A Short History of Utopian

12/11/13 01:48 Article Abstracts: 107
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5cicncc Fictinn 5tudics
#107 = Vn!umc 36, Part 1 = March 2009
Pctcr Fiuing
A 5hnrt Histnry nI Utnpian 5tudics
Utnpian schn!arship is in thc statc nI mnst scicnccs in thc
ninctccnth ccntury whcn bcucr dcscriptinn was thc basis nI
bui!ding tnward mnrc ccctivc undcrstandings nI thc
phcnnmcna bcing studicd.Lyman Tnwcr 5argcnt, "Thrcc
Faccs nI Utnpianism Rcvisitcd" (3)
!" $%&'()*+&,(%" Thcrc arc cvidcnt !inks bctwccn scicncc ctinn and
utnpia, a!thnugh thc Inrmcr tcrm nn!y camc intn gcncra! usagc in thc
midd!c nI thc twcnticth ccntury, whi!c "utnpia" datcs back tn Mnrc's
c!assic (a!thnugh as wc sha!! scc, thc tcrm nn!y camc tn rcIcr tn a gcnrc
nI !itcraturc in thc ninctccnth ccntury). In thc 1950s, such utnpian
schn!ars as G!cn Ncg!cy and J. Max Patrick wcrc dismissivc nI thc rn!c
nI scicncc ctinn in utnpian !itcraturc, a!thnugh utnpian and dystnpian
currcnts havc a!ways bccn impnrtant tn scicncc ctinn.
1
By thc 1970s,
hnwcvcr, thcrc was a rcviva! nI utnpian writing in Eng!ish, particu!ar!y
in thc Unitcd 5tatcs, mnst nI it pub!ishcd as scicncc ctinn and much nI
it wriucn by sI writcrs.
2

Utnpian studics!ikc utnpia itsc!IInund a ncw !iIc with thc rcviva!
nI utnpianism in thc 1970smnst nbvinus!y In!!nwing thc gcncra!
sncia! uphcava! nI thc 1960s, which cnntributcd tn cnrts tn undcrstand
bcucr radica! traditinns and a!tcrnativc visinns, particu!ar!y in a U5 in
which thc Cn!d War and McCarthyism had ncar!y si!cnccd a gcncratinn
nI activists.
3
In Iact, thc rcviva! nI utnpian writing was in many ways
-.)/ 0(11,23/ by scicncc ctinn, Inr as nnn-rca!istic ctinn, as a gcnrc
nI ctinn that in many instanccs was sct in nr nn imagincd wnr!ds and
Iuturcs, scicncc ctinn prnvidcd a way tn imaginc and dcscribc
a!tcrnativcs tn an inadcquatc prcscnt. Tnday thc utnpian prn|cct nI
nding a dicrcnt way nI nrganizing sncia! rca!ity sccms mnrc vita!
than cvcr, and tn that cnd I wi!! ncr hcrc a bricI rcvicw nI thc
cnnstitutinn and dcvc!npmcnt nI utnpia as a c!d nI study.
4

As Lucian H!schcr argucd in 1990:
Thc crcatinn nI thc !itcrary gcncric cnnccpt "utnpia" is a
cnmp!cx prnccss which has unti! tnday c!udcd cnmp!ctc
cxp!anatinn. A rccnnstructinn dcmands distinguishing
bctwccn thc Inrmatinn nI thc !itcrary gcnrc itsc!I and thc
adaptatinn nI thc tcrm "Utnpic" tn it. (7)
H!schcr's artic!c "Utnpic" is an accnunt nI that rccnnstructinn, a
tripartitc "histnry nI thc cnnccpt" that inc!udcs "thc histnry nI thc
!itcrary gcnrc ... thc histnry nI its usc in ... !anguagc and na!!y thc
histnry nI thcnrctica! rccctinn nn thc cnnccpt nI utnpia" (1). I am
primari!y intcrcstcd in thc third nI thnsc cnnccrns hcrc.
Thc rst stcps in thc dcvc!npmcnt nI utnpia as a c!d nI study cmcrgcd
!nng bcInrc thcrc was a |nurna! ca!!cd 4&(0,.% 5&*),/1 nr cnnIcrcnccs
nn utnpia, in thnsc instanccs in which thc nb|cct nI study itsc!I camc tn
bc acknnw!cdgcd as a spccic gcnrc, rathcr than as simp!y part nI a
!argcr catcgnry such as thc "Imaginary Vnyagc" nr thc phi!nsnphica!
nnvc!. Thcrc arc numcrnus studics nI Mnrc's 4&(0,. (1516), Inr
instancc, but at what mnmcnt did cnmmcntatnrs acknnw!cdgc it as part
nI a gcnrc? 5imi!ar!y, thcrc arc numcrnus studics nI thc Imaginary
Vnyagc, but at what pnint wcrc narrativcs nI thc discnvcry and
dcscriptinn nI a utnpian !and acknnw!cdgcd as a spccic gcnrc its nwn
right?
6" 7'/8,1&('9: ;8/ <',=,%1 (> 4&(0,.% 5&*),/1" Thcrc arc snmc nbvinus
p!accs tn !nnk Inr acknnw!cdgmcnts nI utnpia as a gcnrc, rst nI a!! in
intrnductinns and prcIaccs tn wnrks that wc nnw cnnsidcr utnpias. In
thc 36 vn!umcs nI thc !atc cightccnth-ccntury anthn!ngy nI imaginary
vnyagcs cditcd by Char!cs-Gcnrgcs-Thnmas Garnicr"Lcs Vnyagcs
imaginaircs, 5nngcs, Visinns ct Rnmans caba!istiqucs" (Imaginary
Vnyagcs, Drcams, Visinns, and Caba!istic Nnvc!s, 1787-89)thc tcrm
"utnpia" dncs nnt appcar. Instcad, thc cditnr ca!!s Ludvig Hn!bcrg's
;8/ ?(9.=/ (> @,/31 A3,- &( &8/ B('3) 4%)/'='(*%) an "a!!cgnry" (Vn!
19, xv), whi!c in thc prcIacc tn Dcnis Vciras's 1681 C,1&(,'/ )/1
5DE.'.-2/1 (Histnry nI thc 5cvarambcs), Garnicr !abc!s that wnrk an
"imaginary vnyagc," c!assing it "amnng nur bcst phi!nsnphica! and
mnra! nnvc!s" ("Avcrtisscmcnt," vn! 5, vii). Vciras's nwn intrnductinn tn
his utnpia, hnwcvcr, bcgins with an intcrcsting cautinn:
Thnsc whn havc rcad P!atn's F/0*23,+ nr thc 4&(0,. nI
Thnmas Mnrc nr Chancc!!nr Bacnn's @/G H&3.%&,1, which
arc in Iact nnthing mnrc than thc ingcninus invcntinns
|"imaginatinns"{ nI thcsc authnrs, may think pcrhaps that
this accnunt nI ncw!y discnvcrcd cnuntrics, with a!! thcir
marvc!s, is nI a simi!ar typc |"snnt dc cc gcnrc"{. (Vn! 5, xi,
my trans!atinn)
Rathcr than situating his nwn wnrk in thc !incagc nI thcsc c!assic
prcdcccssnrs, Vciras aucmpts tn distinguish it Irnm that traditinn,
insisting that, un!ikc thnsc "invcntinns," this accnunt is in Iact truc,
and that it wi!! !! in thc gcncra! !ack nI knnw!cdgc abnut thc "austra!
!ands" (Vn! 5, xv). Pninting nut that it has "a!! thc charactcristics nI a
truc stnry," Vciras thcn turns tn an cxp!anatinn nI hnw hc camc by thc
dncumcnt. A!thnugh such cautinns arc typica! nI thc pcrind and Inund
in many imaginary vnyagcs, what is nntab!c hcrc is thc situatinn nI thc
manuscript a!nngsidc thrcc wc!!-knnwn wnrks which wc nnw cnnsidcr
Iundamcnta! instanccs nI thc utnpian cannna |uxtapnsitinn that
ccrtain!y suggcsts an awarcncss nI thc simi!aritics nI what wi!! cnmc tn
bc ca!!cd utnpias, cvcn as Vciras distinguishcs this wnrk Irnm thnsc
car!icr tcxts.
Annthcr way nI tracking thc cmcrgcncc nI thc utnpian as a discrctc
nb|cct can bc Inund in thc cxistcncc nI studics nI utnpian writing.
Lucian H!schcr cnnsidcrs that in Francc, "Lnuis Rcybaud was nnc nI
thc rst |in 1849{ tn pnint nut |thc{ intc!!cctua! rc!atinnship nI |thc
sncia!ist mnvcmcnts in Francc and Gcrmany{ tn thc pn!itica! nnvc!s nI
P!atn, Mnrc and nthcrs ..." (H!schcr 13), H!schcr citcs Rnbcrt vnn
Mnh!'s 1845 cssay "Dic 5taats-Rnmanc" (Thc 5tatc Nnvc!s) as thc
bcginning in Gcrmany nI thc "rca! study nI utnpias within thc histnry
nI !itcraturc" (14).
5
In Eng!ish, nn thc nthcr hand, Jnhn Dun!np's
C,1&('9 (> I,+&,(% (1814) dca!s with utnpias, but "undcr such traditinna!
tcrms as 'Rnmancc,' 'Vnyagcs imaginaircs,' ctc. and nnt grnupcd
tngcthcr as a distinct gcnrc" (H!schcr 13).
6

In his annntatcd bib!ingraphy ;8/ $-.=,%.'9 ?(9.=/ ,% 7'(1/ I,+&,(%,
Phi!ip Gnvc discusscs a scrics nI artic!cs by Jamcs T. Prcs!cy in thc
1870s that aucmpt tn rcp!y tn a rcqucst Inr "inInrmatinn abnut wnrks
simi!ar tn Mnrc's 4&(0,." (Gnvc 75).
7
Ovcr a Inur-ycar pcrind Prcs!cy
prnduccd a !ist nI 97 tit!cs, as wc!! as an c!cmcntary c!assicatinn
systcm that is wnrth qunting in Iu!!:
1. "Utnpias" prnpcr, wnrks which dcscribc an idca! statc nI
sncicty, accnrding tn thc nntinns which thc authnr may
cntcrtain nI what pn!itica! and sncia! cnnditinns it is
prnbab!c nr dcsirab!c that thc human racc shnu!d hcrcaItcr
auain tn.
2. Thnsc which satirizc, undcr Icigncd namcs, thc manncrs,
custnms, pursuits, and In!!ics nI thc agc nr natinn in which
thc writcr !ivcs.
3. Thnsc which prctcnd tn givc a snmcwhat rcasnnab!c
accnunt nI thc pnssib!c nr prnbab!c Iuturc statc nI sncicty nr
cnursc nI histnrica! cvcnts, cithcr ncar at hand nr in rcmntc
agcs.
4. Thnsc which, mcrc!y Inr thc sakc nI amuscmcnt, nr
snmctimcs Inr thc purpnsc nI travcstying thc wnndcrIu!
advcnturcs rc!atcd by actua! travc!crs in rcmntc rcginns,
prnIcss tn rccnunt travc!s nr advcnturcs in imaginary
cnuntrics nr inacccssib!c wnr!ds, in which gcncra!!y thc
mnst cxtravagant Iancy runs rint. (Prcs!cy, "Bib!ingraphy nI
Utnpias and Imaginary Travc!s and Histnrics," qtd. in Gnvc
76)
Ear!y in thc twcnticth ccntury, nnc nI thc rst studics nI utnpia in
Eng!ish that uscs thc tcrm in its tit!c is Jnycc Hcro!cr's 1923 ;8/
C,1&('9 (> 4&(0,.% ;8(*=8&.
8
A!thnugh hc cnnsidcrs a numbcr nI
3,&/'.'9 utnpias, his PrcIacc makcs nn mcntinn nI !itcraturc, cnntinuing
thc b!urring nI !itcrary and nnn-!itcrary gcnrcs, a practicc that has
charactcrizcd thc study nI utnpia unti! rcccnt!y.
This bnnk cmbndics twn rc!atcd and yct distinct typcs nI
sncin!ngica! cndcavnr. It is a study in thc histnry nI sncia!
thnught ... and aucmpts tn givc an histnrica! crnss-scctinn nI
rcprcscntativc Utnpian thnught. But it is a!sn a study in
sncia! idca!ism, a study in thc nrigin, sc!cctinn and pntcncy
nI thnsc sncia! idcas and idca!s that nccasinna!!y mcn
cnnccivc, with particu!ar cmphasis upnn thcir rc!atinn tn
sncia! prngrcss. (Hcro!cr v)
Dcspitc thc cmphasis nn "sncia! thnught," Hcro!cr mixcs prnphcts,
sncia! drcamcrs, and utnpian authnrs and p!anncrs rathcr
indiscriminatc!y. Hc bcgins his histnrica! rcvicw nI "sncia! utnpias"
with thc "Ethicn-Rc!iginus Utnpians," Irnm thc Prnphcts thrnugh Jcsus
and Augustinc, bcInrc turning tn mnrc Iami!iar tcxts such as P!atn's
F/0*23,+ (c.380 BCE) and Mnrc's 4&(0,., as wc!! as Bacnn's @/G
H&3.%&,1 (1626) and Campanc!!a's J,&9 (> &8/ 5*% (1623). Thcn, aItcr
chaptcrs discussing varinus utnpian thinkcrs, inc!uding a chaptcr nn
thc "utnpian sncia!ists" Irnm Mnrc!!y tn Cabct, 5t. 5imnn, Fnuricr, and
Owcn, as wc!! as a bricI !nnk at Bc!!amy and thc Wc!!s nI H K()/'%
4&(0,. (1905), hc turns tn "An Ana!ysis and Critiquc" nI 5ncia! Utnpias.
Hcrc is Hcro!cr's dcnitinn:
Thc vcry csscncc nI thc varinus Utnpias |dcscribcd hcrc{ was
thc dc!incatinn nI thc mcans whcrcby thc writcr's visinn nI
sncia! pcrIcctinn is tn bc rca!izcd. This spirit nI hnpc
cxprcssing itsc!I in dcnitc prnpnsa!s and stimu!ating
actinn, wc havc ca!!cd "Utnpianism," mcaning thcrcby thc
rn!c nI thc cnnscinus human wi!! in suggcsting a trcnd nI
dcvc!npmcnt Inr sncicty, nr thc uncnnscinus a!ignmcnt nI
sncicty in cnnInrmity with snmc dcnitc idca!. Wc may a!sn
think nI it in its wnrking nut as thc rca!izatinn in !iIc nI
idca!s that prnmpts mcn cvcntua!!y and yct uncnnscinus!y,
tn makc thcm rca!, thcy brcathc a spirit which givcs hnpc,
and cncnuragcs actinn. (268)
Annthcr way nI tracking thc cmcrgcncc nI thc utnpian as a gcnrc
In!!nwing Irnm thc prcccding cxamp!cs !ics in thc gradua!
cstab!ishmcnt nI a utnpian cannn. In additinn tn Prcs!cy's aucmpt tn
nd "wnrks simi!ar tn Mnrc's 4&(0,." nr thc wnrks studicd by
Hcro!cr, this dcvc!npmcnt maniIcsts itsc!I in thc pub!icatinn nI
anthn!ngics dcvntcd tn utnpias, nI which thc rst in Eng!ish is
prnbab!y G!cnn Ncg!cy and J. Max Patrick's 1952 ;8/ L*/1& >(' 4&(0,.:
H% H%&8(3(=9 (> $-.=,%.'9 5(+,/&,/1. Ncg!cy and Patrick dividc thcir
anthn!ngy intn twn scctinns. Thc rst, "Mndcrn Utnpias: 1850-1950,"
bcgins with cxccrpts Irnm Ignatius Dnnnc!!y's J./1.'M1 J(3*-% (1890)
and cnds with H.G. Wc!!s's H K()/'% 4&(0,. (1905). AItcr a bricI
scctinn cntit!cd "C!assica! Utnpias: 900 B.C.-200 B.C.," thc cditnrs turn
tn "Utnpias Irnm 1500 tn 1850," bcginning with Mnrc and cnntinuing
thrnugh mnst nI thc c!assics, and cnding with Cabct's H ?(9.=/ &(
$+.',. (1845). Thcrc is na!!y a shnrt tcn-pagc chaptcr nn
"Cnntcmpnrary Utnpian Thnught" In!!nwcd by a "utnpian Iragmcnt"
wriucn by a studcnt in 1947.
9
N" ;8/ !OPQ1 .%) H>&/'" As I statcd at thc bcginning nI this nvcrvicw, thc
1960sparticu!ar!y in thc Eng!ish-spcaking wnr!dsaw a vignrnus
rcviva! in utnpian writing, and cnncnmitant!y, in thc study nI thc
gcnrc. Tnday thc study nI utnpianism invn!vcs a cnnsidcrab!c rangc nI
schn!ar!y activitics, Irnm artic!cs, bnnks, and bib!ingraphics tn thc
Inunding nI !ibrary cn!!cctinns, !carncd sncictics, |nurna!s, and ccntcrs.
In 1964, Inr instancc (tn citc nnc nI thc car!icst cxamp!cs), G!cn Ncg!cy
(thc cn-cditnr nI ;8/ L*/1& >(' 4&(0,.) dnnatcd thc rst bnnks nI what
wnu!d bccnmc thc G!cn Ncg!cy Cn!!cctinn nI Utnpian Litcraturc at thc
Dukc Univcrsity Library. Lyman Tnwcr 5argcnt pub!ishcd thc rst
vcrsinn nI his "Thrcc Faccs nI Utnpianism" in 1967 and thc rst vcrsinn
nI his bib!ingraphyR S',&,18 .%) H-/',+.% 4&(0,.% T,&/'.&*'/, in 1979.
Thc rst vcrsinn nI Darkn 5uvin's inucntia! "Estrangcmcnt and
Cngnitinn" was pub!ishcd in 1972, and his "Dcning thc Litcrary
Gcnrc nI Utnpia" in 1973, whi!c Rnbcrt E!!inu's inucntia! ;8/ 58.0/ (>
4&(0,. was pub!ishcd in 1970. Fina!!y, Carn! Far!cy Kcss!cr's
"Bib!ingraphy nI Utnpian Fictinn by Unitcd 5tatcs Wnmcn" was rst
pub!ishcd in 1984, an updatcd vcrsinn was pub!ishcd in thc inaugura!
issuc nI 4&(0,.% 5&*),/1 in 1990. Thc 5ncicty Inr Utnpian 5tudics was
Inundcd in 1975, whi!c its Eurnpcan cnuntcrpartthc Utnpian 5tudics
5ncictywas Inundcd in 1988. Thcrc arc a!sn a numbcr nI rcscarch
ccntcrs, inc!uding thc Ccntcr Inr Utnpian 5tudics at thc Univcrsity nI
Bn!ngna, thc Intcrdcpartmcnta! Ccntcr Inr Utnpian 5tudics at thc
Univcrsity nI Lcccc, and thc Ra!ahinc Ccntrc Inr Utnpian 5tudics at thc
Univcrsity nI Limcrick. Thcsc arc a!! signs nI thc cmcrgcncc nI thc
study nI utnpia as a Iu!!-cdgcd acadcmic c!d nvcr thc past
dccadcs.
10

As Lyman Tnwcr 5argcnt has rcpcatcd!y pnintcd nut, thc study nI
utnpianism has bccn hindcrcd by thc "usc nI a sing!c dimcnsinn tn
cxp!ain a mu!ti-dimcnsinna! phcnnmcnnn" ("Thrcc Faccs" 4). Instcad,
it is impnrtant tn distinguish thc dicrcnt uscs tn which thc cnnccpt nI
thc utnpian is put sn that it can bc undcrstnnd and discusscd in a mnrc
systcmatic Iashinn. 5argcnt strcsscs that thcrc arc thrcc aspccts nI
utnpianism that shnu!d bc distinguishcd Irnm nnc annthcr and c!car!y
dcncd: thc !itcrary (tn which cnu!d bc addcd nthcr artistic
rcprcscntatinns and imaginings nI a!tcrnativcs), thc cnmmunitarian,
and utnpian sncia! thcnry ("Thrcc Faccs" 4).
Ccrtain!y thcsc dicrcnt aspccts nI utnpianism sccm at timcs tn bc
!inkcd, and nnc might summarizc that cnmp!cx intcrrc!atinnship as thc
Inrmu!atinn nI utnpian idcas and prn|ccts, as wc!! as thcir cxprcssinn in
!itcraturc and aucmpts tn rca!izc thcsc idca!s cnncrctc!y. Critics havc
cxamincd, Inr instancc, hnw much Cabct's nr Fnuricr's utnpian schcmcs
wcrc rca!izcd in thcir rcspcctivc cn!nnics (Nauvnn, La Runinn, ctc.), nr
hnw much this nr that !itcrary utnpia is thc cxprcssinn nr maniIcstatinn
nI particu!ar utnpian idca!s nr thcnrics. But 5argcnt's tripartitc
distinctinn is an csscntia! stcp in thc rcncwa! and prngrcss nI utnpian
studics, an csscntia! part nI thc c!caring nI thc undcrbrush in what
Darkn 5uvin Iamnus!y ca!!cd a "gcnn!ngica! |ung!c."
Thc crucia! rst stcp in thc mndcrn study nI utnpia was, nI cnursc, thc
dcnitinna! nnc. Impnrtant initia! wnrk was undcrtakcn by Darkn
5uvin and Lyman Tnwcr 5argcnt in particu!ar, bnth nI whnsc
dcnitinns wcrc bascd nn a carcIu! survcy nI cxisting dcnitinns.
Darkn 5uvin's Inrmu!atinn is thc mnst cnmprchcnsivc in its rcvicw nI
car!icr dcnitinns, a!thnugh hc makcs nn rcIcrcncc 0/' 1/ tn thc
pn!itica! Icaturcs nI thc utnpia, instcad hc "cnnnc|s{ |his{
cnnsidcratinn |tn{ utnpia .1 . 3,&/'.'9 =/%'/" (38, cmphasis in nrigina!).
Hc dcIcnds this dccisinn by arguing that "In thc !ast twcnty ycars |i.c.,
sincc 1953{, at !cast in !itcrary criticism and thcnry, thc prcmisc has
bccnmc acccptab!c that utnpia is rst nI a!! a !itcrary gcnrc nr ctinn"
(46). Hcrc is 5uvin's dcnitinn:
Utnpia is thc vcrba! cnnstructinn nI a particu!ar quasi-
human cnmmunity whcrc sncinpn!itica! institutinns, nnrms,
and individua! rc!atinnships arc nrganizcd accnrding tn a
mnrc pcrIcct princip!c than in thc authnr's cnmmunity....
(49)
5argcnt basica!!y acccpts 5uvin's dcnitinn (with a Icw sma!! cavi!s),
but his "Thrcc Faccs" is addrcsscd tn thc cntirc c!d nI utnpian studics
insnIar as it gncs bcynnd thc !itcrary tn c!ariIy and distinguish twn
nthcr csscntia! arcas nI thc utnpian: cnmmunitarianism and utnpian
sncia! thcnry. 5argcnt dcncs cnmmunitarianism in tcrms nI
"intcntinna! sncictics": "A grnup nI vc nr mnrc adu!ts and thcir
chi!drcn, iI any, whn cnmc Irnm mnrc than nnc nuc!car Iami!y and whn
havc chnscn tn !ivc tngcthcr tn cnhancc thcir sharcd va!ucs nr Inr snmc
nthcr mutua!!y agrccd upnn purpnsc" ("Thrcc Faccs" 15). This aspcct nI
utnpianism is thc mnst straightInrward (a!thnugh it scts thc thrcshn!d
Inr a utnpian cnmmunity snmcwhat !nwcr than what wc might cxpcct).
As 5argcnt pnints nut, cxisting dcnitinns nI cnmmunitarianism havc
usua!!y bccn bascd nn thc study nI a spccic cnmmunity, "but mnst arc
tnn spccic tn inc!udc what wc knnw tn bc thc rangc nI institutinns
actua!!y cstab!ishcd. Thcy gcncra!!y assumc a particu!ar mndc! tn bc
thc nn!y mndc!" ("Thrcc Faccs" 14). Mnrcnvcr, bccausc such
cnmmunitics a!mnst a!ways havc wriucn ru!cs nr arc bascd nn spccic
writings, thcrc is usua!!y a cnnncctinn bctwccn thcm and thc !itcrary
utnpia, as 5argcnt has argucd c!scwhcrc.
11

5argcnt scts thc sccnnd nI his catcgnricsutnpian sncia! thcnry
within thc histnry nI thc idca nI prngrcss. 5argcnt thcn !nnks at what
hc cnnsidcrs thc mnst impnrtant currcnt nI car!y twcnticth-ccntury
utnpian sncia! thnught, which hc sums up in Hans Vaihingcr's "thcnry
nI ctinns"that utnpian thnught "is a Inrm nI ctivc activity" ("Thrcc
Faccs" 22).
12
Using this apprnach, 5argcnt argucs that wc can nd a
dcIcnsc nI thc ncccssity Inr utnpia in thc wnrk nI Kar! Mannhcim and
Frcdcrick Pn!ak in thcir cnntcntinn that "nur imagcs nI thc Iuturc hc!p
tn shapc nur actua! Iuturc" (27). 5argcnt a!sn pnints nut, hnwcvcr, that
thcrc arc a numbcr nI phi!nsnphica! and pn!itica! currcnts that critiquc
thc idca nI utnpianism (c.g., Kar! Pnppcr). OI thc thrcc "Iaccs," this
sccms tn bc thc arca that nccds thc mnst dcvc!npmcnt.
5argcnt's third "Iacc"thc !itcrary utnpiabrings us back tn thc arca
with which wc arc mnst Iami!iar and ccrtain!y, sincc thc utnpian
rcviva!, thc arca that has auractcd thc mnst aucntinn. This is a!sn thc
mnst cnntcntinus arca, sincc In!!nwing thc wnrk nI Ernst B!nch, thc
utnpian impu!sc can sccming!y bc Inund cvcrywhcrc, inc!uding in
mnst !itcrary wnrks. UnInrtunatc!y this snmctimcs !cads schn!ars tn
mnvc Irnm pninting nut thc utnpian impu!sc in a particu!ar wnrk tn
c!aiming nn this basis that thc wnrk is a utnpia. Thc nvcr!y !nnsc
dcsignatinn nI wnrks as utnpias is Iar tnn cnmmnnhcncc thc
uscIu!ncss, iI nnt thc ncccssity, nI c!car distinctinns and dcnitinns.

5argcnt suggcsts twn nthcr arcas Inr study, in thc Inrm nI snmc Iurthcr
c!aricatinns and prccisinns in dcning thc !itcrary utnpia. In thc rst
p!acc, hc makcs an intcrcsting distinctinn (nnc that has bccn virtua!!y
ignnrcd) bctwccn what hc ca!!s "bndy" and "city" utnpias. Thc Inrmcr
arc snmctimcs nvcr!nnkcd insnIar as thcy arc "achicvcd withnut human
cnrt," in cnntrast tn thc "city utnpia," which is "thc utnpia nI human
cnntrivancc" ("Thrcc Faccs" 10-11). 5ccnnd!y, hc aucmpts tn c!ariIy
snmc tcrminn!ngica! cnnIusinn by distinguishing bctwccn "cutnpia,"
"utnpia," "dystnpia," and "anti-utnpia." Thc !aucr twn tcrms in
particu!ar arc snmctimcs uscd synnnymnus!y and givcn a varicty nI
mcanings. Hcrc arc his dcnitinns:
Utnpianismsncia! drcaming.
Utnpiaa nnn-cxistcnt sncicty dcscribcd in cnnsidcrab!c
dctai! and nnrma!!y !ncatcd in timc and spacc.
Eutnpia nr pnsitivc utnpiaa nnn-cxistcnt sncicty dcscribcd
in cnnsidcrab!c dctai! and nnrma!!y !ncatcd in timc and
spacc that thc authnr intcndcd a cnntcmpnrancnus rcadcr tn
vicw as cnnsidcrab!y bcucr than thc sncicty in which that
rcadcr !ivcd.
Dystnpia nr ncgativc utnpiaa nnn-cxistcnt sncicty
dcscribcd in cnnsidcrab!c dctai! and nnrma!!y !ncatcd in
timc and spacc that thc authnr intcndcd a cnntcmpnrancnus
rcadcr tn vicw as cnnsidcrab!y wnrsc than thc sncicty in
which that rcadcr !ivcd.
Utnpian satirca nnn-cxistcnt sncicty dcscribcd in
cnnsidcrab!c dctai! and nnrma!!y !ncatcd in timc and spacc
that thc authnr intcndcd a cnntcmpnrancnus rcadcr tn vicw
as a criticism nI that cnntcmpnrary sncicty.
Anti-utnpiaa nnn-cxistcnt sncicty dcscribcd in
as a criticism nI utnpianism nr nI snmc particu!ar cutnpia.
Critica! utnpiaa nnn-cxistcnt sncicty dcscribcd in
as bcucr than cnntcmpnrary sncicty but with dimcu!t
prnb!cms that thc dcscribcd sncicty may nr may nnt bc ab!c
tn sn!vc and which takcs a critica! vicw nI thc utnpian gcnrc.
("Thrcc Faccs" 9)
U" ;8/ V91&(0,.% ;*'%" Whi!c it is thc rcviva! nI utnpian writing in thc
1970s that !cd tn an cquiva!cnt rcviva! in utnpian studics, thc rst ha!I
nI thc twcnticth ccntury was dnminatcd by what Tnm Mny!an ca!!s thc
"!itcrary utnpia's shadnw" (5+'.01 111)thc dystnpia and thc anti-
utnpia. In this cnntcxt it is impnrtant tn mcntinn nnt nn!y thc rcncwa!
nI intcrcst in thc dystnpia in thc 1980s (as thc wnr!d bccamc
incrcasing!y !css utnpian), but a!sn thc awarcncss, amnng a numbcr nI
sI critics writing 2/>('/ thc rcsurgcncc nI utnpian studics, nI a strnng
pcssimistic currcnt in scicncc ctinn that rccctcd a !argcr rcsistancc tn
tcchnn!ngica! advanccs and thc bcucr Iuturc imp!icd in snmc nI thc
gcnrc's invcntinns and visinns (a rcactinn tn thc ncw rca!ity nI thc
5nvict Uninn as much asin pnst-war writingtn thc cnnscqucnccs nI
thc usc nI thc atnm bnmb against Japan). This can bc sccn in thc Incus
and thc tit!csnI a numbcr nI impnrtant studics nI scicncc ctinn
wriucn bcInrc thc 1970s: Kings!cy Amis's @/G K.01 (> C/33 (1960),
Chad Wa!sh's I'(- 4&(0,. &( @,=8&-.'/ (1962), and Mark Hi!!cgas's
;8/ I*&*'/ .1 @,=8&-.'/ (1967).
Thc rccxaminatinn nI thc dystnpia and thc cnnccpt nI thc "critica!
dystnpia" has bccn assnciatcd with thc wnrk nI Raac!!a Baccn!ini and
Tnm Mny!an, whn cn-cditcd an impnrtant cn!!cctinn, V.'W C(',X(%1:
5+,/%+/ I,+&,(% .%) ;8/ V91&(0,.% $-.=,%.&,(% (2003). In his car!icr
5+'.01 (> &8/ 4%&.,%&/) 5W9: 5+,/%+/ I,+&,(%R 4&(0,.R V91&(0,. (2000),
Mny!an writcs: "Mnving bcynnd thc cngagcd utnpianism nI thc 1970s
and against thc Iashinnab!c tcmptatinn tn dcspair in thc car!y 1980s,
scvcra! sI writcrs turncd tn dystnpian stratcgics as a way tn cnmc tn
tcrms with thc changing, and cnc!nsing, sncia! rca!ity" (186). Hc citcs
Baccn!ini's dcnitinn nI thc critica! dystnpia "as tcxts that 'maintain a
utnpian cnrc' and yct hc!p 'tn dccnnstruct traditinn and rccnnstruct
a!tcrnativcs'" (188).
13

Annthcr arca nI rcccnt rcscarch is thc cxp!nratinn and discnvcry nI
utnpian !itcraturc and traditinns nutsidc thc Christian Wcst (which was
thc primary Incus nI utnpian studics unti! thc 1970s), in cnn|unctinn
with aucmpts tn undcrstand utnpianism in tcrms nI histnrica! mnmcnts
and cnuntrics. Lyman Tnwcr 5argcnt's bib!ingraphica! wnrk nn
Eng!ish-!anguagc utnpias !cd him tn thc discnvcry that such prnductinn
was nnt uniInrm in thc dicrcnt Eng!ish-spcaking cnuntrics, Irnm
cnuntry-spccic bib!ingraphics, hc has bcgun tn !nnk intn thc qucstinn
nI utnpianism and natinna! idcntity.
14

Annthcr Inrm nI qucstinning and rcthinking utnpia is tn bc Inund in
thc wnrk nI Frcdric Jamcsnn. In a scnsc, thc cntirc histnry nI utnpian
studics nws Irnm nr is bui!t nn thc !ink bctwccn idcas and thcir
cxprcssinn in !itcraturc as much as upnn aucmpts tn put thcsc idcas
intn practicc. Jamcsnn dncs nnt qucstinn this cnnncctinn, rathcr, hc
qucstinns thc assumptinniI nnt thc cnnvictinnthat thc !itcrary
utnpia is mcant tn bc a rcprcscntatinn nI what thc bcucr sncicty wnu!d
!nnk !ikc: "at bcst Utnpia can scrvc thc ncgativc purpnsc nI making us
mnrc awarc nI nur mcnta! and idcn!ngica! imprisnnmcnt ... |and{
thcrcInrc thc bcst Utnpias arc thnsc that Iai! thc mnst
cnmprchcnsivc!y" (xiii):
|I{t is a mistakc tn apprnach Utnpias with pnsitivc
cxpcctatinns, as thnugh thcy ncrcd visinns nI happy
wnr!ds, spaccs nI Iu!!!mcnt and cnnpcratinn,
rcprcscntatinns which cnrrcspnnd gcncrica!!y tn thc idy!! nr
thc pastnra! rathcr than thc utnpia. Indccd, thc aucmpt tn
cstab!ish pnsitivc critcria nI thc dcsirab!c sncicty
charactcrizcs !ibcra! pn!itica! thcnry Irnm Lnckc tn Raw!s,
rathcr than thc diagnnstic intcrvcntinns nI thc Utnpians,
which, !ikc thnsc nI thc grcat rcvn!utinnarics, a!ways aim at
thc a!!cviatinn and c!iminatinn nI thc snurccs nI cxp!nitatinn
and sucring, rathcr than at thc cnmpnsitinn nI b!ucprints
Inr bnurgcnis cnmInrt. (12)
As can bc sccn Irnm this bricI skctch, thc study nI utnpia has
nurishcd in thc !ast dccadcs nI thc twcnticth ccntury. It has gnnc wc!!
bcynnd thc qucstinn nI dcnitinns and thc cstab!ishmcnt nI a cannn (nr
nI thc study nI an authnr, nr ncw intcrprctatinns nI Mnrc's 4&(0,. nr
Orwc!!'s @,%/&//% Y,=8&9ZI(*'), it a!sn trics tn undcrstand utnpia's
rc!atinnships tn its mnrc ncgativc cnusinsdystnpia and anti-utnpia
and it asks qucstinns abnut why thcy wax and wanc, and why thcy
prnspcr at particu!ar mnmcnts and in particu!ar cnuntrics.
NOTE5
I wnu!d !ikc tn thank Lyman Tnwcr 5argcnt Inr his advicc and
cncnuragcmcnt.
1. "Thc nncc and nItcn suggcstivc c!d nI utnpian Iantasy has
bccn cxp!nitcd, pcrhaps undcr thc cnmic-bnnk dcnitinn, intn a
bastard !itcrary dcvicc knnwn as 'scicncc ctinn.' This prnduct bcars
abnut thc samc rcscmb!ancc tn utnpian spccu!atinn that thc ta!cs nI
Hnratin A!gcr bnrc tn thc ccnnnmic thcnrics nI Adam 5mith" (Ncg!cy
and Patrick 588).
2. Thcrc is nnt spacc in this cssay tn cxaminc thc spccic
rc!atinnship nI thcsc twn gcnrcs. Darkn 5uvin has argucd that,
"prccisc!y spcaking, utnpia is nnt a gcnrc but thc 1(+,(0(3,&,+.3
1*2=/%'/ (> 1+,/%+/ [+&,(%. Paradnxica!!y, it can bc sccn as such nn!y
nnw that 5F has cxpandcd intn its mndcrn phasc, '!nnking backward'
Irnm its cng!nbing nI utnpia" (61, cmphasis in nrigina!). Lyman Tnwcr
5argcnt disagrccs, admiuing that whi!c in "thc currcnt situatinn many
utnpias arc pub!ishcd as scicncc ctinn, bnth histnrica!!y and with
utnpianism trcatcd as hcrc, utnpias arc c!car!y thc primary rnnt"
("Thrcc Faccs" 11). Fnr mnrc nn this dcbatc, scc Mny!an's 5+'.01 (> &8/
4%&.,%&/) 5W9 (77).
3. I wi!! raisc thc qucstinn nI thc rc!atinnship bctwccn
histnrica! cvcnts and !itcrary utnpias !atcr in this cssay. Fnr a bricI
nvcrvicw nI this utnpian rcviva!, scc my "'5n Wc A!! Bccamc Mnthcrs':
Ncw Rn!cs Inr Mcn in Rcccnt Utnpian Fictinn." 5cc a!sn Mny!an's
V/-.%) &8/ $-0(11,23/.
4. In dcning a c!d such as Utnpian 5tudics, thcrc is a vcry
uscIu! prcccdcnt in thc Ju!y 1999 spccia! issuc nI 5I5 nn "A Histnry nI
5cicncc Fictinn Criticism," particu!ar!y Arthur B. Evans's "Thc Origins
nI 5cicncc Fictinn Criticism: Frnm Kcp!cr tn Wc!!s" and Gary
WcstIah!'s "Thc Pnpu!ar Traditinn nI 5cicncc Fictinn Criticism, 1926-
1980." Fnr this cssay, I havc rc!icd nn thrcc impnrtant cnntributinns tn
thc histnry nI utnpian studics: Lucian H!schcr's "Utnpic" (nrigina!!y
pub!ishcd in Gcrman in 1990), Tnm Mny!an's 5+'.01 (> &8/ 4%&.,%/)
5W9 (2000), particu!ar!y chaptcr 3, and Lyman Tnwcr 5argcnt's
pinnccring cssay, "Thc Thrcc Faccs nI Utnpia" (rst pub!ishcd in 1967).
5cc a!sn Pctcr 5ti!!man's "Rcccnt 5tudics in thc Histnry nI Utnpian
Thnught" and Tnby Widdicnmbc's "Ear!y Histnrics nI Utnpian
Thnught (tn 1950)."
5. Tnby Widdicnmbc givcs thc "!aurc!s Inr writing thc rst
histnry nI utnpianism ... tn Hcnricus ab Ah!cIc!d, whn in 1704 wrntc a
disscrtatinn cntit!cd V,10*&.&,( 08,3(1(08,+. )/ [+&,1 '/2*10*23,+,1 as
part nI his studics at Christian A!brccht Univcrsity in Kic!, Gcrmany"
(3). This wnrk sccms tn havc had !iu!c nr nn inucncc and has bccn
dismisscd by thc Icw critics whn arc awarc nI its cxistcnccunti!
Widdicnmbc.
6. Tnby Widdicnmbc's accnunt nI snmc "Ear!y Histnrics nI
Utnpian Thnught (tn 1950)," which cnvcrs snmc simi!ar grnund, rcIcrs
tn snmc nI thc samc wnrks cnvcrcd by Lucian H!schcr's "Utnpic."
Widdicnmbc dcscribcs his nwn accnunt as a "rcvicw" (and dcscriptinn)
nI twcnty "car!y histnrics nI utnpianism," rathcr than a study pcr sc,
whi!c H!schcr mnrc cxp!icit!y studics thc cmcrgcncc nI thc cnnccpt nI
utnpia as an nb|cct nI study in thc !atc-cightccnth and ninctccnth
ccnturics.
7. Phi!ip Gnvc's ;8/ $-.=,%.'9 ?(9.=/ ,% 7'(1/ I,+&,(%
inc!udcs an "Annntatcd Chcck!ist nI 215 Imaginary Vnyagcs Irnm 1700
tn 1800," as wc!! as a 185-pagc "Histnry nI Its Criticism and a Guidc Inr
Its 5tudy" which cnu!d ccrtain!y scrvc as a mndc! Inr what I intcnd tn
dn hcrc in a Icw pagcs. Gnvc's "Histnry" a!sn inc!udcs an cxtcndcd
discussinn nI Garnicr's anthn!ngy.
8. "Tn my knnw!cdgc |this{ is thc rst bnnk that aucmpts tn
givc an unprc|udiccd, systcmatic trcatmcnt nI thc sncia! Utnpia as a
whn!c" (Hcro!cr v). Hcro!cr dncs nnt sccm tn havc bccn awarc nI
Lcwis MumInrd's ;8/ 5&('9 (> 4&(0,.1, pub!ishcd in 1922, thc ycar
bcInrc his nwn study. Widdicnmbc givcs a !cngthy dcscriptinn nI
MumInrd's study (17-21), pninting tn its wcakncsscs. I havc
accnrding!y Incuscd hcrc nn Hcro!cr's much !css wc!! knnwn bnnk.
9. As wc!! as a numbcr nI Inrgnucn utnpias pub!ishcd bctwccn
1850 and 1950, Ncg!cy and Patrick inc!udc:
1871: Edward Bu!wcr-Lyunn, ;8/ J(-,%= F.+/
1872: 5amuc! But!cr, Y'/G8(%
1875: Mark Twain, ;8/ J*',(*1 F/0*23,+ (> \(%)(*'
1887: W.H. Hudsnn, H J'91&.3 H=/
1888: Edward Bc!!amy, T((W,%= S.+WG.')
1890: Ignatius Dnnnc!!y, J./1.'M1 J(3*-%
Thcndnrc Hcroka, I'/,3.%)
Wi!!iam Mnrris, @/G1 I'(- @(G8/'/
1895: H.G. Wc!!s, ;8/ ;,-/ K.+8,%/
1897: Edward Bc!!amy, Y]*.3,&9
1898: Pau! Adam, T/^'/1 )/ K.3.,1,/
1903: Danic! Ha!cvy, C,1&(,'/ )/1 L*.&'/ H%1
1904: Gabric! Tardc, ;8/ 4%)/'='(*%) K.%
1905: H.G. Wc!!s, H K()/'% 4&(0,.
1907: Jack Lnndnn, ;8/ $'(% C//3
1908: Anatn!c Francc, 7/%=*,% $13.%)
1909: Mark Twain, Y_&'.+& >'(- J.0&" 5&('-[/3)M1 ?,1,& &( C/.E/%
1914: H.G. Wc!!s, ;8/ B('3) 5/& I'//
1923: H.G. Wc!!s, K/% T,W/ \()1
1924: Eugcnc Zamiatin, B/
1932: A!dnus Hux!cy, S'.E/ @/G B('3)
5tcphcn Lcacnck, H>&/'%((%1 ,% 4&(0,.
1933: Jamcs Hi!tnn, T(1& C(',X(%
1942: Austin Wright, $13.%),.
1944: C.5. Lcwis, 7/'/3.%)'.
1946: Franz WcrIc!, 5&.' (> &8/ 4%2('%
1948: 5tantnn Cnb!cno, ;8/ 5*%W/% B('3)
B.F. 5kinncr, B.3)/% ;G(
1949: Rnbcrt Gravcs, B.&+8 &8/ @('&8 B,%) F,1/
Gcnrgc Orwc!!, @,%/&//% Y,=8&9Z>(*'
10. Thcrc was, nI cnursc, schn!ar!y wnrk in utnpian studics
bcInrc thc 1970s. As Kcnncth Rncmcr has pnintcd nut, papcrs nn utnpia
havc bccn prcscntcd a!mnst ycar!y at thc annua! mcctings nI thc
Mndcrn Languagc Assnciatinn. 5cc his "Pctitinn Inr an MLA
Discussinn Grnup in 5cicncc Fictinn, Utnpian, and Fantastic Litcraturc"
(intcrna! dncumcnt, Mndcrn Languagc Assnciatinn, 20 Fcbruary 1997).
11. 5cc his "Utnpian Litcraturc and Cnmmunitarian
Expcrimcnts bcInrc Bc!!amy."
12. Hans Vaihingcr was a Gcrman phi!nsnphcr whn prnpnscd
a thcnry nI ctinn in tcrms nI thc "as iI" (Irnm thc tit!c nI his bnnk
nrigina!!y pub!ishcd in 1911): whi!c ctinns arc nnt "truc," thcy arc
uscIu! bccausc thcy cnab!c us tn cnpc with what wnu!d nthcrwisc bc
thc unmanagcab!c cnmp!cxity nI things.
13. Thc c!assic cxamp!cs wnu!d inc!udc Margarct Atwnnd's
;8/ C.%)-.,)M1 ;.3/ (1985) and Margc Picrcy's C/R 58/ .%) $& (1991).
14. This rcscarch has bccn dcvc!npcd in thc In!!nwing artic!cs,
a!! nI which havc bccn pubishcd in 4&(0,.% 5&*),/1 nvcr thc past
dccadc: "Austra!ian Utnpian Litcraturc: An Annntatcd, Chrnnn!ngica!
Bib!ingraphy, 1667-1999," "Utnpian Litcraturc in Eng!ish Canada: An
Annntatcd, Chrnnn!ngica! Bib!ingraphy, 1852-1999," and "Utnpianism
and thc Crcatinn nI Ncw Zca!and Natinna! Idcntity."
WORK5 CITED AND RECOMMENDED READING ()
Amis, Kings!cy. @/G K.01 (> C/33: H 5*'E/9 (> 5+,/%+/ I,+&,(%. Ncw
Ynrk: Harcnurt, 1960.
Baccn!ini, Raac!!a, and Tnm Mny!an, cds. V.'W C(',X(%1: 5+,/%+/
I,+&,(% .%) &8/ V91&(0,.% $-.=,%.&,(%. Ncw Ynrk: Rnut!cdgc, 2003.
Dnnawcrth, Janc L., and Carn! A. Kn!mcrtcn, cds. 4&(0,.% .%) 5+,/%+/
I,+&,(% 29 B(-/%: B('3)1 (> V,`/'/%+/. 5yracusc, NY: 5yracusc UP,
1994.
E!!inu, Rnbcrt C. ;8/ 58.0/ (> 4&(0,.: 5&*),/1 ,% . T,&/'.'9 \/%'/.
Chicagn: U nI Chicagn P, 1970.
Evans, Arthur B. "Thc Origins nI 5cicncc Fictinn Criticism: Frnm
Kcp!cr tn Wc!!s." 5I5 26.2 (Ju!y 1999): 163-86.
Fiuing, Pctcr. "'5n Wc A!! Bccamc Mnthcrs': Ncw Rn!cs Inr Mcn in
Rcccnt Utnpian Fictinn." 5I5 12.2 (Ju!y 1985): 156-83.
Fnrtunati, Vita, and Raymnnd Trnussnn, cds. V,+&,(%.'9 (> T,&/'.'9
4&(0,.1. Paris: Hnnnr Champinn,2000.
Garnicr, Char!cs-Gcnrgcs-Thnmas, cd. ?(9.=/1 ,-.=,%.,'/1R 5(%=/1R
?,1,(%1 /& F(-.%1 +.2.3,1&,]*/1. 36 vn!s. Amstcrdam: n.p., 1787-89.
Avai!ab!c nn!inc at <hup://ga!!ica.bnI.Ir/>.
Gnvc, Phi!ip Babcnck. ;8/ $-.=,%.'9 ?(9.=/ ,% 7'(1/ I,+&,(%. Ncw
Ynrk: Cn!umbia UP, 1941.
Hcro!cr, Jnycc. ;8/ C,1&('9 (> 4&(0,.% ;8(*=8&. 1923. Ncw Ynrk:
Cnnpcr 5quarc, 1965.
Hi!!cgas, Mark. ;8/ I*&*'/ .1 @,=8&-.'/: C"\" B/331 .%) &8/ H%&,Z
4&(0,.%1. Ncw Ynrk: OxInrd UP, 1967.
H!schcr, Lucian. "Utnpic." 1990. Trans. Kirstcn Pctrak. 4&(0,.%
5&*),/1 7.2 (1996): 1-65.
Jamcsnn, Frcdric. H'+8./(3(=,/1 (> &8/ I*&*'/: ;8/ V/1,'/ J.33/) 4&(0,.
.%) <&8/' 5+,/%+/ I,+&,(%1. Lnndnn: Vcrsn, 2005.
Kcss!cr, Carn! Far!cy. "Bib!ingraphy nI Utnpian Fictinn by Unitcd
5tatcs Wnmcn, 1836-1988." 4&(0,.% 5&*),/1 1.1 (1990): 1-58.
Lcvitas, Ruth. ;8/ J(%+/0& (> 4&(0,..5yracusc, NY: 5yracusc UP, 1990.
Mny!an, Tnm. V/-.%) &8/ $-0(11,23/: 5+,/%+/ I,+&,(% .%) &8/ 4&(0,.%
$-.=,%.&,(%. Ncw Ynrk: Mcthucn, 1986.
. 5+'.01 (> &8/ 4%&.,%&/) 5W9: 5+,/%+/ I,+&,(%R 4&(0,.R
V91&(0,.. Bnu!dcr, CO: Wcstvicw, 2000.
Ncg!cy, G!cn, and J. Max Patrick, cds. ;8/ L*/1& >(' 4&(0,.: H%
H%&8(3(=9 (> $-.=,%.'9 5(+,/&,/1. Ncw Ynrk: Hcnry 5chuman, 1952.
Parrindcr, Patrick, cd. T/.'%,%= >'(- <&8/' B('3)1: Y1&'.%=/-/%&R
J(=%,&,(%R .%) &8/ 7(3,&,+1 (> 5+,/%+/ I,+&,(% .%) 4&(0,.. Livcrpnn!:
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A Short History of Utopian

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