in Type 44 (Ussulina deusta), which has been linked to growing on dead stumps and roots of
29
deciduous trees (van Geel et al, 1986, 1989). It is suggested here, that Type 44 may represent
the presence of dead standing trees on the wetland.

These changing conditions on the ground are also shown by the herbaceous taxa in the plant
macrofossil assemblages. Large increases can be seen in the number of Rubus sp and Rubus
fruticosus fruits, Rodwell (1991) notes that R. fruticosus can become locally abundant within
Alnus carr‐woodland, particularly on areas of drier ground. At Newrath this increase may
signal the colonisation of Rubus over areas once inhabited by trees such as over the raised
sedge tussocks as light and space increase across the wetland following the demise of the
trees. A large increase can also be seen in the number of fungal sclerotia during this period
further indicating changing local conditions as fungi produce large numbers of sclerotia in
order to survive. Fungi produce sclerotia (a hardened mass of mycelium stored with reserve
food material), which lay dormant within soil until favourable conditions occur in order for
the fungi to grow once more. It is suggested this mass of sclerotia production signals the
change from a woodland peat to reedswamp peat and this can be seen when comparing the
peaks in sclerotia to the lithology column (see Figures 3 and 4). That the ground became
wetter during this period can also be seen through the increased appearance of Carex aquatilis,
Carex acuta and Carex rostrata nutlets, signaling increasing water level at the site (Clapham et
al, 1962). This is also suggested by an increased representation of Potamogeton (pondweed)
and Typha latifolia (bulrush) in Zone NWB2d, with the latter in particular suggestive of
reedswamp (Clapham at al, 1962). A steady increase can also be seen in the numbers of
monocotyledon fragments through these zones suggesting an increase in the local presence of
Phragmites australis (common reed) also on the wetland. A peak in Type 121, which is
associated with lake deposits (Pals et al, 1980) further indicates the change to a higher water
level.

The rising water level at Newrath is evidenced by the sea‐level curve, which can be seen to
gradually rise during this period (see Figure 6 and above). Diatom evidence from these levels
also shows the area is becoming wetter with the deposition of species such Fragalia construens
and Pinnularia microstauron (see Dawson, this report). These species are terrestrial in nature
and show that although the area had become wetter it had yet to become fully intertidal. This
is also shown by the absence of Foraminifera from these levels.

The changes seen in the local environment with the dying back of the Alnus carr‐woodland
and the emerging reedswamp environment would have led to the wetland becoming much
more of an open space. The exploitation and movement of this newly forming wetland
environment by early Bronze Age people is witnessed by the construction of a number of
wooden platforms and trackways across the wetland (see Wilkins, this report). Radiocarbon
dates from wood within the trackways show they were constructed and used between
3702±34 BP (UB‐6908; 2200‐1980 cal BC) and 3119±32 BP (UB‐6905; 1488‐1309 cal BC). These
structures were built on the wetland using local, close‐at‐hand resources, which has been
shown by wood identification analyses with Alnus glutinosa dominating the make‐up of the
construction materials. Other arboreal taxa shown to have been used in their construction
include Betula, Corylus avellana, Salix, Fraxinus excelsior, Quercus and Cornus sanguinea
(dogwood), which is absent in the pollen and plant macrofossil assemblages (see Lyons and
O’Donnell, wood report). Analyses of the wood used in the construction of these trackways
has also shown that they were largely built using small roundwoods, the majority of which
are aged between 6‐15 years old and largely of alder. These narrow age‐ranges of the timbers
are suggestive of woodland management through coppicing. The identification also of
coppiced heels within the wood assemblages of these trackways provides more substantive
evidence for such activities (see Lyons and O’Donnell, wood report). The practice of
30
coppicing and exploitation of wet woodland is well known from prehistoric sites across the
British Isles and Ireland in trackway construction (e.g. Coles and Coles, 1986; O’Sullivan,
2001) and would have provided people with the raw materials they needed locally rather
than tackling the larger trees of the dryland. As Rackham (2003) notes the vast size of these
trees would have required considerable effort to fell and cut to size and it may have been the
case of using the smallest tree to do the job. This may also explain the low number of Quercus
(and Corylus) timbers seen used in trackway construction.

The trackways and platforms would have provided access across the wetland, which no
doubt would have increased the mobility of people across this wet ground but also gave
greater access to the available wetland resources. Fishing and fowling are often referred to in
relation to resources offered by wetland sites (e.g. O’Sullivan, 2001; Bell, 2007) and indeed
would have been important in terms of getting protein for dietary requirements with fish also
a good source of minerals, vitamins A and D, together with essential fatty acids. Often
under‐valued though are the rich plant resources these wetlands offer. Phragmites australis for
example, can provide both a dietary resource, its rhizomes (below ground root) being edible,
and a construction resource for example being used as thatch (Law, 1998). Rodwell (1995)
also notes that sedge species such as Cladium mariscus (great fen sedge) may also be used for
thatch. Although there is somewhat limited evidence for C. mariscus at Newrath, peaks can
be seen in Type 4 (Anthostomella cf. fuegiana) in the NPP assemblage, which grows on this
species (van Geel and Aptroot, 2006). Other edible plants present in the palaeobotanical
record likely to have been growing in the wetland during this period include Menyanthes
trifoliata (bog bean), Typha latifolia both of whose rhizomes are also edible, together with Vicia‐
type (vetches) whose seeds are edible, Urtica dioica whose leaves are edible and the fruits of
Rubus fruticosus (Price, 1989).

Together with the wild plant, fish and bird food resources there is also some suggestion that
large grazing animals were present. Fungal spores linked to animal dung such as Types 16,
112 (Cercophera sp) and 170 (Rivularia sp) can all be seen to occur during this period (van Geel,
1978; van Geel and Aptroot, 2006). Although it cannot be stated for certain as to whether the
presence of these spores represents wild or domesticated animals. Another indicator of dung
of particular interest is the appearance of Trichuris‐type (whipworm) eggs in Zone NWB2d
during this period. Trichuris‐type is one of the commonest human intestinal parasites that
inhabit the large intestine, the eggs of which are passed into the faeces of the host (Dark,
2004). As well as humans Trichuris sp infect a variety of other mammals including cattle,
sheep, pigs and dogs. It is possible to differentiate the species of Trichuris from careful
measurement of the eggs; however, there is some overlap between the eggs of Trichuris
trichiura the species which infects humans and Trichuris suis, which infects pigs (Beer, 1976).
Measurement of the eggs from Newrath, indicate they closely resemble those of T. trichiura,
being smaller in size than those of T. suis. However, with the problem of the size overlap it
may not be possible to completely rule out the possibility of the eggs representing T. suis.
Nevertheless, this is the first known recording of Trichuris‐type eggs from archaeological
sediments in Ireland. The possibility of the eggs representing human faeces also has social
implications. Dark (2004) has suggested the finding of Trichuris‐type eggs from prehistoric
wetlands may represent the contamination of food or water from areas where people and
animals congregated; indicating the shared nature of resources in such places. Thus this
finding serves as a reminder that although abundant in resources wetlands were also
complicated landscapes to exploit and hardships endured. The finding of Trichuris eggs at
the Mesolithic camp of Goldcliff East was believed to represent a peripheral area of the site
used for defecation (Bell, 2007). Within Monolith2 Trichuris‐type can be seen to occur at
approximately 3935±35 BP (SUERC‐14689; 2500‐2290 cal BC), indicating its deposition prior to
31
the phase of trackway construction at the site and therefore at a time when this area of
Newrath may indeed have been peripheral to other activities.

Despite the wetland being perhaps the main focus of activities during the Bronze Age at
Newrath, activities were also taking place on the dryland. The pollen assemblage indicates
that the dryland is still largely wooded during this period, with Quercus‐Corylus woodland
still dominant around Newrath and across the area; evidenced at Woodstown (Farrell and
Coxon, 2004) and Ballynamona (Branch and Batchelor, 2007). Other arboreal species seen to
form lesser constituents of this woodland include Pinus, Ulmus, Ilex aquifolium, Malus
sylvestris (crab apple) and Prunus padus. There is some slight evidence of woodland
disturbance at around 154cm in Monolith 2 where dips can be seen in the pollen of Ulmus,
Pinus and Ilex. At this level there is also an appearance of cereal pollen with grains of Avena‐
Triticum‐group and Secale cereale‐group (rye) present, suggesting some perhaps small‐scale
agriculture taking place. At Woodstown, there is more definitive evidence of woodland
disturbance with larger‐scale clearance of trees taking place indicated by declines in the
pollen of both Quercus and Corylus with Quercus in particular becoming virtually absent in
the pollen record. This removal of woodland has been to 3440±40 BP (Beta‐195833; 1890‐1680
cal BC). LOI data shows an increase in minerogenic sediments deposited on the sites during
this phase, indicating an increase in the volume of colluvium (hillwash) entering the valley
basin due to the removal of trees on the valley slopes. Prior to this woodland clearance cereal
pollen types begin to appear in the pollen record together with an increased representation of
herbaceous taxa associated with arable activity, such as Poaceae sp, Plantago sp and
Ranunculaceae sp. Therefore, the assemblage indicates woodland clearance was taking place
to obtain land for the cultivation of cereals (Farrell and Coxon, 2004). Evidence for
agriculture across the Waterford area during the Bronze Age has been recorded from a
number of sites where charred grain, including Triticum dicoccum and Hordeum vulgare var
nudum. Such sites include Adamstown (Site 3), Granny (sites 1, 21 and 22) together with
Newrath (Site 37) itself (Gleeson, 2006a, 2006b, 2006c; Hughes 2006b; Russell and Ginn, 2007).
This increase in the level of agriculture and woodland clearance across the
Newrath/Waterford area during the Bronze Age is suggestive of increased population size
leading to an increased demand for resources, which saw both the wetland and dryland areas
exploited.

The Iron Age period (700 cal BC to cal AD 43)
(Pollen Zones: NWB1d‐f, NWB2e‐f)

It is during this period that dynamic changes are seen in the vegetation records for Site 34 and
are seen to be largely driven by sea‐level change. The sea‐level curve for the area, shows that
during this period a rapid rise in sea‐level took place, submerging the site, which is likely to
have began in the late Bronze Age from the decline in archaeological features dated to this
period (see below). The foraminifera and diatom evidence show that the site became
intertidal during this time (see above) and by sometime in the following period was a true
estuarine saltmarsh environment.

The pollen and plant macrofossil assemblage show this change in sea‐level had a huge impact
on the vegetation. On the wetland these local changes can be seen by an increase in the
representation of aquatic and submerged vegetation, particularly Ranunculus sceleratus with
Ranunculus aquatilis (common water crowfoot), Carex aquatilis, Lycopus europeaus (gypsywort)
and Schoenoplectus lacustris also represented (Clapham et al, 1962). This increase in aquatic
32
species is also shown in the pollen assemblages where an increased representation in aquatic
(and floating) taxa can be observed, particularly for Potamogeton, while other species
including Myriophyllum alterniflorum (alternate water‐milfoil), Nymphaeae alba (white water
lily), Callitriche‐type (water starworts) and Hydrocotyle vulagaris (marsh pennywort) also
appear. These species are indicative of lake and riverine locations (Clapham et al, 1962; Stace,
1997) and together with the plant macrofossil assemblage show how the site had now become
submerged from the enlargement of the River Suir during this period as it became more
tidally (marine) influenced. The large increase in Poaceae pollen seen during this period
show the domination of reedswamp communities across the wetland, accompanied by
declines in arboreal species particularly Alnus glutinosa. Increases can also be seen in the
values of Pteridium (bracken) and Pteropsida (ferns), which are again suggestive of more open
conditions. This development of reedswamp communities is mirrored in the pollen records
from Woodstown (Farrell and Coxon, 2004). Towards the end of the zone developing
saltmarsh communities can be seen with the increased representation of species such as Aster‐
type, Plantago maritima (sea plantain), Chenopodiaceae and Artemisia‐type (mugworts)
(Clapham et al, 1962; Rodwell, 2000).

There is sporadic evidence for trees still being present on the wetland with occasional plant
macrofossils of Alnus glutinosa, Salix sp and Betula sp present. It is likely these plant remains
represent some trees still growing on the wetland edge fringing the reedswamp and from
within the reedswamp itself. Rodwell (1995) notes that saplings of Alnus glutinosa and Salix
cinerea (grey willow) can occur within Phragmites fen communities, which is probably what is
being shown in the macrofossil assemblage. This continued representation of trees in and
around the wetland is also noted in the pollen records where although declining, pollen of
Alnus glutinosa is still present and again indicates continued carr‐woodland fringing the
developing reedswamp. Pollen of Salix, Betula and Fraxinus excelsior also suggest these taxa
were growing within this diminishing carr‐woodland environment. The local presence of
these species is also shown by their identification within wood identification assemblages
from two trackway/platforms, which date to this period. These wooden structures date to
between 2116±32 BP (UB‐6901; 210‐40 cal BC) and 2029±33 BP (UB‐6463; 158‐54 cal BC) and
include timbers from other species, such as Corylus, Pomoidiaceae, Sambucus and Quercus (see
Lyons and O’Donnell, wood report). The limited number of wooden structures dating to this
period and indeed the absence of structures dating to the late Bronze Age highlights the
impact rising sea‐level had on the wetland, causing the abandonment of the site as rising
waters submerged the area.

This landscape change was not just confined to the wetland during this period. Pollen
evidence shows also a decline in the pollen of Quercus throughout this period suggesting
changes occurring in the dryland woodland. There is little doubt that some of the losses in
Quercus trees shown in the pollen record would have been due to loss of habitat as the River
Suir flooded the area, effectively drowning trees on and near to the wetland. However, this
decline coupled with the rise in Corylus avellana pollen suggests that some small‐scale
clearances on the dryland were occurring. The rise also seen in the pollen of ruderals such as
Plantago lanceolata, Lactuca sativa‐type (lettuces), Taraxacum‐type (dandelions) and Anthriscus‐
type (chervils) is also indicative of arable activity (Clapham et al, 1962; Stace, 1997). The
presence of Hordeum‐group pollen in Zones NWB1e‐f and NWB2e‐f suggests that such arable
activity is the cultivation of Hordeum. Further evidence for agriculture, as in previous
periods, comes from the recovery of charred cereal grains from excavated sites; although not
as abundant as seen in the previous period. The charred grain assemblage at Mullinabro (Site
4) consists largely of Avena sp (Wren 2006), which differs to the pollen evidence from
Newrath. The grains from Mullinabro (Site 4) have been dated from charcoal fragments in
33
the same context to between 2017±36 BP (UB‐6493; 153 cal BC‐cal AD 67) and 1992±35 BP (UB‐
6492; 89 cal BC‐cal AD 81).

Together with the evidence for arable activity at Site 34, there is again some evidence for
grazing within the NPP assemblages. Increases in Types 16 and 170 and the presence of
Trichuris‐type during this period indicate dung at the site (van Geel et al, 1983, 1989; Dark,
2004). It is possible much of this represents animals grazing on the reedswamp of the
wetland or within the reedswamp/saltmarsh area. The presence again of Trichuris‐type may
represent human faeces (see above), but further measurement of these eggs is needed to
discriminate against animal faeces. The possibility of using the reedswamp area for grazing
during this period is suggested not only by the trackways built across the wetland (see above)
allowing access to this area but also from the microscopic charcoal record. Large increases in
the amount of micro‐charcoal can be seen occurring in this period indicating local burning
taking place (Clark and Hussey, 1996; Clark et al, 1998). The presence on the pollen slides of
microscopic charcoal fragments still retaining enough structure to identify them as either
deriving from the burning of wood or grasses from these levels adds to the fire information.
The diagrams show initial increase in burning was a mixture of wood and grasses being
burnt, which then switches to the burning of grasses. This pattern of burning suggests it
relates to the burning of the reedswamp environment, which initially would have contained
dead and decaying trees, killed by the flooding of the site by the expansion of the River Suir.
As the river waters became higher and the site began to change to saltmarsh it would have
been largely reeds (grasses) that were being burnt. The management of a reedswamp by
people through burning has been evidenced throughout prehistory (e.g. Bell et al, 2002) and
can be used to control the height and the density of reed growth, together with limiting the
expansion of woody species into the reedswamp (Law, 1998).

Conclusion

The palaeoenvironmental analyses from the Monolith sediments have provided evidence of a
dynamic environment, which has seen changing patterns of vegetational communities
throughout prehistory. This study has provided the backdrop of environmental change
which was witnessed by the people who lived and utilised these environments in the past.
The archaeological evidence from wooden structures within the wetland have shown people
knew how to exploit and traverse these areas, but the environmental evidence has been able
to provide some information on the resources they were exploiting. This study has also
produced some firsts in the finding of seeds of Carpinus betulus a tree not necessarily thought
of a native to Ireland and in the discovery of Trichuris‐type eggs, which are not known to
have been discovered in other archaeological sediments in Ireland, although this may be from
a lack of not recognising them in pollen studies. The application of non‐pollen palynomorph
assessment has been useful in providing data on local environmental conditions together
with the possibilities of animals being brought to the site. The use of a multi‐proxy approach
has reconstructed a palimpsest of environmental change at Newrath and this together with
other studies has shown the importance of this site in relation to changing hypotheses and
shifting paradigms on life and settlement within prehistoric Ireland.

34
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Rackham O. (2003) Ancient woodland its history, vegetation and uses in England (Arnold,
London).

Rodwell J.S. (ed.) (1991) British Plant Communities Volume 1: Woods and scrub (Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge).

Rodwell J.S. (ed.) (1995) British Plant Communities Volume 4: Aquatic communities, swamps and
tall‐herb fens (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge).

Rodwell J.S. (ed.) (2000) British Plant Communities Volume 5: Maritime communitie and vegetation
of open habitats (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge).

Rowell, DL (1994) Soil Science: Methods and Applications (Longman, London).

Russell I. and Ginn V. (2007) Preliminary Report on Archaeological Excavations at Site 3, in the
townland of Adamstown, Co. Waterford Archaeological Consultancy Services Limited
Unpublished Client Report.

Schweingruber F. H. (1978) Microscopic Wood Anatomy: Structural Variability of Stems and Twigs
in Recent and Subfossil Woods from Central Europe. Kommissionsverlag Zücher AG, Zug

38
Schweingruber F.H. (1990) Microscopic wood anatomy (3rd edition) Birmensdorf.

Simmons I.G. (1996) The environmental impact of Later Mesolithic cultures: the creation of moorland
landscape in England and Wales (Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh).

Simmons I.G. and Innes J.B. (1996) Disturbances in the Mid‐Holocene vegetation at North
Gill, North York Moors: Form and Process. Journal of Archaeological Science 23 183‐191.

Smith A.G. and Morgan L.A. (1989) A succession to ombrotrophic bog in the Gwent Levels,
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Stace C. (1997) New flora of the British Isles (2nd Edition) (Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge).

Tauber H. (1965) Differential pollen dispersal and the interpretation of pollen diagrams.
Danmarks Geologiske. Undersølgelse 89 1‐69.

Timpany S. (2001) Palaeoecological changes during the Holocene on the Mizen Peninsula, southwest
Ireland. Unpublished MSc Thesis, Coventry University.

Timpany S. (2005) A multi‐proxy palaeoecological investigation of submerged forests and intertidal
peats, Severn Estuary, UK. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Reading.

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Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 14 15‐30.

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39

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40
APPENDICES
41
APPENDIX I

(Foraminifera Report)
42
FORAMINIFERAL ANALYSIS OF SAMPLES SUPPLIED BY HEADLAND ARCHAEOLOGY
Professor Simon K. Haslett, Quaternary Research Centre, Dept. of Geography, School of
Science and the Environment, Bath Spa University College, Newton Park, Bath, BA2 9BN,
UK.
August 2007
Introduction
An additional 12 samples were supplied by Headland Archaeology in addition to samples

supplied by the University of Reading to the author in 2006 for analysis of their
foraminifera content, with a view to establish their abundance, preservation and
usefulness as marine palaeoenvironmental indicators in these Holocene sediments. This
report describes the method employed to separate foraminifera from the sediment
samples, presents the integrated results obtained, and suggests an interpretation of the
results. Foraminiferal analysis is now a well-established technique for assigning tidal level
and depositional environment information to Holocene sediments (see Allen and Haslett,
2002, for a review). Haslett et al. (1997) provide distributional data for foraminifera living
on the modern salt marshes of the Severn Estuary, and it is this dataset, with updates
(Haslett, 2000; Haslett et al., 2001; Allen and Haslett, 2002), that enables the calibration
of fossil data.
Method
Bulk samples for foraminiferal analysis were initially weighed wet and then air-dried and
then weighed (dry bulk weight, g). Samples were then soaked in distilled water for 24
hours, then wet-sieved at 63µm, with the >63µm fraction being retained and weighed (g)
after drying. Aliquots of the 125-500µm fraction of each sample were dry sieved and
examined using reflected light microscopy for foraminifera (Knudsen and Austin, 1996;
Bell et al., 2002). Foraminifera specimens were counted and identified from known
aliquots of a sample, from which an estimate of the number of test per sample could be
made if the aliquot examined was less than the entire sample. In addition, other
-1-
components of the samples were also noted and include coleoptera, ostracods, plant
remains (including seeds), iron pyrite crystals, and siliceous sponge spicules.
Results and Discussion
Results are shown in Tables 1 and 2 for samples from monoliths 1 and 2 respectively.
Only 7 of the integrated samples yielded foraminifera, with variable but generally low
abundance ranging from 1 to 18 specimens per gram. Preservation of foraminifera tests is
generally good with little indication of post-mortem alteration. All foraminifera species
recovered are agglutinating and typical of high intertidal estuarine environments (salt
marshes) where they live in situ. No calcareous foraminifera species, that occupy lower
intertidal surfaces, were found.
Monolith 1 samples 70, 82, 110 and 142cm yield only Jadammina macrescens which
represents the monospecific assemblage of Haslett et al. (2001) that inhabits the lower
part of the zone between Mean High Water Spring Tides (MHWST) and Highest
Astronomical Tides (HAT).
Monolith 1 samples 18, 34 and 102cm although lack foraminifera do contain marine
sponge spicules and, therefore, may represent deposition high in the zone between
MHWST-HAT equating with the ‘barren zone’ of Haslett et al’s (1997, 2001) salt marsh
foraminifera zonation.
Monolith 1 samples 50, 118, 134, 147, 158, 209 and 230cm lack both foraminifera and
sponge spicules and, therefore, may represent a non-marine depositional environment.
This is particularly true of samples 158, 209 and 230cm which appear to contain
freshwater/terrestrial beetles (coleopteran). Samples 50, 118, 134 and 147cm however,
lack any additional determinant so may represent freshwater/terrestrial deposition or
deposition high in the zone between MHWST-HAT.
Monolith 1 samples 98, 122, and 190cm yield the most diverse of the foraminifera
assemblages containing Trochammina inflata, Miliammina fusca as well as Jadammina
macrescens. This assemblage is typical of deposition around MHWST.
In monolith 1, the variation in abundance in the number of tests per gram from 1 to 18 was
considered in the previous report, which suggested that low test abundance is perhaps
linked to high sedimentation rates of other material (peat, silt, etc), effectively diluting the
contribution made by the foraminiferal standing crop to the sediment analysed, as in a salt
-2-
marsh setting abundance variation is much more likely to be this factor rather than test
dissolution or sorting.
All samples from monolith 2 were found to be organic-rich and barren of foraminifera, and
other determinants, except for plant fragments. This may represent freshwater/terrestrial
deposition or deposition high in the zone between MHWST-HAT. Quartz grains are also
common, but tend to be angular in nature rather than rounded, so may indicate a
terrestrial, rather than marine, source.
Concluding Remark
The foraminifera recovered are generally well-preserved and diagnostic of particular high
intertidal palaeoenvironments above MHWST. Samples that lack foraminifera may have
been deposited either close to HAT or in a freshwater/terrestrial setting. The variable
abundance observed may be due to a sediment dilution effect, rather than test dissolution,
and/or sediment sorting.
References
Allen, J. R. L., 2001. Late Quaternary stratigraphy in the Gwent Levels (southeast Wales):
the subsurface evidence. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, 112, 289-315.
Allen, J. R. L. and Haslett, S. K., 2002. Buried salt-marsh edges and tide-level cycles in
the mid-Holocene of the Caldicot Level (Gwent), South Wales, UK. The Holocene, 12,
303-324.
Bell, M., Allen, J. R. L., Buckley, S., Dark, P. and Haslett, S. K., 2002. Mesolithic to
Neolithic coastal environmental change: excavations at Goldcliff East, 2002.
Archaeology in the Severn Estuary, 13, 1-29.
Haslett, S. K., 1997. An Ipswichian foraminiferal assemblage from the Gwent Levels
(Severn Estuary, UK). Journal of Micropalaeontology, 16, 136.
Haslett, S.K., 2000. Coastal Systems. Routledge, London, 240pp.
Haslett, S. K., Davies, P. and Strawbridge, F., 1997. Reconstructing Holocene sea-level
change in the Severn Estuary and Somerset Levels: the foraminifera connection.
Archaeology in the Severn Estuary, 8, 29-40.
Haslett, S.K., Strawbridge, F., Martin, N. A. and Davies, C. F. C., 2001. Vertical saltmarsh
accretion and its relationship to sea-level in the Severn Estuary, UK: an investigation
using foraminifera as tidal indicators. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 52, 143-
153.
Knudsen, K. L. and Austin, W. E. N., 1996. Late Glacial foraminifera. In Andrews, J. T.,
Austin, W. E. N., Bergsten, H. and Jennings, A. E. (eds) Late Quaternary
Palaeoceanography of the North Atlantic Margins. Geological Society Special
Publication No. 111, pp. 7-10.
-3-
-4-
Headland Archaeology: NWB03, Site 34 Palaeoenvironmental Analyses
APPENDIX II

(Diatom Reports)
47
Newrath – Diatom Report

Prepared by Dr. Jason Jordan
Page
1. Introduction 1
2. Methodology and Techniques 1
3. Results 2
4. Interpretation 3
5. References 3
1. Introduction
A total of 12 sediment samples from the Newrath site were prepared and assessed for
diatom analysis. The aim of the analysis was to determine the provenance of the
depositional environments. The expected outcome was that the samples would show
that the site had initially been inundated by the sea, with marine and brackish water
environments dominating the sedimentary basin. Depending on preservation and
occurrence, diatom analysis of the samples would show any changes to the salinity of
the depositional environment quite clearly.
2. Methodology and Techniques

The sediment samples were prepared according to standard laboratory techniques
(Barber and Haworth, 1981) involving distillation on a hotplate with Hydrogen
peroxide to remove any organic matter and then a series of washes with distilled water
to concentrate the diatoms and reduce the amount of clay and silt particulate matter. A
pipette of the suspension was then placed onto a glass cover-slip and mounted onto
microscope slides with Naphrax, a high refractive index, to illustrate the possible
species preserved.
Diatom species identification is carried out with reference to Hartley et al. (1996),
Hendey (1964) and Van der Werf and Huls (1957-74). Diatom nomenclature follows
Hartley (1996) and salinity and lifeform classification is based upon Van Dam et al.
(1994), Vos and de Wolf (1993) and Denys (1991/2).
48
3. Results
Samples were examined for their diatom preservation potential and the major species
contained within each sample. This would give a broad indication of the depositional
environment in conjunction with other microfossil analyses and any other
lithostratigraphy/sedimentary analysis that has been carried out.
Of the twelve samples prepared, only two had any diatoms preserved in them at all,
and these were far too sparse in terms of their concentration to allow full counts to be
conducted. Diatom taphonomy is quite well understood and in marsh environments it
is likely that either extreme acidity or extreme alkalinity are usually to blame for the
loss of biogenic silica from the deposited sediment. Diatoms can survive in fairly
harsh conditions but the mobility of biogenic silica controls their fossilisation. It
would appear that the Newrath site has a poor preservation potential for diatom silica,
something which is not unusual for a marsh/fen location. The changes in pH
associated with vegetation growth and decay in this type of environment mean that
diatom preservation is dependent on very localised conditions, pre and post
deposition. Where diatoms were present, the preservation was extremely poor but the
species encountered are given below.
Newrath Diatom Samples
Sample
Monolith 1
210cm 1 – no species present.
110cm 4 – only two individual species were encountered, both of which were Paralia
sulcata, a marine diatom indicative of storm deposits.
Monolith 2
49

128cm 12 – only one single specimen was identified, Gramatophora serpentine, a
marine diatom indicative of marine water and coastal depsoits.
4. Interpretation
The underlying brief for this analysis was not realised from the samples provided.
There is no clear indication of the depositional environments as the samples do not
contain any diatoms, however, the two samples that had the few diatom furstules
present are indeed marine species. This is not enough to allow a reconstruction to take
place but the indication is that the two identified samples have indeed been depositied
in and around a former shoreline.
5. References
Barber, H. and Haworth, E.Y. 1981. A guide to the morphology of the diatom frustule,
with a key to the British Freshwater Genera, Ambleside. Freshwater Biological
Association, 109pp.
Denys, L. 1991/2.A check-list of the diatoms in the Holocene coastal deposits of the
western Belgian Coastal Plain with a survey of their apparent ecological requirements
1. Professional Paper No. 246.Geological Survey of Belgium, 41pp.
Hartley, B., Barber, H. G., Carter, J. R. and Sims, P. A. 1996. An Atlas of British
Diatoms. Biopress, Bristol, 601pp.
Hendey, N.I. 1964. An introductory account of the smaller algae of the British
Coastal Waters, Part V: Bacillariophyceae (diatoms). London, HMSO, 317pp.
Van Dam, H., Mertens, A. and Sinkeldam, J. 1994. A coded checklist and ecological
indicator values of freshwater diatoms from the Netherlands. Netherlands Journal of
Aquatic Ecology, 28 (1), 117-133.
50
Van der Werf, A. and Hils, H. 1957-74. Diatomienflore Van Nederland, 8Parts,
Koenigstein. Otto Koeltz Science Publishers.
Vos, P.C. and de Wolf, H. 1993. Diatoms as a tool for reconstructing sedimentary
environments in coastal wetlands; methodological aspects. Hydrobiologia, 269/270,
285-296.
51
Waterford Monolith 1: Diatom analysis
Report prepared by Dr Sue Dawson
For Headland Archaeology (Scott Timpany)
1.Introduction
Twelve silt-clay and peat samples from monolith 1 were sub-sampled and subject to
preparation for diatom analysis. The aim of the analysis was to determine the
environment of deposition of the silt-clays and peats and whether the sediments
retained information relating to the former presence of marine sediments, and thus
information regarding the former relative sea level history of the site.
2. Methodology and Techniques
The twelve sediment samples were prepared according to standard laboratory techniques
(Barber and Haworth, 1981) involving distillation on a hotplate with Hydrogen peroxide to
remove any organic matter and then a series of washes with distilled water to concentrate the
diatoms and reduce the amount of clay and silt particulate matter. A pipette of the
suspension was then placed onto a glass cover‐slip and mounted onto microscope slides with
Naphrax, a high refractive index, to illustrate the possible species preserved.

Diatom species were identified with reference to Hendey (1964) and Van der Werf and Huls,
1957‐74). Diatom nomenclature follows Hartley (1986) and salinity and lifeform classification
is based upon Vos and de Wolf (1993) and Denys (1991/2). In general, Polyhalobous and
mesohalobous diatom classes broadly reflect marine and brackish conditions whilst
oligohalobous and halophilics classes reflect freshwater and terrestrial environments.

Results
Samples were examined for their diatom preservation potential and the major
species contained in each sample. This would give a broad indication of the
provenance of the sediments in conjunction with other microfossil analyses and the
lithostratigraphy.
Of all 12 prepared, 3 samples had sufficient species to undertake a full count to 300
diatom valves; 7 samples were sparse and 1 sample did not contain any diatoms.
52
Where samples were fossiliferous; diatom preservation was good and an assessment
of depositional environment was possible. Where samples were sparse and full counts
not able to be undertaken, an overall assessment of the likely mode of deposition was
possible in all but one sample.
Sample 1 (cm)
(18cm depth) – green-grey silt
The sample of silt is sparse. However, there are sufficient species to determine the
sedimentary provenance. Marine species including Paralia sulcata, Podosira
stelliger, together with the marine-brackish Cocconeis scutellum indicate deposition
within marine waters. The presence of Diploneis interrupta attest to more brackish
conditions. The limited number of species suggest deposition within an estuarine
environment within the intertidal zone.
Sample 2 (34 cm)- green-grey silt
The silt is sparse in microfossils. The main species within the silt is the brackish
Diploneis interrupta. Polyhalobous species are represented by Paralia sulcata.. The
limited number of species indicate intertidal estuarine conditions.
Sample 3 (50 cm)- green-grey silt
The silt has marine species Paralia sulcata, Podosira stelliger, and Rhaphoneis
amphiceros (the latter which lives on sand/mud flats. Together with the brackish
species Diploneis interrupta, the diatoms infer a mud/sand flat estuarine environent in
the intertidal zone.
Sample 4 ( 70 cm)- silt

The silt is sparse in diatoms but fragments of Paralia sulcata and sponge spicules
attest to the presence of marine waters in the formation of the silt.
53
Sample 5 (82 cm)- grey-brown silts with peat

The silt with some peats are very sparse in diatoms. However, fragments of Paralia sulcata
and Nitzschia punctata (marine‐brackish intertidal mudflats) suggest deposition in an
intertidal estuarine environment.

Sample 6 (98 cm)‐ dark grey‐brown silty peat
The silty peat has abundant diatoms to allow a full assessment of environment of
deposition. The following species together with the presence of Sponge spicules infer
deposition within the intertidal zone:
Marine species:
Paralia sulcata, Podosira stelliger, Rhabdonema arcuatum, Rhabdonema minutum,
Rhaphoneis amphiceros,
Brackish species:
Nitzschia accuminata, Navicula peregrina, Diploneis interrupta, Nitzschia
navicularis, Nitzschia punctata.
Sample 7 (118 cm)- orange/brown peaty-silt

deposition. The following species infer deposition within the intertidal zone:
Marine species:
Paralia sulcata, Cocconeis scutellum, Rhaphoneis amphiceros,
Brackish species:
Diploneis didyma, Diploneis interrupta, Navicula digito-radiata, Nitzschia
navicularis.
Sample 8 (122 cm)‐ orange/br peaty‐silt
deposition. The following species together with the presence of Sponge spicules infer
deposition within the intertidal zone:
Marine indicators:
Sponge spicules, Paralia sulcata, Rhaphoneis amphiceros,
Brackish indicators:
Nitzschia navicularis, Diploneis interrupta.
54
Sample 9 (142 cm)- orange/br silt Phragmites peat transition

The silt –peat transition is sparse in diatoms. However, limited numbers of Paralia sulcata,
Diploneis didyma, and Diploneis interrupta indicate an upper intertidal estuarine environment.
Sample 10 (158 cm)- br/black Phragmites peat with silt

The peats are almost barren of diatoms. However, the following freshwater species are
present in limited numbers; Fragilaria construens, Fragilaria construens var venter and Pinnularia
microstauron. The lack of brackish and marine species within the peats attest to the lack of
marine waters in their formation.

Sample 11 (190 cm)‐ brown‐black wood peat
The peat is sparse, limited numbers of the freshwater species Eunotia arcus indicate a
terrestrial source.
Sample 12 (230 cm)- brown Phragmites peat

No diatoms present
4. Interpretation
Diatom analyses from Monolith 1, Waterford display a variable preservation
of diatom within the sediment sequences analysed. Many of the peat and
upper silt samples are sparse. The silty peat samples allow a full assessment
of deposition.
The lowermost sediments are peats and are poor in diatoms. This may reflect
the possible dissolution of any species due to the acidic nature of the
sediments. However, the limited numbers of Oligohalobous (fresh) species
indcate deposition away from marine influence. Within the peat‐silt transition
limited numbers of brackish species may suggest deposition within the upper
intertidal zone, although without full counts it is only possible to infer this
55
interpretation. The silty peat and peaty silts between 82cm and 122cm depth
have abundant diatoms species and allow an accurate assessment of the
sediment provenence. The sediment sample reflect an intertidal estuarine
environment characterised by a brackish influence, with Navicula peregrina,
Nitzschia puntata, Nitzschia navicularis and Diploneis interrupta in most
abundance. This reflects sedimentation in the upper reaches of the intertidal
zone. The upper silts (18cm to 70cm) are sparse, however the brackish‐marine
and marine species including Paralia sulcata, Podosira stelliger together with
Coscinodiscus are planktonics and infer a more marine environment, although
still within an estuarine environment.
5. Summary
Diatoms analysed from samples within Monolith 1 indicate deposition within an
intertidal estuarine environment. Initially, the assemblages suggest a high intertidal
area around MHWST (Mean High Water Spring Tide) and the gradual increase in
marine waters. The organic silts are indicative of an intertidal mudflat environment,
with many of the brackish-marine species adapted to living on mud and sand flats.
The upper silts are more marine and suggest slightly deeper waters, although the
assemblages are still evidence of deposition within an intertidal estuarine
environment.
The sediments and diatoms suggest an increasing marine influence at the monlith site.
This could be further investigated, especially around the freshwater to brackish-
marine transition to ascertain the depth at which the freshwater sediements are
replaced by brackish sediments and more marine sediments.
56

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1 84‐85 Monocotyledon 1870±35 Cal AD 1870±35BP 2100BP

200CalBC CalBC/CalAD 200CalAD 400CalAD

1 99‐100 Monocotyledon 1665±35 Cal AD 1900BP

plant tissue (SUERC‐ 250‐530 1800BP

CalBC/CalAD 200CalAD 400CalAD 600CalAD

1 124‐125 Monocotyledon 1965±35 50 Cal BC 2200BP 1965±35BP

14681) 50 1900BP

200CalBC CalBC/CalAD 200CalAD 400CalAD

1 149‐150 Monocotyledon 2045±40 170 Cal BC 2400BP 2045±40BP

2300BP 68.2% probability

plant tissue (SUERC‐ to Cal AD 2200BP

14682) 60 2100BP

400CalBC 200CalBC CalBC/CalAD 200CalAD 400CalAD

1 168‐169 Rubus sp. Seeds 4150±35 2880‐2620 4400BP

4300BP 2870BC (14.7%) 2830BC

3000CalBC 2800CalBC 2600CalBC 2400CalBC

1 209‐210 Prunus spinosa 4505±35 3360‐3090 4800BP

fruit stone (SUERC‐ Cal BC 4600BP

3600CalBC 3400CalBC 3200CalBC 3000CalBC 2800CalBC

1 233‐234 Quercus and 4850±35 3710‐3620 5200BP 4850±35BP

4000CalBC 3800CalBC 3600CalBC 3400CalBC 3200CalBC

2 124‐125 Monocotyledon 2360±35 540‐370 2700BP 2360±35BP

800CalBC 600CalBC 400CalBC 200CalBC

2 134‐135 Monocotyledon 2210±40 390‐180 2500BP

2400BP 68.2% probability

600CalBC 400CalBC 200CalBC CalBC/CalAD 200CalAD

2 157‐158 Rubus fruticosus 3935±35 2500‐2290 4300BP

3000CalBC 2800CalBC 2600CalBC 2400CalBC 2200CalBC 2000CalBC

2 189‐190 Alnus and 4540±40 3370‐3090 4540±40BP

3800CalBC 3600CalBC 3400CalBC 3200CalBC 3000CalBC 2800CalBC

2 200‐201 Quercus and 4580±40 3380‐3260 4580±40BP

3800CalBC 3600CalBC 3400CalBC 3200CalBC 3000CalBC 2800CalBC

2 211‐212 Quercus and 4765±35 3640‐3380 5000BP

3800CalBC 3600CalBC 3400CalBC 3200CalBC

% L.O.I. NWB Monolith 1

% L.O.I. NWB Monolith 2

NWB03 Monolith 2 pollen diagram (500 counts)

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

Radiocarbon Years BP (Uncalibrated)

An additional 12 samples were supplied by Headland Archaeology in addition to samples

Results and Discussion

Newrath – Diatom Report

2. Methodology and Techniques

Newrath Diatom Samples

190cm 9 – no species present.

Report prepared by Dr Sue Dawson

For Headland Archaeology (Scott Timpany)

Sample 2 (34 cm)- green-grey silt

Sample 3 (50 cm)- green-grey silt

Sample 4 ( 70 cm)- silt

Sample 5 (82 cm)- grey-brown silts with peat

Sample 7 (118 cm)- orange/brown peaty-silt

Sample 9 (142 cm)- orange/br silt Phragmites peat transition

Sample 10 (158 cm)- br/black Phragmites peat with silt

Sample 12 (230 cm)- brown Phragmites peat

sediments. However, the limited numbers of Oligohalobous (fresh) species

sediment provenence. The sediment sample reflect an intertidal estuarine

environment characterised by a brackish influence, with Navicula peregrina,

Nitzschia puntata, Nitzschia navicularis and Diploneis interrupta in most

abundance. This reflects sedimentation in the upper reaches of the intertidal

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