MUSIC 307- CHINA Sources: Han, Kuo-huang and Mark, Lindy Li, Evolution and Revolution in Chinese Music,

in Musics of Many Cultures. Nettl, Bruno. Excursions in World Music. 2nd ed. New Jersey:Prentice-Hall. 1997. Chinese music was conceived of as a system that would reflect the order of the universe. Each tone invested with mystical significance. In traditional, China music was embedded in social and ideological contexts. Music was mostly programmatic or symbolic: programmatic in that it evoked other sensory forms; symbolic in that it expressed philosophical ideas, ritual and social behavior. The notion of absolute music created and performed explicitly and purely for the aesthetic enjoyment of tonal patterning, rhythm, timbre, and dynamics did not exist. The evolution of Chinese music into the various forms present today resulted from four kinds of conflict: between popular and ritual music, between musicians and politicians, between mysticism and empiricism, and between nationalism and internationalism. Music is a cultural universal. Every society has some form of musical activity. Some ancient civilizations, however, developed metaphysical notions about the relationship between music and the cosmos which, in some cases, led to mathematical computations of acoustics. Ancient China and Greece were two such civilizations. The earliest reference to scale intervals is found in Chou Li (compiled 400 B.C.). The five scale tones named, kung, shang, chiao, chih, and yu are thought to correspond to do, re, mi, sol, and la in the Western scale. Another source, the Kuo Yu (compiled 400 B.C.), contains the earliest reference to a twelve tone chromatic scale. The earliest record giving mathematical ratios of musical intervals is the Lu Shih Chun Chiu. This work describes the construction of a set of twelve pitch pipes by the method of the cycle of fifths. This event was retrodated to the time of the legendary emperor Ling-lun in the year 2698 B.C. The publication of a method of equal temperament by prince Chu Tsai-yu in 1584 is one of the most widely discussed issues in Chinese acoustic theory. The earliest known writing in Europe concerning equal temperament was by Mersenne in 1636. Could the theoretical tempered scale have been introduced to Europe from China sometime in the late 1500s? There was already considerable trade with China and interest in Chinese music. The question seems to be moot point, however, in that Bach and many others were using the scale widely within a century of its conception while the tempered scale remained theoretical in China until practically the 20th century. Chinese music history can be divided into three major periods: ancient, from the neolithic (8,000 B.C) to 246 B.C.; middle ancient, from 246 B.C. to 907 A.D.; and the late historical, from 907 A.D. to 1911. Later developments, including the recent Westernization of Chinese music will be discussed separately.

During the Ancient period, by the middle of the third century B.C., musical instruments had been classified into eight categories, according to the materials from which they were made: metal, stone, silk, bamboo, gourd, ceramic, leather, and wood. Each instrumental category was associated with the seasons and months. Ancient Chinese orchestras were immense in size and instrumentation, sometimes having over 150 players. During the sixth century B.C. music was divided into many functional categories as well. There was music for the chanting of poetry, worshiping ancestors, worshiping heaven and earth, royal banquets, rural feasts, archery contests, and battles. Moreover, music was thought to be an instrument of government. According to the Li Chi (Book of Rites): ...we must discriminate sounds in order to know the airs; the airs in order to know the music; and the music in order to know the government. Having attained to this, we are fully provided with the methods of good order. During the Middle Ancient period, the establishment of a ministry of music indicated governmental emphasis on music. This agency was responsible for recruiting and training over a thousand dancers and musicians for state functions. Music from central Asia began to engulf China from the sixth century A.D. on. Instruments such as lutes, harps, cymbals, horns, and oboes were introduced from India and the Middle East and later assimilated into Chinese ensembles. In 714 the Pear Garden Academy was established for training musicians and dancers. The glory of this period in Chinese music is still felt today. During the Late Historical period three major developments took place: the revival of Confucian musicology, the rise of musical dramas, and the popularization of regional dramas. Neo-Confucianism gained court support and scholars began to expunge foreign elements from Chinese music. The chin, a zither, the favorite instrument of ancient sages was revived. Music dramas rose to great literary heights between the 13th and 17th centuries. These dramas always seem to have included musical arias, recitatives, spoken dialogue, dance, and mime. From the 17th century to the beginning of the 20th century, royal patronage of regional theatres was the most important development. The undisputed favorite among all classes during the 19th century was Peking opera, Ching-hsi, a refined version of regional operas from north central China. The distinction between classical, folk, and popular music has become blurred in recent decades. A concert of classical Chinese music today may include pieces performed on court instruments, as well as formerly folk and theatre instrument. The modern classical repertoire also includes folk songs arranged for concert performances. CHINESE INSTRUMENTS Chinese Instruments are categorized by material: stone, metal, silk, and bamboo are the most common. The metal instruments include bells, gongs, chimes and cymbals. Silk instruments include the chin or silk stringed zither, considered the most prestigious of all Chinese instruments dating back to the Confucian period. Bamboo instruments include the transverse flute and panpipe. Gourd instruments include sheng (mouth organ).

The chin, a seven-stringed zither, is the most highly regarded of Chinese musical instruments because of its antiquity and its rich legacy of associations with scholars and poets. Made from a hollowed, slightly convex board approximately four feet long, it has neither frets nor bridges. The most common tuning is C-D-F-G-A-c-d. The cheng, a 13-16 stringed zither with movable bridges, is more popular today than the chin because of its greater versatility. The cheng is pleasantly resonant and relatively easy to learn. The pi-pa is a four-stringed, fretted lute with a bent neck. It was introduced to China from Persia around the 4th century A.D. An instrument of great flexibility and dynamic range, its sound resembles that of a mandolin. The strings are usually tuned to A-d-e-a, and the entire chromatic scale can be produced. Percussive sounds and microtones can also be produced for depicting battle scenes and many other programmatic effects. It is used in solo or ensemble and in accompanying narrative song. One of the most popular folk instruments, the erh-hu, is now also used in classical music. It is a two-stringed fiddle tuned in fifths with a bow passing between the strings. It is made in a number of sizes and registers and is used for solo, in ensemble, and in theatre orchestras. Its capacity ranges from lyricism to dazzling displays, including programmatic imitations of birdcalls and the human voice. Other important instruments include the transverse flute (ti or ti-tzu) and the mouth organ (sheng) which is one of the few wind instruments that can play more than one melodic line simultaneously. THEATRE MUSIC Many regional types of Chinese opera existed in the past. Their stories were drawn generally from history and folktales. The singing was accompanied by a small onstage orchestra. The acting featured stylized gestures and colorful costumes. Regional operas were a reaction against the scholarly and philosophical music of the court. This was music and theatre for the masses. As stated earlier, the most widely known theatre is the Peking opera, a form of musical theatre combining plots, stylized gestures and movements, acrobatics, fanciful makeup, elaborate costumes, and simple props into a unified whole. It is a sophisticated genre offering diverse attractions such as virtuosic singing in romantic scenes involving young lovers, stylized battle scenes on land or at sea featuring breathtaking acrobatic skills, comical slapstick often having the bite of political satire, and dramatic scenes having themes of betrayal and revenge, retribution, and the triumph of loyalty and justice. Peking opera was performed outdoors, which accounts for its relative loudness. Its acting and gestures are highly stylized. For instance, there are twenty-six ways to laugh, twenty types of beard, and thirty-nine ways of manipulating the beard! In Peking operas there are five major role classifications: male, female, painted-face male, old man, and clown. Male and female are each are further sub-divided, each with their particular singing style and vocal timbre. For instance, the major old-male role sings with a chest voice and tight, controlled

rasp and his singing style should be steady and vigorous while the major mature female role sings in a nasal falsetto exclusively, in a steady and delicate manner with clear articulation. Until the first half of this century, men performed both male and female roles. The orchestra for Peking opera consists of two sections: the melodic section of strings and winds mainly accompanies the singing and plays instrumental interludes while the percussion section of gongs, sticks, and drums plays preludes and punctuates the singing and action. The crashing of cymbals emphasizes the end of a melody. Chinese opera and most other traditional and folk music usually have a heterophonic texture. Such a highly stylized theatre requires an audience that possesses the art of watching and listening to appreciate it fully. Unfortunately, in recent decades such audiences have been shrinking. The conventions of Peking opera are deeply rooted in an old society based on Confucian moral precepts and political outlook, and these have been thoroughly discredited by the contemporary socialist state. It is small wonder that young people who have grown up in this state find the art archaic and alien; they prefer MTV and other programs on television. The government has tried to remedy this situation, but these measure appear to have met with little success. CONTEMPORARY CHINESE MUSIC When the Republican Revolution brought down the Ching dynasty in 1911, it ended the long history of court music tradition as well. The educational system of republican China was modeled after that of the West, and Western music or Westernized Chinese music was taught in the schools. With the founding of the Peoples Republic in 1949, four trends emerged which to some extent still continue today: the return to folk tradition, the emphasis on rigorous training in performance, the infusion of political content in program music, and the fusion of Western and Chinese elements. Today, Chinese popular music is thriving, drawing musical inspiration directly from North American and European models such as jazz, blues, country, rock, heavy metal, punk, disco, and even Baroque music. In retrospect, the evolution of Chinese music is a history of conflict and compromise among diverse elements. Musical elements from abroad have been continuously absorbed and synthesized. The enduring feature, however, seems to he the central role of political ideology. The use of music and drama to promote and reinforce social values has always been as important as aesthetic expression.