Lecture 7

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
2
Mechanical Properties of Materials
The mechanical behavior of a material reflects the The mechanical behavior of a material reflects the The mechanical behavior of a material reflects the The mechanical behavior of a material reflects the
relationship relationship relationship relationship between its response or deformation to an between its response or deformation to an between its response or deformation to an between its response or deformation to an
applied load or force. applied load or force. applied load or force. applied load or force.
3
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
Plastic behavior: At what point do dislocations
cause permanent deformation? What materials are
most resistant to permanent deformation?
Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?
Ceramic Materials: What special provisions/tests are
made for ceramic materials?
4
ELASTIC DEFORMATION
F

bonds
stretch
return to
initial
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
Elastic means reversible!
F

Linear-
elastic
Non-Linear-
elastic
5
PLASTIC DEFORMATION (METALS)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
Plastic means permanent!
F

linear
elastic
linear
elastic

plastic
planes
still
sheared
F

elastic + plastic
bonds
stretch
& planes
shear

plastic
Large Load
6
ENGINEERING STRESS
Tensile stress, s:
Area, A
F
t
F
t
=
F
t
A
o
original area
before loading
Stress has units:N/m
2
7
ENGINEERING STRESS
Shear stress, t:
Area, A
F
t
F
t
F
s
F
F
F
s
=
F
s
A
o
Stress has units:N/m
2
8
COMMON STATES OF STRESS
Simple tension: cable
o
=
F
A
Simple shear: drive shaft
A
o
= cross sectional
Area (when unloaded)
F F

o
=
F
s
A

Note: t = M/A
c
R here.
Ski lift
M
M
A
o
2R
F
s
A
c
9
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (1)
Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM
Simple compression:
A
o
Balanced Rock, Arches
National Park
o
=
F
A
Note: compressive
structure member
(s < 0 here).
10
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (2)
Bi-axial tension: Hydrostatic compression:
Fish under water
Pressurized tank

z
> 0

> 0
s < 0
h
11
ENGINEERING STRAIN
Tensile strain:
Lateral strain:
/2
/2

L
/2
L
/2
L
o
w
o
=

L
o

L
=

L
w
o
Strain is always Strain is always Strain is always Strain is always dimensionless dimensionless dimensionless dimensionless
Tensile strain:
D
o
D
1
12
ENGINEERING STRAIN
Shear Shear Shear Shear strain: strain: strain: strain:
/2
/2
/2 -
/2

= tan

xy

xy

xy

13
STRESS-STRAIN TESTING
Other types of tests:
--compression: brittle
materials (e.g., concrete)
--torsion: cylindrical tubes,
shafts.
Typical tensile
test machine
specimen extensometer
Typical tensile
specimen
gauge
length
14
Typical tensile test
machine
STRESS-STRAIN TESTING
15
Engineering

eng
=Engineering stress =
sec
o
Load
Initial cross tionalarea
p
A
=

eng
=Engineering strain =
f o
o
Changeinlength
Initial length
l l
l

=
True

true
=True stress =
tan tan sec
i
Load
Ins eous cross tional area
p
A
=

true
=True strain = ln
ln
f
o
Final length
Initial length
l
l
=
A
1
l
1
= A
2
l
2
= Constant

true
=
=
eng
(1 +
eng
),
true
= ln (1 +
eng
) ( )
i
o o
p
l
l A
STRESS- STRAIN
16
TRUE STRESS AND STRAIN
n
T

=K

=E

i T
A F =
( )
o i T
l l ln =
( )
( ) + =
+ =
1 ln
1
T
T
17
Geometric Consideration of Stress State

n
A
o
P
P
cos
sin
o
P
A

=
0
2
cos n
=
1 2 1 2 1 2
2
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 2 2 2
1
)( )
cos
cos
(
a b
a b
h h k k l l
h
k l h k l

=
+ +
=
+ + + +
n
= cos
P P
cos
o A
A

=
cos
cos
n
o
P
A

s
= sin P P
cos sin
o

=
1 1 1
, ,
(

h k l
2 2 2
, ,
(

h k l
18
LINEAR ELASTIC PROPERTIES
Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)
Hooke's Law:
s = E e =>
F
F
simple
tension
test

Linear-
elastic
1
E

Units: E: [GPa]

=E

x
x
y
z
19
LINEAR ELASTIC PROPERTIES
Poisson's ratio, :
metals: ~ 0.33
ceramics: ~0.25
polymers: ~0.40

1
-
F
F
simple
tension
test
Units: : dimensionless
=

y z
x x

= - -

x
x
y
z
> 0.50 density increases
< 0.50 density decreases
(voids form)
20
PROPERTIES FROM BONDING: E
Elastic modulus, E
E ~ curvature at ro
cross
sectional
area A
o

L
length, L
o

F
undeformed
deformed
L F
A
o

= E
L
o

Elastic modulus
r
larger Elastic Modulus
smaller Elastic Modulus
Energy
r
o

unstretched length
E is larger if Eo is larger.
E
o
Slope of stress strain plot (which is
proportional to the elastic modulus)
depends on bond strength of metal
21
Dependence of Elastic Stiffness on Interatomic Spacing
dr
dE(r)
F(r) =
E(r)
F=0
r
r
o
Force, F
r
b
F
max
r
r
o
Energy, E
r
b
At r
o
the restoring force
is 0 because the bond
has its preferred length
Applied F > F
max
cannot be
counter balanced by the bond,
and bond breaks!
r
F
Covalent, Ionic
Metallic
Van der Waals
dr
dF(r)
Youngs Modulus
r
o
Slope of stress strain plot (which is
proportional to the elastic modulus)
depends on bond strength of metal
22
OTHER ELASTIC PROPERTIES
Elastic Shear
modulus, G:

1
G

= G
Elastic Bulk
modulus, K:
P= -K
V
V
o
P
V
1
-K
V
o
Special relations for isotropic materials:
P
P P

G=
E
2(1+ )

K =
E
3(1 2)
simple
torsion
test
pressure
test: Init.
vol =V
o
.
Vol chg.
= V
23
Elastic and Shear Moduli
24
YOUNGS MODULI: Effect of T
25
Youngs Moduli: Comparison
Some Young's Modules (GPa) (From Ashby and Jones)
Diamond 1000 Boron/Epoxy
comp.
125
WC 450-650 Cu 124
Boron 440 Silica glass 96
W 406 Au 82
Alumina 390 Al 69
MgO 250 Concrete 45
Cr 290 Pb 14
Ni 214 PMMA 3.4
Fe 196 Rubbers 0.01-0.1
Cast Irons 170-190
26
YOUNGS MODULI: COMPARISON
0.2
8
0.6
1
Magnesium,
Aluminum
Platinum
Silver, Gold
Tantalum
Zinc, Ti
Steel, Ni
Molybdenum
Graphite
Si crystal
Glass-soda
Concrete
Si nitride
Al oxide
PC
Wood( grain)
AFRE( fibers)*
CFRE*
GFRE*
Glass fibers only
Carbon fibers only
Aramid fibers only
Epoxy only
0.4
0.8
2
4
6
10
20
40
60
80
100
200
600
800
1000
1200
400
Tin
Cu alloys
Tungsten
<100>
<111>
Si carbide
Diamond
PTFE
HDPE
LDPE
PP
Polyester
PS
PET
CFRE( fibers)*
GFRE( fibers)*
GFRE(|| fibers)*
AFRE(|| fibers)*
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Metals
Alloys
Graphite
Ceramics
Semicond
Polymers
Composites
/fibers
E(GPa)
E
ceramics

> E
metals

>> E
polymers
10
9
Pa
Composite data based on
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
carbon (CFRE),
aramid (AFRE), or
glass (GFRE)
fibers.
27
USEFUL LINEAR ELASTIC RELATIONS
Simple tension:
=
FL
o
EA
o

L
=
Fw
o
EA
o
/2
/2

L
/2
L
/2
L
o
w
o
F
A
o
Simple torsion:
M=moment
=angle of twist
2r
o
L
o
=
2ML
o

r
o
4
G
Material, geometric, and loading parameters all
contribute to deflection.
Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
28
PLASTIC (PERMANENT) DEFORMATION
Simple tension test:
(at lower temperatures, T < T
melt
/3)
tensile stress,
engineering strain,
Elastic
initially
Elastic+Plastic
at larger stress
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

p
plastic strain
29
YIELD STRENGTH,
y
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when p = 0.002
tensile stress,
engineering strain,

p
= 0.002

y
= yield strength
Note: for 5 cm sample
= 0.002 = z/z
z = 0.01 cm
30
Yield Strength: Comparison
Typical yield strengths (MPa)
Diamond 50,000* Boron/Epoxy comp. 700-1700 (T.S.)
SiC 10,000* Ni Alloys 200-1600
WC 6,000* Cu Alloys 60-960
Alumina 5,000* Al Alloys 100-630
TiC 4,000* PMMA 60-110
Soda Glass 3,600* Ice 85
MgO 3,000* Pure, Ductile Metals 20-80
Low Alloy Steels 500-2000 Natural Rubber 30 (T.S.)
Carbon Steels (Q&T) 260-1300
* Based on Brinell, Knoop, or Vickers microhardness. (Courtesy of Ashby and Jones)
31
YIELD STRENGTH: COMPARISON
Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond
Metals/
Alloys
Composites/
fibers
Polymers
Y
i
e
l
d

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

y

(
M
P
a
)
PVC
H
a
r
d

t
o

m
e
a
s
u
r
e
,


s
i
n
c
e

i
n

t
e
n
s
i
o
n
,

f
r
a
c
t
u
r
e

u
s
u
a
l
l
y

o
c
c
u
r
s

b
e
f
o
r
e

y
i
e
l
d
.
Nylon 6,6
LDPE
70
20
40
60
50
100
10
30
200
300
400
500
600
700
1000
2000
Tin (pure)
Al (6061)
a
Al (6061)
ag
Cu (71500)
hr
Ta (pure)
Ti (pure)
a
Steel (1020)
hr
Steel (1020)
cd
Steel (4140)
a
Steel (4140)
qt
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)
a
W (pure)
Mo (pure)
Cu (71500)
cw
H
a
r
d

t
o

m
e
a
s
u
r
e
,

i
n

c
e
r
a
m
i
c

m
a
t
r
i
x

a
n
d

e
p
o
x
y

m
a
t
r
i
x

c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
,

s
i
n
c
e

i
n

t
e
n
s
i
o
n
,

f
r
a
c
t
u
r
e

u
s
u
a
l
l
y

o
c
c
u
r
s

b
e
f
o
r
e

y
i
e
l
d
.
HDPE
PP
humid
dry
PC
PET

Room T values

y(ceramics)

>>
y(metals)

>>
y(polymers)
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
32
YIELD STRENGTH
33
TENSILE STRENGTH,
TS
Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts.
Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are
aligned and about to break.

y
strain
Typical response of a metal
F = fracture or
ultimate
strength
Neck acts
as stress
concentrator
e
n
g
i
n
e
e
r
i
n
g

TS
s
t
r
e
s
s
engineering strain
Maximum possible engineering stress in tension.
34
TENSILE STRENGTH: COMPARISON
Room T values
Si crystal
<100>
Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond
Metals/
Alloys
Composites/
fibers
Polymers
T
e
n
s
i
l
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

T
S

(
M
P
a
)
PVC
Nylon 6,6
10
100
200
300
1000
Al (6061)
a
Al (6061)
ag
Cu (71500)
hr
Ta (pure)
Ti (pure)
a
Steel (1020)
Steel (4140)
a
Steel (4140)
qt
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)
a
W (pure)
Cu (71500)
cw
LDPE
PP
PC PET
20
30
40
2000
3000
5000
Graphite
Al oxide
Concrete
Diamond
Glass-soda
Si nitride
HDPE
wood( fiber)
wood(|| fiber)
1
GFRE(|| fiber)
GFRE( fiber)
CFRE(|| fiber)
CFRE( fiber)
AFRE(|| fiber)
AFRE( fiber)
E-glass fib
C fibers
Aramid fib
TS
(ceram)

~TS
(met)

~ TS
(comp)
>> TS
(poly)
Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 6e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
35
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
36
DUCTILITY, %EL
Plastic tensile strain at failure:
Engineering tensile strain,
Engineering
tensile
stress,
smaller %EL
(brittle if %EL<5%)
larger %EL
(ductile if
%EL>5%)
Another ductility measure: 100 x
A
A A
RA %
o
f o

=
Note: %RA and %EL are often comparable.
--Reason: crystal slip does not change material volume.
--%AR > %EL possible if internal voids form in neck.
L
o L
f
A
o
A
f

%EL =
L
f
L
o
L
o
x100
37
TOUGHNESS
Energy to break a unit volume of material
Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers
Engineering tensile strain,
Engineering
tensile
stress,
smaller toughness (ceramics)
larger toughness
(metals, PMCs)
Brittle fracture: elastic energy
Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
38
Resilience : Elastic energy absorbed by the specimen
max
2
1/ 2
2
=
=
YS
YS
W
E

max

max

E

= = = =
=
>
max YS
= == =

Ability of a material to store energy
Energy stored best in elastic region

=
y
d U
r
0
39
Elastic Strain Recovery
S
t
r
e
s
s
Strain
3. Reapply
load
2. Unload
D
Elastic strain
recovery
1. Load

y
o

y
i
40
HARDENING
An increase in y due to plastic deformation.
Curve fit to the stress-strain response:

large hardening
small hardening
u
n
l
o
a
d
r
e
l
o
a
d

y
0

y
1

T
= C
T
( )
n
true stress (F/A)
true strain: ln(L/L
o
)
hardening exponent:
n=0.15 (some steels)
to n=0.5 (some copper)
41
Mechanical Properties
Ceramic materials are more brittle than metals.
Why is this so?
Consider mechanism of deformation
In crystalline, by dislocation motion
In highly ionic solids, dislocation motion is difficult
few slip systems
resistance to motion of ions of like charge (e.g., anions) past one
another
42
MEASURING ELASTIC MODULUS
Room T behavior is usually elastic, with brittle failure.
3-Point Bend Testing often used.
--tensile tests are difficult for brittle materials.
F
L/2 L/2
= midpoint
deflection
cross section
R
b
d
rect. circ.
Determine elastic modulus according to:

E =
F

L
3
4bd
3
=
F

L
3
12R
4
rect.
cross
section
circ.
cross
section
F
x
linear-elastic behavior

slope =
43
MEASURING STRENGTH
3-point bend test to measure room T strength.
F
L/2 L/2
cross section
R
b
d
rect. circ.
location of max tension
Flexural strength:
rect.

fs
=
m
fail
=
1.5F
max
L
bd
2
=
F
max
L
R
3
x
F
F
max

max

Typ. values:
Material
fs
(MPa) E(GPa)
Si nitride
Si carbide
Al oxide
glass (soda)
700-1000
550-860
275-550
69
300
430
390
69
Adapted from Fig.
12.29, Callister 6e.
Data from Table 12.5, Callister 6e.
44
TENSILE RESPONSE: ELASTOMER CASE
Compare to responses of other polymers:
--brittle response (aligned, cross linked & networked case)
--plastic response (semi-crystalline case)
initial: amorphous chains are
kinked, heavily cross-linked.
final: chains
are straight,
still
cross-linked
0
20
40
60
0 2 4 6
(MPa)

8
x
x
x
elastomer
plastic failure
brittle failure
Deformation
is reversible!
elastic moduli
less than for metals
Fracture strengths of polymers ~ 10% of those for metals
Deformation strains for polymers > 1000%
for most metals, deformation strains < 10%
45
TENSILE RESPONSE OF POLYMERS
46
T AND STRAIN RATE: THERMOPLASTICS
Decreasing T...
--increases E
--increases TS
--decreases %EL
Increasing
strain rate...
--same effects
as decreasing T.
'Effect of Environmental Conditions on the Mechanical Properties of 'Effect of Environmental Conditions on the Mechanical Properties of 'Effect of Environmental Conditions on the Mechanical Properties of 'Effect of Environmental Conditions on the Mechanical Properties of
Organic Plastics", Organic Plastics", Organic Plastics", Organic Plastics", Symposium on Plastics Symposium on Plastics Symposium on Plastics Symposium on Plastics, American Society for , American Society for , American Society for , American Society for
Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1944.) Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1944.) Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1944.) Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1944.)
20
40
60
80
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
4C
20C
40C
60C
to 1.3
(MPa)

Data for the

semicrystalline
polymer: PMMA
(Plexiglas)
47
TIME DEPENDENT DEFORMATION
Stress relaxation test:

E
r
(t ) =
(t )

o
--strain to and hold.
--observe decrease in
stress with time.
Relaxation modulus:
Data: Large drop in Er
for T > Tg.
(amorphous
polystyrene)
Sample Tg(C) values:
PE (low Mw)
PE (high Mw)
PVC
PS
PC
-110
- 90
+ 87
+100
+150
10
3
10
1
10
-1
10
-3
10
5
60 100 140 180
rigid solid
(small relax)
viscous liquid
(large relax)
transition
region
T(C)
T
g
E
r
(10s)
in MPa
time
strain
tensile test

o
t

( )
48
HARDNESS
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
e.g.,
10mm sphere
apply known force
(1 to 1000g)
measure size
of indent after
removing load
d D
Smaller indents
mean larger
hardness.
increasing hardness
most
plastics
brasses
Al alloys
easy to machine
steels file hard
cutting
tools
nitrided
steels diamond
49
Hardness: Measurement
Rockwell
No major sample damage
Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range 20-100.
Minor load 10 kg
Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond
HB = Brinell Hardness
TS (psia) = 500 x HB
TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
50
Hardness: Measurement
51
Variability in Material Properties
Elastic modulus is material property
Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
Statistics
Mean
Standard Deviation
( )
2
1
2
1
(
(

=
n
x x
s
i
n
n
x
x
n
n

=
where n is the number of data points
52
DESIGN OR SAFETY FACTORS
Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
Factor of safety, N

working
=

y
N
Often N is
between
1.2 and 4
Ex: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.
1045 plain
carbon steel:

y
=310MPa
TS=565MPa
F = 220,000N
d
L
o

working
=

y
N

220, 000N
d
2
/ 4
|
\

|

|
5
53
SUMMARY
Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches y.
Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
54
Thank you