Pol AH Rus2eng

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Series "Foreign tutorial"
ANDREW Heywood
POLITICAL SCIENCE
Politics
Second Edition
ANDREW HE WOOD
palgrave
ANDREW Heywood
POLITICAL SCIENCE
Translation from English Edited
Pro!essor GG Vodolazova and associate professor VY Belsky Recommended by the Training Center "Professional textbook" as a textbook for university students
Moscow 2005
UDC 321 01 !0"5 #$ %%& '' 0(a"3 )35

*e+iewer head Department of Philosoph(, Dr Philosoph( , Professor VN Lavrynenko Translation from English Y Nikulicheva Editor in Chief PhD, Doctor of Economic -ciences ND Eriashvili "#$
Heywood% Andrew&
P./0T0C1/ -C0E2CE3 Te4t5oo6 for st7dents 8 Per from English ed 99 :odola;o+a, :< %els6( = Moscow3 U20T<=D121, 2005 = 5>> = !-eries ?@oreign te4t5oo6?$
0-%2 0=333=A"131=0 !English$ 0-%2 5=23#=00#1>=" !*7ssian$ 1genc( C0P *-/

This is one of the 5est foreign te4t5oo6s on political science Be introd7ces the reader to the f7llest in the perspecti+e of modern politics and political science M7ch attention is paid to glo5ali;ation, mo+ements of feminism and ?green? reco+er( etnosotsiali;ma 0n the te4t5oo6 the traditional approaches to discipline, as well as the concepts and ideas of the classical political tho7ght = Plato, 1ristotle, Bo55es, /oc6e, Mar4, Mill, and others in the 5oo6 fi+e parts3 "Political Theory"! "Nations and "lobali#ation"! "Political interaction "!" $echanisms of state control "!" Politics and the functioning of %olitical systems " Each chapter opens with a common +iew of its central iss7es and themes The chapter contains the concl7sions and disc7ssion list Tapping especiall( single o7t a partic7lar term or concept Tapping ?pa( attention? offer a more in=depth loo6 at the rele+ant theories and concepts Pro+ides 5iographies of political leaders and political dictionar( of terms @or st7dents, grad7ate st7dents, 7ni+ersit( professors, political scientists, sociologists, Co7rnalists, international affairs e4perts, political leaders, for all those interested in the pro5lems of politics and political science
%%& '' 0(a"3 0-%2 0=333=A"131=0 !English$ 0-%2 5=23#=00#1>=" !*7ssian$ D 1ndrew Be(wood 1AA", 2002
1ll rights reser+ed 2o reprod7ction, cop( or transmission of this p75lication ma( 5e made witho7t written permission P./0T0C-, 2 2D Edition 5( 1ndrew Be(wood, .riginall( P75lished 5( Palgra+e, Bo7ndmills, %asingsto6e, Bampshire *921 ')- and 1"5 @ifth 1+en7e, 2ew <or6, 2< 10010 D <7niti=D121, translation, design, 2005 Pla(ing the entire 5oo6 or an( part thereof 5( an( means or in an( form, incl7ding 0nternet=5ased networ6s, is prohi5ited witho7t written permission of the p75lisher
Ele'troni' Ta(le o! Contents

Ele'troni' Ta(le o! Contents Ca)sules Ele'troni' list o! illustrations Ta(le o! 'ontents "Royal s'ien'e" Pro!essor Heywood *instead o! t+e !oreword, Aut+or-s )re!a'e to t+e Englis+ edition Aut+or-s )re!a'e to t+e Russian edition List o! tie.ins
%( the concept7al apparat7s
Pay attention Politi'al !igures Part I& Politi'al t+eory

Chapter 1 Ehat is politicsF Content The main iss7es & Definition of a polic(
G To concept7al apparat7s
Politics as the art of go+ernance

G To concept7al apparat7s 1ristotle !3#>=322 %C$ 2iccolo Machia+elli !1>'A=152"$
Politics as a p75lic process

G To concept7al apparat7s @ig 1 1 Two concepts of p75lic and pri+ate Bannah 1rendt !1A0'=1A"5$ G To concept7al apparat7s
Politics as compromise and consens7s Politics as power

/et 7s pa( attention to
H /earning Polic( 1pproaches to the st7d( of politics

Plato !>2"=3>" %C$ Philosophical tradition The empirical tradition The scientific tradition The latest trends /et 7s pa( attention to @ig 1 2 .ptions o7t of the prisonersI dilemma G To concept7al apparat7s
Co7ld 5e a scientific st7d( of politicsF The concepts, models and theories

G To concept7al apparat7s @ig 1 3 The political s(stem G To concept7al apparat7s @ig 1 > The le+els of concept7al anal(sis
H Concl7sions H Disc7ssion J7estions
Chapter 2 9o+ernment s(stems and modes

Content The main iss7es H The traditional classification s(stem
Eh( classif( the political s(stemF

Classic t(polog( G To concept7al apparat7s @ig 2 1 The si4 forms of go+ernment according to 1ristotle G To concept7al apparat7s
T(polog( of ?three worlds?

H Profiles of the modern world

@rancis @767(ama ! @rancis @767(ama , P 1A52$ G To concept7al apparat7s @ig 2 2 The main characteristics of the regime Eestern pol(arch(
2 9o+ernment s(stems and modes >1

G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s
2ew Democrac(
The East 1sian regimes

0slamic regimes
Militar( regimes H Concl7sions 0ss7es for disc7ssion
Chapter 3 Political ideologies

Content The main iss7es H Ehat is the political ideolog(F
H /i5eralism
The elements of li5eralism Kohn /oc6e !1'32=1"0>$ Classical li5eralism Kohn -t7art Mill !1#0'=1#"3$ Edm7nd %7r6e !1"2A=1"A"$
H Conser+atism The elements of conser+atism Paternalistic conser+atism

@riedrich +on Ba(e6 !1#AA=1AA2$
?2ew *ights?
2eoli5eralism 2eoconser+atism
H -ocialism Elements of -ocialism Mar4ism

&arl Mar4 !1#1#=1##3$ The elements of Mar4ism Koseph -talin !1#"A=1A53$ .rthodo4 Mar4ism Ber5ert Marc7se !1#A#=1A"A$ Contemporar( Mar4ism Ed7ard %ernstein !1#50=1A32$
-ocial democrac(
Kohn *awls !5 1A21$ G To concept7al apparat7s
The third wa( H .ther ideological tradition of @ascism

1dolf Bitler !1##A=1A>5$
1narchism @eminism
:ollsto7n6raft Mar( !1"5A=1"A"$ G To concept7al apparat7s
En+ironmentalism
*eligio7s f7ndamentalism
H End of 0deolog(F & Concl7sions & Disc7ssion J7estions
Chapter > Democrac(

Content The main iss7es H Definition of Democrac( Ehat is a nationF
Bow sho7ld control the peopleF

Bow far sho7ld e4tend the power of the peopleF

H Models of Democrac(
Kerem( %entham !1">#=1#32$
Classical democrac( The protecti+e democrac( Democrac( De+elopment

Kean=KacL7es *o7ssea7 !1"12=1""#$ :ladimir 0l(ich /enin !1#"0=1A2>$
PeopleIs Democrac(
H Democrac( in practice3 the point of +iew Pl7ralist approach

Elitist approach
G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s @ig > 1 Models elite
Corporatist approach The approach of the ?new right? Mar4ist approach H Concl7sions & Disc7ssion J7estions
Chapter 5 -tate
Content The main iss7es H Ehat is the stateF
9eorg Eilhelm @riedrich Begel !1""0=1#31$ G To concept7al apparat7s /et 7s pa( attention to
H Theories of the -tate Pl7ralistic state

The capitalist state

-tate le+iathan The patriarchal state

H *ole of the -tate -mall !minim7m$ state

*o5ert 2o;ic6 !1A3#=2002$
The state of de+elopment -ocial=democratic states The collecti+i;ed state

Totalitarian states H MBollow? stateF 9lo5ali;ation The restr7ct7ring of the state -75=national go+ernance
Part II& Nation and /lo(ali0ation

Chapter ' 2ations and 2ationalism
T1%/E .@ C.2TE2TThe main iss7es H Ehat is a nationF
The nation as a c7lt7ral comm7nit(

Kohann 9ottfried Berder !1">>=1#03$ G To concept7al apparat7s
The nation as a political comm7nit( H T(pes of nationalism /i5eral nationalism

9i7seppe Ma;;ini !1#05=1#"2$ G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s
Conser+ati+e nationalism
E4pansionist nationalism
1nti=colonial nationalism
H m7ltic7lt7ralism
0saiah %erlin !1A0A=1AA"$ G To concept7al apparat7s
H Ehat is the f7t7re of the nation=stateF H Concl7sions H Disc7ssion J7estions
Chapter " Eorld politics

T1%/E .@ C.2TE2TThe main iss7es H To 7nderstand the world politics
0mman7el &ant !1"2>=1#0>$
0dealism
*ealism
' To concept7al apparat7s
Pl7ralism
Mar4ism 0n the changing world order 5eginning and the end of the ?Cold Ear?
G To concept7al apparat7s 2oam Choms6( !5 1A2#$
The world order of ))0 cent7r(

H The d(namics of glo5ali;ation @actors and trends of glo5ali;ation

G To concept7al apparat7s @ig " 1 The interdependence of
9lo5ali;ation3 Concepts and De5ates

H The regionali;ation
/et 7s pa( attention to -am7el P B7ntington !5 1A2"$ Kean Monet !1###=1A"A$
The E7ropean Union

G To concept7al apparat7s /et 7s pa( attention to G To concept7al apparat7s
H Towards a world go+ernmentF

United 2ations
G To concept7al a%%aratus /et 7s pa( attention to G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s
Chapter # Domestic polic(

T1%/E .@ C.2TE2TThe main iss7es & The centrali;ation or decentrali;ationF Center=peripher( relations
Pierre=Koseph Pro7dhon !1#0A=1#'5$
@ederated s(stem Eh( are formed federationF

G To concept7al apparat7s @ig # 1 @ederated -tates 1le4ander Bamilton !1"55=1#05$
Characteristic feat7res of federalism Pros and cons of federalism Unitar( -(stem /ocal 9o+ernment
@ig # 2 Unitar( -tates G To concept7al apparat7s De+ol7tion !transfer of a7thorit($ G To concept7al apparat7s Marc7s 9ar+e( !1##"=1A>0$
Ethnic and local politics The re+i+al of ethnic politics

/et 7s pa( attention to G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s
/ocal politicsF H Concl7sions H Disc7ssion J7estions
Part III& Politi'al intera'tion

Chapter A Econom( and -ociet(
T1%/E .@ C.2TE2TThe main iss7es H Economies
G To concept7al apparat7s 1dam -mith !1"23=1"A0$
Eorld +ersion of capitalism Entreprene7rial capitalism

-ocial capitalism
Collecti+e Capitalism
Kohn Ma(nard &e(nes !1##3=1A>'$
Managed or 7nmanaged capitalismF

Milton @riedman !5orn 1A12$ G To concept7al apparat7s
The +arieties of socialism

-tate socialism
Mar6et socialism
E@ -ch7macher !1A11=1A""$ G To concept7al apparat7s
Does the econom( of the ?third wa(?F

H -ocial str7ct7re and its categories

P75lic class
Kohn &enneth 9al5raith !5 1A0#$
The rise and decline of class politics

Underclass *ace
Pa7l H Concl7sions H Disc7ssion J7estions
Chapter 10 Political c7lt7re, comm7nication and legitimac(

T1%/E .@ C.2TE2TThe main iss7es H Polic( committed in mind3 C7lt7re and Comm7nication
Ci+ic c7lt7re or ideological hegemon(F

The media and political comm7nication

1ntonio 9ramsci !1#A1=1A3"$ G To concept7al apparat7s
The degradation of social capitalF

*o5ert P7tnam !5 1A>0$ Michael .a6eshott !1A01=1AA0$ G To concept7al apparat7s
H The legitimac( and political sta5ilit(

The legitimation of power

G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s Ma4 Ee5er !1#'>=1A20$
The crisis of legitimac(

K7rgen Ba5ermas !5 1A2A$
Eh( do re+ol7tions occ7rF

The Mar4ist theor( of re+ol7tion

G To concept7al apparat7s Mao Nedong !Mao Tse=d7ng$ !1#A3=1A"'$
2on=Mar4ist theor( of re+ol7tion

1le4is de TocL7e+ille !1#05=1#5A$
Chapter 11 *epresentation, elections and +oting

T1%/E .@ C.2TE2TThe main iss7es H *epresentation
Theor( of representation Model tr7steeship

Thomas Paine !1"3"=1#0A$
Delegation Model
Credentials model
Proportional representation
Koseph -ch7mpeter !1##3=1A50$
Elections @7nctions of elections

Electoral -(stems3 disc7ssion and contro+ers(

/et 7s pa( attention to /et 7s pa( attention to /et 7s pa( attention to /et 7s pa( attention to /et 7s pa( attention to
Ehat do the res7lts of the +oteF
/et 7s pa( attention to G To concept7al apparat7s
& :oting 5eha+ior

:oting theor( Model identification with the part(

The sociological model The model of rational choice The model of the dominant ideolog( H Concl7sions H Disc7ssion J7estions
Chapter 12 Parties and part( s(stems

T1%/E .@ C.2TE2TThe main iss7es H Part( Politics
T(pes of games
@7nctions parties
/et 7s pa( attention to @ig 12 1 /inear political spectr7m @ig 12 2 The political spectr7m of the ?horseshoe? @ig 12 3 1 two=dimensional political spectr7m
*epresentation @ormation and replenishment of the elite Defining goals

0nterest artic7lation and aggregation -ociali;ation and Mo5ili;ation The organi;ation of go+ernment
Part( organi;ations3 the internal distri57tion of power

H Part( -(stem .ne=part( s(stems %ipartisanship

-(stem with one dominant part( M7ltipart( s(stem

H The decline of partiesF

Thomas Kefferson !1">3=1#2'$
& Concl7sions H Disc7ssion J7estions
Chapter 13 Comm7nit( gro7ps, interest gro7ps and social mo+ements

T1%/E .@ C.2TE2TThe main iss7es H Comm7nit( gro7ps in politics T(pes of gro7ps Traditional !comm7nit($ gro7ps 0nstit7tional 9ro7p 1ssociati+e 9ro7p
Patterns of participation in the politics of gro7ps3 theor(

The model of pl7ralism *o5ert Dahl !5 1A15$ G To concept7al apparat7s
The model of corporatism

G To concept7al apparat7s Model of the ?new right? Pa( attention
Participation of gro7ps in politics3 the practice of
Bow important interest gro7psF 1s a gro7p ha+e an impact on polic(F

G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s
H -ocial mo+ements 2ew social mo+ements

2aomi &lein !5 1A"0$ %ett( @riedan !5 1A21$
H Concl7sions & Disc7ssion J7estions
Part I1& T+e 2e'+anis2s o! go3ernan'e

Chapter 1> Constit7tion, the law and the C7dicial s(stem
T1%/E .@ C.2TE2TThe main iss7es H Constit7tion
The classification of constit7tions

' To concept7al apparat7s /et 7s pa( attention to G To concept7al apparat7s
The o5Cecti+es of the Constit7tion

Definition of state C7risdiction G To concept7al apparat7s The esta5lishment of common +al7es and goals Ens7ring the sta5ilit( of go+ernment Protection of @reedoms G To concept7al apparat7s The legitimi;ation of regimes -o what is the meaning of the Constit7tionF G To concept7al apparat7s
H *ight /aw, moralit( and politics

Thomas Bo55es !15##=1'"A$
G To concept7al apparat7s H The K7diciar(

1re the C7dges political fig7resF

Do C7dges ma6e polic(F H Concl7sions H Disc7ssion J7estions
Chapter 15 /egislati+e 1ssem5l(

T1%/E .@ C.2TE2TThe main iss7es H The *ole of /egislat7res
Charles=/o7is de MontesL7ie7 -e6ondat !1'#A=1""5$
Parliamentar( and presidential s(stems

G To concept7al apparat7s @ig 15 1 The parliamentar( s(stem of go+ernment G To concept7al apparat7s @ig 15 2 -eparation of powers
@7nctions of the legislati+e assem5l( /egislation *epresentation

-ec7rit( and s7r+eillance Political recr7itment and training The legitimi;ation of the regime
Kames Madison !1"51=1#3'$
H -tr7ct7re of the legislati+e assem5l(
10
.ne cham5er or twoF

Committees H 1cti+ities of legislat7res .r are the legislat7res of the polic(F Ehat are the reasons for the decline of assem5liesF Disciplined political parties %ig 9o+ernment /ac6 of leadership 0nterest gro7ps and the power of the media *enaissance legislat7resF H Concl7sions H Disc7ssion J7estions
Chapter 1' E4ec7ti+e

Content The main iss7es H The role of the e4ec7ti+e EhoIs who in the e4ec7ti+e
G To concept7al apparat7s /et 7s pa( attention to
The f7nctions of the political e4ec7ti+e le+el D7ties of a ceremonial nat7re Monitoring the implementation of the polic( Political leadership, as he is seen 5( societ( P75lic ser+ice management Decision=ma6ing in crisis sit7ations
H The power of the e4ec7ti+e s(stem in the state3 who r7lesF Presidents
@ig 1' 1 Presidential form of go+ernment /et 7s pa( attention to
The Prime Ministers

/et 7s pa( attention to /et 7s pa( attention to G To concept7al apparat7s
Ca5inet
H Political /eadership
@riedrich 2iet;sche !1#>>=1A00$
Theories of /eadership
1AA' President 2elson Mandela and the Dalai /ama in Cape Town, -o7th 1frica G To concept7al apparat7s
-t(les of /eadership
Chapter 1" P75lic ser+ice

T1%/E .@ C.2TE2TThe main iss7es H Theor( of 57rea7crac( %7rea7crac( as an administrati+e machine
' To concept7al apparat7s
%7rea7crac( as a power
/eon Trots6( !1#"A=1A>0$
%7rea7crac( as a self=de+eloping s(stem H The role of the 57rea7crac(, the 57rea7crac( @7nctions 1dministration Cons7ltati+e and ad+isor( f7nction
0nterest artic7lation
11
Maintaining political sta5ilit( The organi;ation of the p75lic ser+ice

G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s /et 7s pa( attention to
H The power of the 57rea7crac( o7t of controlF -o7rces of 57rea7cratic power Bow can 0 control the 57rea7crac(F
The politici;ation of the ci+il ser+ice &ontr5(7ro6rati(a H Concl7sions H Disc7ssion J7estions
Chapter 1# The arm( and police

T1%/E .@ C.2TE2TThe main iss7es H 1rm( and Politics
The role of the arm(

Eeapons of war G To concept7al apparat7s
97arantee internal order

The arm( as a gro7p of interests

1lternati+e ci+ilian r7le Control o+er the arm( Ehen the militar( sei;ed powerF H Police and politics *ole of the Police Ci+ilian police The political police Police state Political control and acco7nta5ilit( H Concl7sions H Disc7ssion J7estions
Part 1& Politi's and t+e !un'tioning o! )oliti'al syste2s

Chapter 1A The political process and the f7nctioning of the political s(stem
T1%/E .@ C.2TE2TThe main iss7es H The political process Decision theor(
The model of rational choice The empirical model !Model grad7al mo+e towards the target$ .rgani;ational and 57rea7cratic model
The role of ideological factors -tage of the polic( process

0nitiating polic( Polic( @orm7lation

0mplementation of the polic(

Polic( E+al7ation
H The f7nctioning of the political s(stem The sta5ilit( criterion G To concept7al apparat7s
12
The criterion of economic de+elopment The criterion of h7man rights The criterion of democrac( H Concl7sions H Disc7ssion J7estions
Politi'al Di'tionary o! Ter2s
13
Ca)sules
G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s /et 7s pa( attention to Philosophical tradition The empirical tradition The scientific tradition The latest trends /et 7s pa( attention to G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s Classic t(polog( G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s Eestern pol(arch( G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s The elements of li5eralism Classical li5eralism 2eoli5eralism 2eoconser+atism The elements of Mar4ism .rthodo4 Mar4ism Contemporar( Mar4ism G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s /et 7s pa( attention to G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s /et 7s pa( attention to G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s ' To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s /et 7s pa( attention to
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G To concept7al apparat7s /et 7s pa( attention to /et 7s pa( attention to G To concept7al apparat7s /et 7s pa( attention to G To concept7al apparat7s /et 7s pa( attention to G To concept7al a%%aratus /et 7s pa( attention to G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s De+ol7tion !transfer of a7thorit($ G To concept7al apparat7s /et 7s pa( attention to G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s -tate socialism G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s /et 7s pa( attention to G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s /et 7s pa( attention to /et 7s pa( attention to /et 7s pa( attention to /et 7s pa( attention to /et 7s pa( attention to /et 7s pa( attention to G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s /et 7s pa( attention to G To concept7al apparat7s /et 7s pa( attention to G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s The model of pl7ralism G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s Model of the ?new right? Pa( attention G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s
15
G To concept7al apparat7s ' To concept7al apparat7s /et 7s pa( attention to G To concept7al apparat7s Definition of state C7risdiction G To concept7al apparat7s The esta5lishment of common +al7es and goals Ens7ring the sta5ilit( of go+ernment Protection of @reedoms G To concept7al apparat7s The legitimi;ation of regimes -o what is the meaning of the Constit7tionF G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s /et 7s pa( attention to /et 7s pa( attention to G To concept7al apparat7s /et 7s pa( attention to G To concept7al apparat7s /et 7s pa( attention to /et 7s pa( attention to /et 7s pa( attention to G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s ' To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s /et 7s pa( attention to G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s Eeapons of war G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s G To concept7al apparat7s /et 7s pa( attention to G To concept7al apparat7s /et 7s pa( attention to G To concept7al apparat7s
16
Ele'troni' list Illu'ia trations

1ristotle !3#>=322 %C$ 2iccolo Machia+elli !1>'A=152"$ @ig 1 1 Two concepts of p75lic and pri+ate Bannah 1rendt !1A0'=1A"5$ Plato !>2"=3>" %C$ @ig 1 2 .ptions o7t of the prisonersI dilemma @ig 1 3 The political s(stem @ig 1 > The le+els of concept7al anal(sis @ig 2 1 The si4 forms of go+ernment according to 1ristotle @rancis @767(ama ! @rancis @767(ama , P 1A52$ @ig 2 2 The main characteristics of the regime Kohn /oc6e !1'32=1"0>$ Kohn -t7art Mill !1#0'=1#"3$ Edm7nd %7r6e !1"2A=1"A"$ @riedrich +on Ba(e6 !1#AA=1AA2$ &arl Mar4 !1#1#=1##3$ Koseph -talin !1#"A=1A53$ Ber5ert Marc7se !1#A#=1A"A$ Ed7ard %ernstein !1#50=1A32$ Kohn *awls !5 1A21$ 1dolf Bitler !1##A=1A>5$ :ollsto7n6raft Mar( !1"5A=1"A"$ Kerem( %entham !1">#=1#32$ Kean=KacL7es *o7ssea7 !1"12=1""#$ :ladimir 0l(ich /enin !1#"0=1A2>$ @ig > 1 Models elite 9eorg Eilhelm @riedrich Begel !1""0=1#31$ *o5ert 2o;ic6 !1A3#=2002$ Kohann 9ottfried Berder !1">>=1#03$ 9i7seppe Ma;;ini !1#05=1#"2$ 0saiah %erlin !1A0A=1AA"$ 0mman7el &ant !1"2>=1#0>$ 2oam Choms6( !5 1A2#$ @ig " 1 The interdependence of -am7el P B7ntington !5 1A2"$ Kean Monet !1###=1A"A$ Pierre=Koseph Pro7dhon !1#0A=1#'5$ @ig # 1 @ederated -tates 1le4ander Bamilton !1"55=1#05$ @ig # 2 Unitar( -tates Marc7s 9ar+e( !1##"=1A>0$ 1dam -mith !1"23=1"A0$ Kohn Ma(nard &e(nes !1##3=1A>'$ Milton @riedman !5orn 1A12$ E@ -ch7macher !1A11=1A""$ Kohn &enneth 9al5raith !5 1A0#$ 1ntonio 9ramsci !1#A1=1A3"$ *o5ert P7tnam !5 1A>0$ Michael .a6eshott !1A01=1AA0$ Ma4 Ee5er !1#'>=1A20$ K7rgen Ba5ermas !5 1A2A$ Mao Nedong !Mao Tse=d7ng$ !1#A3=1A"'$ 1le4is de TocL7e+ille !1#05=1#5A$ Thomas Paine !1"3"=1#0A$ Koseph -ch7mpeter !1##3=1A50$ @ig 12 1 /inear political spectr7m @ig 12 2 The political spectr7m of the ?horseshoe? @ig 12 3 1 two=dimensional political spectr7m Thomas Kefferson !1">3=1#2'$ *o5ert Dahl !5 1A15$ 2aomi &lein !5 1A"0$ %ett( @riedan !5 1A21$ Thomas Bo55es !15##=1'"A$ Charles=/o7is de MontesL7ie7 -e6ondat !1'#A=1""5$ @ig 15 1 The parliamentar( s(stem of go+ernment @ig 15 2 -eparation of powers
17
Kames Madison !1"51=1#3'$ @ig 1' 1 Presidential form of go+ernment @riedrich 2iet;sche !1#>>=1A00$ 1AA' President 2elson Mandela and the Dalai /ama in Cape Town, -o7th 1frica /eon Trots6( !1#"A=1A>0$
Ta(le o! 'ontents
G. Divers . "Royal science " Professor Heywood X Foreword by the author to the English edition of XV Foreword by the author to the Russian edition of XVII List of tie-ins XVIII Part I . Political heory ! !. "hat is the #olicy $ % &efining #olicy ' Policy studies !(
Politics as the art of 2overn1ent ,olicy as ' ,+blic ,olicy ,rocess ) as a co1,ro1ise anconsens+s 11 Politics as ,o4er 12 5,,roaches to the st+-y of ,olitics 14 6o+l- be a scientific st+-y of ,olitics7 20 conce,ts8 1o-els an- theories 21
Con'lusions 45 Dis'ussion 6uestions 47 %. )o*ern+ents , syste+s and +odes %he traditional syste+ of classification %. /odes of /odern "orld '0
9estern ,olyarchies 39 0e4 De1ocracies 42 ;ast 5sian re2i1es 44 #sla1ic re2i1es <* =ilitary re2i1es 47
9hy classify ,olitical syste1s7 30 6lassic ty,olo2y 31 Ty,olo2y of :three 4orl-s: 34
Con'lusions 89 Dis'ussion 6uestions 8: '. Political Ideology 12 "hat is the #olitical ideology $ 1! Liberalis+ 1'
;le1ents of Liberalis1 53 6lassical liberalis1 55 =o-ern Liberalis1 56
3onser*atis+ 14ocialis+ 0'
The ele1ents of conservatis1 58 ,aternalist conservatis1 60 :0e4 !i2hts: *> The ele1ents of socialis1 64 =ar?is1 65 @ocial De1ocracy 70 Thir- 9ay 72
1I Ta(le o! Contents
5ther ideological tradition 6'

Fascis1 73 5narchis1 75 Fe1inis1 75 ;colo2is1 77 !eli2io+s f+n-a1entalis1 78
he end of ideology $ 6. Con'lusions 9; Dis'ussion 6uestions 9< (. &e+ocracy -%
18
he definition of de+ocracy -'

9hat is a nation7 84 Ho4 sho+l- 1ana2e ,eo,le7 85 Ho4 far sho+l- e?ten- the ,o4er of the ,eo,le7 87
/odels of &e+ocracy -6lassical De1ocracy 89 The ,rotective De1ocracy 90 De1ocracy of 91 Peo,leAs De1ocracy94
&e+ocracy on the #ractice 7 the #oint of *iew of .1 Con'lusions <;8 Dis'ussion 6uestions <;$ 1. 4tate !20 "hat is the state $ !26 heories of the 4tate !!2
Pl+ralist a,,roach 96 elitist a,,roach 98 cor,oratist a,,roach 101 5,,roach :ne4 ri2ht: 102The =ar?ist a,,roach 103
Pl+ralistic state 111 6a,italist @tate 113 @tate leviathan 116 Patriarchal @tate 117 @1all (1ini1+1) @tate 119 @tate Develo,1ent 121 @ocial -e1ocratic state 122 collectiviBestate 122 Totalitarian @tate 123
he Role of the 4tate !!. "Hollow" 4tate $ !%(

GlobaliBation 124 !estr+ct+rin2 @tate 125 s+b3state 1ana2e1ent 126
Con'lusions <47 Dis'ussion 6uestions <49 Part II . 8ations and globali9ation !%. 0. 8ations and 8ationalis+ !'2 "hat is a nation $ !'! !'6 *arieties of nationalis+
Liberal nationalis1 138 6onservative colonial nationalis1 147 0ationalis1 142 e?,ansionist nationalis1 of 144 anti3
The nation as a c+lt+ral co11+nity of 132 of the nation as a ,olitical co11+nity 135
/ulticulturalis+ !(.
9hat is the f+t+re of the nation3state7 153
Con'lusions <$8 Dis'ussion 6uestions <$$

1II
6. "orld Politics !10 o understand the world #olitics !16

#-ealis1 158 !ealis1 160 Pl+ralis1 162 =ar?is1 163
he changing world order !0(
The be2innin2 an- the en- of the :6ol- 9ar: 164 9orl- Cr-er DD# 6ent+ry 168 Factors an- tren-s of 2lobaliBation 172 GlobaliBation: 6once,ts an- -ebate 175
he dyna+ics of globali9ation !6% Regionali9ation !-2 Euro#ean :nion 184 ;ccording to the direction of a world go*ern+ent $ !-. -. internal #olitics !.6 he centrali9ation or decentrali9ation $ !.Relationshi# center-#eri#hery %22
Fe-erate- syste1 201 for1e- fe-eration 9hy7 201 "nitary @yste1 208
The "nite- 0ations 191 6oncl+sion >/' Disc+ssion E+estions >/*
Ethnic and local #olitics %!( Con'lusions 4<: Dis'ussion 6uestions 44; Part III . Political interaction %%!
The revival of ethnic ,olitics 214 Local ,olitics7 218
.. Econo+y and 4ociety %%% he econo+ic syste+ %%'
19
9orl- version of ca,italis1 226 Farieties of @ocialis1 234 Does the econo1y of the :thir4ay:7 238
4ocial 4tructure %'.

P+blic class 241 !ace 245 @e? 247
Con'lusions 489 Dis'ussion 6uestions 48: !2. Political culture , co++unication and legiti+acy %12 <=>?@?AB, C=DEFGBHIBJCJ D C=KLBL??7 AM>N@MFB ? A=OOML?ABP?J %1! Legiti+acy and #olitical stability %0( Con'lusions 475 Dis'ussion 6uestions 477 !!. Re#resentation , Elections and *oting %6Re#resentation %6.
Theory of re,resentation 280
6ivic c+lt+re or i-eolo2ical he2e1ony7 252 =e-ia an- Political 6o11+nication 255-e2ra-ation of social ca,ital7 261 The le2iti1ation of ,o4er 265 The crisis of le2iti1acy 268 9hy -o revol+tions occ+r7 270=ar?ist theory of revol+tion 271
1III Ta(le o! Contents
Elections %-0
F+nctions of elections 287 ;lectoral @yste1s: -isc+ssion an- controversy 290 9hat -o the res+lts of the vote7 298 Fotin2 theory 302
Voting beha*ior '22
Con'lusions #;$ Dis'ussion 6uestions #;5 !%. the Party and the Party 4yste+ '26 Party #olitics '2Ty,es of ,arties 309 F+nctions ,arties 312 Party or2aniBations: the internal -istrib+tion of ,o4er 318
Party syste+s '%!

Cne3,arty syste1s 322 t4o3,arty syste1 323 syste1 4ith one -o1inant ,arty 3261+lti,arty syste1 328
he decline of #arties$ '%. Con'lusions ##< Dis'ussion 6uestions ##4 !'. Public grou# , the grou# interests and social +o*e+ents ''' 3o++unity grou#s in #olitics ''(
Gro+, Ty,es 335 1o-els of ,artici,ation of 2ro+,s in ,olitics: Theory 338 Gro+,As ,artici,ation in ,olitics: the ,ractice 344
4ocial +o*e+ents '1%

0e4 social 1ove1ents 352
Con'lusions #$$ Dis'ussion 6uestions #$5 Part IV . +echanis+s of go*ernance '16 !(. the 3onstitution , law and the Qudicial syste+ '1'1. of the 3onstitution he right '6'
The classification of constit+tions 360 Goals constit+tion 366 @o 4hatAs the 1eanin2 of the 6onstit+tion7 370 La48 1orality an- ,olitics 373 J+-iciary 376 5re the G+-2es ,olitical fi2+res7 377 =ake a G+-2e ,olicy7 380
Con'lusions #94
20
Dis'ussion 6uestions #9# !1. Legislati*e ;sse+bly '-( Role of Legislatures '-1
The ,resi-ential an- ,arlia1entary syste1 386 f+nctions Le2islat+res 391
he structure of the legislati*e asse+blies of '.0

Cne cha1ber or t4o7 397 6o11ittees 400
I"
he acti*ities of the legislati*e asse+blies of (2%

Cr are the le2islat+res of ,olitics7 402 9hat asse1blies7 405!enaissance le2islat+res7 408 are the ca+ses of -ecline
Con'lusions 8;9 Dis'ussion 6uestions 8;: !0. he eRecuti*e #ower of (!2 he role of the eRecuti*e branch (!!
9hoAs 4ho in the e?ec+tive 411 F+nctions of the ,olitical e?ec+tive3level 413
ERecuti*e #ower in the state syste+7 who rules$ (!0 Political Leadershi# (%.
Theories of Lea-ershi, 430 Lea-ershi, @tyles 433
The ,resi-ents of 417 Pri1e =inisters 422 6abinet 427
Con'lusions 8#5 Dis'ussion 6uestions 8#7 !6. Public 4er*ice ('heory of bureaucracy ('.
H+rea+cracy as an a-1inistrative 1achine 440 H+rea+cracy as ,o4er 441 H+rea+cracy as a self3 -evelo,in2 syste1 443 The f+nctions of the b+rea+cracy 445 Cr2aniBation of P+blic @ervice 448 @o+rces of b+rea+cratic ,o4er 453 Ho4 can 4e control the b+rea+cracy7 456
he role of the bureaucracy ((1
he #ower of the bureaucracy out of control$ (1' Con'lusions 85< Dis'ussion 6uestions 854 !-. he ar+y and the #olice (0' ;r+y and Politics (0( Police and Politics (6!ole of the Police 479 Political control an- acco+ntability 483
The role of the ar1y 466 control over the ar1y of 473 9hen the 1ilitary seiBe- ,o4er7 476
Con'lusions 89$ Dis'ussion 6uestions 895 Part V . #olicy and the functioning of #olitical syste+s (-6 !.. he #olitical #rocess and the functioning of the #olitical syste+ (-he #olitical #rocess (-.
Decision theory8 489 @ta2es of the ,olitical ,rocess 494 The stability criterion 502 6riterion criterion of -e1ocracy 507
he functioning of the #olitical syste+ 12%

of ;cono1ic Develo,1ent 504 6riterion ri2hts 506 The
Con'lusions $;9 Dis'ussion 6uestions $;: &ictionary of Political er+s 1!2
21
"
"Royal s'ien'e" Pro!essor Heywood *instead o! t+e !oreword,
.ne of the +er( wise men of old to the L7estion seriocomic profiles, ?Ehat is most s7rprisingF? -aid3 ?The most ama;ing thing = a politician, who li+ed to old age ? 1nd cent7ries that ha+e passed since those earl(, ancient, times, con+incingl( confirmed the correctness of this aphorism *arel(, +er( rarel( maCor politician left in this world of goodness, peace and L7iet, s7rro7nded 5( a L7iet, mo7rnf7l children and grandchildren and gratef7l fellow citi;ens .f co7rse, here we are not tal6ing a5o7t political officials, cler6s of small and large, are not o5edient e4ec7tors of the will of others, not on the ca5inet !?;apechn(h?$ strateg( or parL7et -har67no+ and not a5o7t ordinar( careerists = from those who wa6e 7p in the night, at the time co7p dIetat, and as6 for what he go+ernment, he will respond in the manner of Talle(rand3 ?@or that which is c7rrentl( in powerO? 0t is these g7(s are 7p to a h7ndred (ears old, smoothl( flowing from one political team to another, are a5le to li+e 0tIs a5o7t politics with a capital letter 1le4ander the 9reat, 15raham /incoln, 9eorges Danton, Ma4imilien *o5espierre, 2apoleon, Kohn and *o5ert &enned( and *eggie 0ndira 9andhi, 1nwar -adat, Patrice /7m7m5a, -al+ador 1llende, the .lof Palme The( are inn7mera5le 0tIs a5o7t them, it is their tragic fate of the stor( that aphorism 1nd o7r fellow citi;ens = is no e4ception That we are on an eL7al footing with the Eest and the East *are r7ler ?1ll *7ssia? is sent to the other world witho7t the ?help? their ?lo(al? Partic7larl( impressi+e e4amples3 Pa7l 0 , 1le4ander 00 , 2icholas 00 1nd all the ?marshals? ?/eninIs g7ard?, these ?ar5iters? )) cent7r( = Trots6(, %76harin, Nino+ie+, &amene+, *(6o+, Toms6, and the most ?great? ones = Ul(ano+ and D;h7gash+ili = all of them ha+e died 7nder +er( dramatic, arched crime, circ7mstances Politics = de+ilishl( dangero7s profession 1nd it is clear wh( 1fter all, one of its most important f7nctions = coordination of interests in societ( 0nterests, often conflicting, colliding head=on Tr( here ?agreed? to them, tr( to find one of their ?5alance? that wo7ld ens7re social harmon(, sta5ilit(, social de+elopment Then what sol7tions do not accept = all still not satisfied .il t(coons will alwa(s seem that the go+ernor might 5e more fa+ora5le to them, which co7ld f7rther limit the possi5ilit( of their ri+als = the steel of the clan, and the ?steelwor6er?, of co7rse, it wo7ld seem the opposite 1nd then one or the other, in order to swing the milliardodollaro+7(7 the scales in their fa+or, hire a cool !and doomed, in t7rn, the s75seL7ent destr7ction$ of 6illers = and now we see on tele+ision, as slowl( 5egins to crawl o+er the 5ac6 of the seat open car 5od( C7st a second ago, a smiling Kohn @ &enned( and how shoc6ed and conf7sed 5ea7t( KacL7eline !ironic, 57t 7nderstanda5le p7rel( h7man, gest7reO$ r7sh on the hood of the car = to pic6 7p the shattered pieces of the s67ll of her h7s5and <es, damn dangero7s profession 5( this polic( 1nd (et, and (et 9o and go to her people <o7ng, talented, f7ll of strength and hope 9o for it is still an e4citing and no5le and inspiring lesson = to ma6e histor( of his co7ntr(, his people Bere and desire to 5rea6 free into the open and large=scale operations = were it not for ?circ7mstances? owned 5( (o7, and (o7 = ?circ7mstances? that the e+ent is not dragged (o7 in the r7t of life, and (o7 ran the e+ent 1ccording to Ma(a6o+s6(3 Eith sheets, torn insomnia ripped off, Cealo7s of Copernic7s it, not the h7s5and of Maria 0+ana, Considering his opponentO The acti+ities in the camp of Copernic7s = that partic7larl( attracts, especiall( now that capti+ates (o7ng hearts and so7ls .f co7rse, then, as the (ears passed, man( of the candidates in &opernic6i settled down, and some, 5( the wa(, and then reali;e that it is not too 5ad, not too ashamed to find his L7iet, 6ind and 5ea7tif7l ?Maria 0+ano+na,? and that in general can 5e is worth( to li+e life and not swinging at the profession of ?glo5al? !and than6 9od$ %7t others still remain in the ?5ig world? Copernic7s = with its high hopes, and despite the dangers l7r6ing in it
"I
This wonderf7l, this wonderf7l dream of (o7ng people see6ing a Copernican world of 5ig politics, 5rilliantl( e4pressed 5( one of the greatest political fig7res in histor( !in this case the name is not important$ in a school essa( ?Tho7ghts 5o(s in choosing a profession?3 ? The main leader, which sho7ld g7ide 7s in choosing a profession, is the good of h7manit(, o7r own perfection B7man nat7re is s7ch that people can reach their impro+ement onl( 5( wor6ing for the impro+ement of his contemporaries, for the sa6e of their own good 0f we ha+e chosen a profession in which we are most a5le to wor6 for h7manit(, we do not 5end the 7nder her 57rden, 5eca7se it is = in the name of the +ictim, then we will e4perience not pathetic, limited, selfish Co(, 57t o7r happiness will 5elong to millions ?
22
?The sacrifices in the name of all? = that is !or, rather, what sho7ld 5e$ the polic( ?.7r happiness will 5elong to millions? = this is a possi5le reward for ta6ing part in it 0 accidentall( said a %ossible reward @or it is L7ite possi5le, and another, less inspiring res7lts <es, of co7rse, this polic( can !and sho7ld$ start with these fine intentions = the ?happiness of millions? %7t if the ?good intentions? will not 5e 5ac6ed 7p 5( ?e4cellent? 6nowledge and s6ills = to 5e tro75le 1nd not onl( for (o7 personall( !it wo7ld 5e so 5ad$, 57t = for the citi;ens of the comm7nit( that (o7 !along with (o7r teammates$ were going to ma6e happ( Mi6hail 9or5ache+ an( ?traitor? !whate+er the appearances are different pse7do ?left?$, and was not 5( an( ?prescription from o+erseas?, did not act Be sincerel( wanted good to their fellow citi;ens and their co7ntr( Be act7all( had good intentions Be C7st was not read( !which, incidentall(, he hardl( 6new$ to lead the implementation of maCor reforms the co7ntr( needs 1fter all, he grew 7p in the one command=and=control, a s(stem where the clim5 to the highest steps of the go+ernment pro+ided no creati+e, and highl( performing acti+ities !with elements of intrig7e small and large$, where the main career politician was not sol+ing real pro5lems posed 5( social contradictions and lo(alt( to the ?general line?, which, in fact, mean and the nearest line of s7perior head 0t was the officials and the +ertical hierarch(, the essence of which 5est con+e(s the famo7s aphorism of 2icholas Michael3 ?0f the 57rea7cratic ladder to loo6 7p to, (o7 will see an 7pward ladder 5ar when the top down = descending stairs lac6e(s ? 0t is clear that such steps co7ld not appear *eformer 0n s7ch a s(stem co7ld not ta6e shape and the forces = intellect7al and organi;ational = that wo7ld 5e a5le to sol+e the pro5lems confronted the societ( Co7ld not appear, sa(ing strict political science terms, s75Cect transformation That is wh( in this sit7ation, the political leader had to act with e4treme ca7tion !?do no harm?$, ta6e the 7n6nown road of histor(, 5oth in the thin spring ice, li6e a mine field, +erif(ing each step and, together with colleag7es st7d(ing in the co7rse of s7ch a ca7tio7s mo+ement %7t, alas, narrow minded person, a pla( of all sorts of circ7mstances are s7ddenl( at the top of the 57rea7cratic ladder, as a r7le, does not allow him to reali;e their potential !+er( limited$ and the le+el of competence !+er( low$ 0n addition, the limited n7rt7red nomenclat7re ?leader? 7s7all( s7pplemented his +anit(, his 5o7ndless self=confidence and 5o7ndless conceit3 Eell, li6e, itIs not happened to 5e at the top = heIs far=sighted of all, he 6nows e+er(thing, 7nderstands e+er(thing, 6nows e+er(thing *es7lt of the reforms of Mi6hail 9or5ache+ 6nown 0n general, Chernom(rdin3 ?0 want to 5e 5etter, it t7rned o7t as alwa(s ? 1gain, the no5le intentions sho7ld 5e s7pplemented &nowledge = &nowledge of the socio=political machine that (o7 want to manage !or in the management of which plan to participate$ &nowledge = e4perience in managing specific political instit7tions of societ( at different times and in different sit7ations &nowledge = s7ccesses and fail7res, +ictories and defeats of the past politicians 0f (o7 ha+e decided to start a ?restr7ct7ring? that, at least, we m7st imagine3 Ehat (o7 are ?restr7ct7ring? and what ?restr7ct7ring? Politics = is primaril( a science, and reL7ires an appropriate attit7de 1 political leader = is, first of all, the scientist who 6nows the laws of motion of the socio=political life and creati+e acts in the co7rse of these laws Ta6e (o7r first steps into the world of politics, in the world of Political -cience will help Professor 1ndrew Be(wood, the a7thor offers (o7 a te4t5oo6, one of the 5est modern te4t5oo6s on political science <o7 will 5e eas( and pleasant to wal6 thro7gh the ma;e of modern political science with this e4perienced ?g7ide ?Professor Ba(wood is a5le to present comple4 pro5lems of political life, political life with disarming clarit( Be, as few people 6now how to com5ine the pop7larit( of the stor( with a strict scientific method 0t is not eas(, not in the interests of the theor( primiti+i;ir7et falsel( 7nderstood ?clarit(? Be 6nows how to lead the reader, getting along with him from the simple to the comple4, from elementar(, e+er(da(, life concepts to comple4 theoretical constr7cts %ri5es its wa( of comm7nicating with the reader 0t is not ?teaches? him from the height of a professorIs chair, not s7ppress it complicated !7nnecessaril($ scientific calc7lations, it does not da;;le 5rilliance of an infinite series of great names, not 5affle man( points of +iew on these or other iss7es That is not doing an( of the things that sometimes tend to the (o7ng !and am5itio7s$ political scientists see6ing to
"II
not so m7ch to 5e 7nderstood 5( the reader as to show themselves and sha6e the imagination of the poor, 5eginning his st7dies, the (o7ng man for his e4traordinar( er7dition Professor Ba(wood talks with the reader, L7ietl( and earnestl( = as a friend, as his elder and wise friend BereIs a loo6 at how he starts his 5oo63 ?Politics is an interesting case, 5eca7se we are all +er( different 1mong 7s there is no agreement as to how sho7ld li+e, who sho7ld recei+e from societ(, who are worth( of power is generall( to 5e allocated p75lic reso7rces and that, finall(, is the 5asis of social life = cooperation or conflict People often do not agree, and in fact, e4actl( how these iss7es sho7ld 5e resol+ed @rom the point of +iew of 1ristotle, all this made a polic( of ?imperial science? = science, which can 5e 7sed to impro+e life and create a decent societ( Politics, therefore = is first and foremost a social acti+it( 0t is alwa(s a dialog7e = and ne+er a monolog7e /et one indi+id7al li6e *o5inson Cr7soe capa5le of m7ch = to create their own farm, to prod7ce a piece of art and so on, which the( can not, 5eca7se it is in+ol+ed in politics @or politics, fig7rati+el( spea6ing, 5egins onl( when there @rida( ? ThatIs so c7te starts Professor Be(wood tal6 a5o7t the ?imperial science?, in which a professor will spea6, of co7rse, mnogo;na(7schim ?*o5inson Cr7soe? and the reader = his lo(al and attenti+e ?@rida(? This, spiced with h7mor and tone of confidence, some s7rprising intellect7al comfort will not lea+e (o7 7ntil the last pages of the 5oo6 The te4t of the t7torial is concise, (et complete The a7thor does not miss one important s75tleties of political theor( Be manages to sa( e+er(thing Be will tell (o7 at the 5eginning of the essence, and then raise L7estions J7estions c7stom search for answers that will allow (o7 to more deepl( 7nderstand the essence and m7ltilateral iss7es J7estions = not so m7ch for repetition and memori;ation, 57t for the f7t7re, independent thin6ing thro7gh ideas presented teacher Bere it is said that s7ch a polic( 1nd
23
then as6ed to thin63 ?0f the polic( is deepl( social, wh( not all the social acti+ities politicF Eh( ideas a5o7t politics so often carried and carr( a negati+e connotationF Ehat can 5e said in defense of the polic( as it is a no5le and worth(F 0s it possi5le to ?end of politics?FEh( is the idea of a scientific approach to the st7d( of politics has alwa(s 5een so pop7larF 0s it possi5le to st7d( the policies and o5Cecti+el( witho7t an( 5ias itF I 9ood L7estion, is not itF There is something to smash his headO 1nd once (o7Ire rel(ing on te4t5oo6 materials, spin aro7nd these iss7es, the a7thor = to sec7re the reading = on the margins of the 5oo6, in a frame, fi4 the most important thing for this theme3 the most important definitions, their relationships, draw charts, diagrams, ta5les , clearly showing the content of the pro5lems Completeness and confidential con+ersations will promote the fact that the professor will e4plain to (o7 that the polic( is not C7st the laws, form7las, diagrams, = it is a li+ing wor6 of li+ing, real people, and political theor( = is 5oth a destin( and life of h7mans, it has created <o7 will 7nderstand, then, that the moral and political theor( of -ocrates = itIs not C7st his loo6s, itIs = it acts, it = his whole life Do not C7st 6now what the classification of political regimes offered Plato and 1ristotle, 57t also to loo6 into their faces on a 5oo6 p75lished in portraits, learn some of the details of their destinies of acc7rate and concise reference gi+en 5( the a7thor of the te4t5oo6 -o strict political form7las acL7ire emotional, h7man coloring 1nd pro5a5l( the most +al7a5le is that the thin6ers of the past in the image of Professor Be(woodIs not some ancient, ?fossil? fig7re, e4cept that ha+ing archi+al, historical interest to the reader, and o7rs, in fact, contem%oraries @or the(, li6e 7s shows a7thor failed to deli+er, were a5le to artic7late man( of the iss7es o+er which reflects contemporar( political theor(, and offered some important ?6e(s? for their sol7tions Plato, 1ristotle, Bo55es, /oc6e = not the ?past? of political theor(, and the most that neither is ?real?, and in some wa(s and her ?f7t7re ? .ne +er( ast7te philosopher once said3 ?1ll of Eestern philosoph( = no more than a commentar( on Plato ? This is pro5a5l( e+er( other aphorism, contains a 5it of an e4aggeration %7t in the ?e4aggeration? of this aphorism = a +er( high proportion of the tr7th 1nd it masterf7ll( 5rings o7t in his 5oo6, 1ndrew Be(wood 1t the same time, represented in the te4t5oo6 stor( of the pro5lems of political tho7ght has no self=s7fficient character The stor( here is not an end in itself The stor( here is an introd7ction to the %resent The a7thor foc7ses on = the modern state of political theor( most modern 5efore 7s, in e+er( sense of the word = a te4t5oo6 ))0 cent7r( Moreo+er, all of its contents were fi4ed in the future -ignificantl(, man( concepts disc7ssed in the 5oo6 5egin catchword "%ost"( %ost modernism, %ost materialism, post=@ordism, postsocialism, post=ind7strialism, etc This is the ?word? = a s(m5ol of 5irth of a new era = of the post !?post?$ ))cent7r( This ?word? = an indication that the old realit( lea+es, a new one was formed, was not defined 7ntil the end, and therefore ha+e not fo7nd the proper, adeL7ate, new content items Professor Be(wood as if opens the door to a f7t7re in the world of new social and political realities in the world, which he calls the Post = Eorld !?postmir?$ @rom the world of well=esta5lished phenomena and to defend the 6nowledge he see6s to introd7ce readers=
"III
agent in the world, (et little=st7died in the world still do not f7ll( meaningf7l and not (et f7ll( sol+ed pro5lems Be, therefore, ta6es the reader on the c7tting edge of scientific 6nowledge, for whom = the 7ndisco+ered and 7ne4plored space Be th7s prepares the reader for f7rther, independent search Prepares to creati+it( *elated to this is another important feat7re of the proposed t7torial The a7thor constantl( emphasi;es politics = is not onl( and not C7st a science, it is also the art of it = Creati+it( Therefore te4t5oo6 written 5( him = 57t the %remise of s7ch a creati+e acti+it( Te4t5oo6 pro+ides onl( a general description of the laws, onl( a general description of connections and relations of social and political instit7tions Be introd7ces the ?arithmetic? !well, if (o7 li6e, with the ?higher mathematics?$ policies )%%lication of these same ?mathematical? form7las to the specific conditions of the people = the process of Creati+it( 0ts not po7nd in charts, ta5les, matrices, and templates 1nd creati+it( is also needed !and possi5le$ to 5e trained, 57t not from te4t5oo6s The te4t5oo6 is reL7ired, 57t it is not s7fficient .n this, too, warns Professor Be(wood ?/earning? Creati+it( = then learn from the e4periences of specific politicians, actors of political action, caref7ll( anal(;ing the ratio of their o5Cecti+es, intentions and res7lts, ta6ing from it for themsel+es the appropriate lessons /earn Creati+it( = then t7rn to the wor6s of the classics of political tho7ght, which most adeL7atel( reflected and interpreted the past e4perience of the social acti+ities of people Professor Ba(wood ma6es reference to s7ch wor6s This is essentiall( its proposed program of f7rther penetration into the essence of political theor(, political art in depth 1nd one more facet of pedagogical s6ills 1ndrew Be(wood 1s we ha+e alread( noted, politics, political theor( = is the sphere of conflict of interest and conflict of ideas 9reat art = adeL7atel( reflect the content of the str7ggle, witho7t 5ecoming a co7nsel of opposing sides, to preser+e the scientific o5Cecti+it( of the presentation 0n general = to gi+e a f7ll and o5Cecti+e pict7re, not ideologicall( pointed treatise Erite it so that (o7r personal li6es and disli6es are not h7ng o+er (o7r description of phenomena, e+ents and theories -imilarl(, the art f7ll( owns Professor Be(wood This is especiall( e+ident in his description of this comple4 for an o5Cecti+e anal(sis of the topic, as ?Modern political ideolog( ? 0t is hard to get awa( from their li6es and disli6es 1ndrew Be(wood is possi5le 1 sample of this = his anal(sis of the relationship 5etween ideologies of ?li5eralism? and ?socialism? 7nder the sign of intense competition which went all the )) cent7r( Professor Be(wood presents a tremendo7s respect f7ndamental pro+isions of the socialist theories of Mar4 and with no less respect = the 5asic ideas of li5eralism, Kohn /oc6e, and their followers Be notes the strengths and wea6nesses of competing ideologies Be traces, as in the historical and theoretical de+elopment of these ideologies o+ercome their limitations, ref7sed to e4tremes, as the( grad7all( fell awa( from the most primiti+e and, 5eca7se of this, the most warli6e and flow concept Be notes that the most profo7nd, the most se+ere forms of these ideologies are going to meet each other, to 5orrow from each otherIs good ideas and h7manistic +al7es 1nd as a res7lt more and more cr(stalli;ed the idea of a ?third wa(? = the wa( in which there is a con+ergence of +al7es of a li5eral and a socialist=leaning 1nd the modern li5eral concepts !Kohn *awls, 0saiah %erlin$, incl7ding the core of their theories categor( of
24
?eL7alit(? !central to the socialist theories$, transformed into a special t(pe of li5eralism = social li5eralism 1nd this t(pe of modern li5eralism is mo+ing closer to a n7m5er of forms of modern socialism, incl7ding the fa5ric of their ideolog( central categor( of li5eral concepts = ?freedom ? The highl( prod7cti+e statementO .f co7rse, we offer (o7 a t7torial = not onl( in o7r ed7cational and pedagogical literat7re Toda(, in an( 5oo6store, (o7Ill find a fair amo7nt of +ariet( of 5oo6s on political science, created o7r own, domestic a7thors 1mong them !to name the 5est, in m( opinion$ = ?0ntrod7ction to Political -cience? :P P7gache+a and 10 -olo+(o+ !Eile(, 2001$, ?Political -cience -t7dent Band5oo6 ?:P P7gache+a !Eile(, 2001$ and, in partic7lar, = ?Political -cience?, te4t5oo6, prepared in 200> 5( a team of the @ac7lt( of Political -cience !Uni+ersit($ 7nder the direction of prof 1< Mel+ille 2o matter how good t7torial prof Be(wood, it can not replace domestic man7als 0t is not what is in o7r te4t5oo6s, and that is the most important part of the political ed7cation of *7ssians = it does not ha+e the political +ision of the histor( of *7ssia, the *7ssian contemporar( iss7es of social and political de+elopment, there is a social and spirit7al atmosphere in which all of 7s, *7ssians, li+e 1ndrew Be(woodIs 5oo6 = a goodaddition to o7r te4t5oo6s -he 5rings 7s so 5reathing and p7lse of contemporar( Eestern political tho7ght -till, getting to 6now the talented wor6 of Eestern we5site, we will 6eep in mind f7ll of deep meaning of the motto form7lated 5( 1- P7sh6in3 ?Enter to E7rope and *7ssia to sta(O? GREGORY DIVERS, Doctor of Philosoph(, Professor, :ice=President of the 1cadem( of Political -cience
"I1
Pre!a'e to t+e Englis+ edition we(site
The p7rpose of this 5oo6 = to gi+e the reader as possi5le a complete introd7ction to the pro5lems of contemporar( politics and political science @rom the 5eginning, it was written as an aid for st7dents st7d(ing certain sections of political science The a7thor, howe+er, while constantl( had in mind, and those whose wor6 ma( 5e of interest of the general nat7re Politics sho7ld not 5e hard to spot3 tho7gh perhaps therein lies the 5ea7t( of political science The feeling that the stor( of ?accelerated? 5( no means a s(mptom of those dist7r5ing feelings that alwa(s accompan( the ?end of an era?3 in man( wa(s, the stor( is really accelerating 0n recent decades, ))cent7r(, the world has witnessed the collapse of comm7nism, the end of the ?Cold Ear?, the formation of the glo5al econom(, the technological re+ol7tion in the prod7ction and comm7nications, lifting 0slamism -7ddenl( we were in a ?postmire?3 the concept of postmodernism, postmaterialism, post= @ordism, post=socialist and post=ind7strialism, as the rotation of the 6aleidoscope, form e+er new com5inations for which often no longer ma6e o7t the realit( that we ha+e 6nown since childhood %7t at the same time 5eca7se (o7 will not sa( that e+er(thing aro7nd has 5een t7rned on its head <es, the pace of change has accelerated, 57t in o7r p75lic life, o7r political landscape, s7rprisingl(, L7ite a lot has not 7ndergone an( changes ThatIs wh( this 5oo6 is f7ll( pa(ing attention to the latest e+ents = glo5ali;ation, the mo+ement of feminism and ?green?, the rise of ethnic nationalism, the emergence of a n7m5er of new social mo+ements = and preser+ed the traditional approaches to discipline, incl7ding man( of the things that once made in its classical political tho7ght, whether Plato or 1ristotle, Mar4, or Mill This is the second edition of the 5oo63 a series of pro5lems in it is gi+en more, new frames and diagrams More details are presented topics s7ch as glo5ali;ation, media, new forms of political comm7nication, the ideolog( of the ?third wa(?, regionali;ation, democrati;ation and the general shift from the principle of go+ernment 5( macro=societ( The a7thor th7s so7ght to address all aspects of polic( anal(sis, most of all tr(ing not to lose sight of the pro5lems that the st7d( of the discipline, perhaps, seem to 5e most diffic7lt 0n order to o+ercome the traditional gap 5etween political philosoph( and political science, the 5oo6 thoro7ghl( spelled o7t the relationship 5etween the normati+e conceptions
25
of political science and empiricism, and man( of the pro5lems are gi+en in an international perspecti+e, and not on a ?co7ntr( 5( co7ntr(? and from ?the s(stem to the s(stem ? 0n the 5oo6, fi+e main themes, as part of the data Part 0 = ?Ehat is politicsF?=e4plores the concept7al and methodological iss7es of political science, its emplo(ees
"1
an introd7ction to all that is f7rther disc7ssed in the 5oo6 Part 00 = ?The nation and glo5ali;ation? disc7sses the role and importance of the nation state, especiall( in light of the internationali;ation processes and the formation of glo5al politics Part 000 = ?The political interaction? anal(;es the connection 5etween political and non=political factors in societ(, the channels of comm7nication 5etween those who ?r7les? and those ?who are go+erned ? Part 0: = ?The mechanisms of go+ernment? = disc7sses instit7tional and political processes that affect the p75lic administration @inall(, Part : = ?Politics and the f7nctioning of political s(stems? = e4plores the ?how polic( is made,? and 5( what criteria can e+al7ate the f7nctioning of the political s(stem that 5rings the reader 5ac6 to those theoretical and ideological iss7es that were considered in part 0 Each chapter offers a general +iew of its central iss7es and themes 1t the end of the chapter are the concl7sions and a list of 6e( iss7es for disc7ssion 1ccording to the te4t of chapter containing additional material in the form of definitions of +ario7s terms, and tie=ins, are also 5rief 5iographies of political thin6ers and politicians -ide5ars ?To concept7al apparat7s? specificall( allocate a partic7lar term or concept Tapping ?pa( attention? offer a more in=depth loo6 at the rele+ant theories and approaches, as well as disc7ssion and points of +iew 1t the end of the 5oo6 the reader will find a glossar( of 6e( terms and concepts 2ew in the second edition is the fact that it pro+ided to its we5site = www Palgra+e C.M 8@o7ndations 8 Be(wood The site contains the reL7ired addresses, the material to the chapters, the L7estions !with answers$ and the additional material 0 wo7ld li6e to e4press m( sincere appreciation to the re+iewers who too6 the tro75le to read the first +ersions of this wor6, especiall( Kohn 9rine+e(7 ! Kohn 9reenawa( $, Uin7 9rant ! E(n 9rant $, Chris %rown ! Chris %rown $ and 9err( -to6er ! 9err( -to6er $ Their s7ggestions and criticisms were +er( constr7cti+e and contri57ted to impro+ing the lot of the 5oo6 Man( of the ideas of the 5oo6 ha+e gone thro7gh disc7ssions with colleag7es and friends, of which 0 wo7ld especiall( li6e to highlight and Do7g Eoodward &aron ! &aron and Do7g Eoodward $ Constant so7rce of s7pport and inspiration, seasoned with a fair amo7nt of patience for me were m( p75lishers = @rances 1rnold ! @rances 1rnold $, -tephen &enned( ! -te+en &enned( $ and -7;anne %eri+7d ! -7;annah %7r(wood $ %7t the most heart m( than6s = of co7rse m( wife, Kean -he not onl( made all the hardships of the man7script for p75lication, = its constant readiness to help the %oard in terms of st(le and content ha+e 5een partic7larl( +al7a5le in those moments when it seemed li6e the logical thread of wor6 is a5o7t to 5rea6 off The 5oo6 is dedicated to m( sons = Mar6 and *o5in )ndre* +ey*ood! ,--,
"1I
Aut+or-s )re!a'e to t+e Russian edition
Toda( *7ssia attracts the attention of the whole world, and it gi+es me hope that in some wa(s the 5oo6 can 5e +er( 7sef7l for the *7ssian reader The collapse of comm7nism led to a great +ariet( of economic, social, political and ideological implications, and toda( the( are, these effects are far from e4ha7sted 1s a ?new democrac(? *7ssia is a great e4ample of an interesting political s(stem in a period
26
of transition Bere it is especiall( important phenomena and processes s7ch as3 the esta5lishment of a presidential s(stem in the framewor6 of *7ssian federalism, e+ol7tion of the @ederal 1ssem5l(, the emergence of a m7lti=part( s(stem, which reflects a deeper process of politicall( acti+e ci+il societ( in the co7ntr( = and all this against the 5ac6gro7nd of rapid de+elopment of the mar6et econom( in the co7ntr( and the formation of a new political c7lt7re here with s7ch cr7cial elements of its pl7ralism, ci+il li5erties, the r7le of law The collapse of the -o+iet Union has created another serio7s pro5lem in the co7ntr( = the pro5lem of its national identit(, accompanied toda( loo6ing for a new ?*7ssian idea? 0n this connection there are a n7m5er of iss7es = how to maintain the integrit( of the federal state, as there sho7ld e+ol+e national relations !especiall( the diffic7lt and important pro5lem is the 0slamic factor$, as a (o7ng state to respond to the challenges that 5rings with it a nationalistic separatism %7t thatIs not all3 the new *7ssia is the challenge to find its place 5etween the Eest and the East = to decide for themsel+es the L7estion of whether it is part of the ?E7rope? 0n a sense it can 5e said that politics in *7ssia C7st 5eing 5orn = or perhaps re5orn 1s 0 write a5o7t this in the 5oo6, the polic( e4ists 5eca7se people tend to disagree with each other = 57t C7st wh( the( sho7ld 5e, and loo6 for the ?political? sol7tions to their differences <es, politics, as we 6now, not alwa(s, alas, done in white glo+es, hides within itself a great man( pro5lems, 57t the 5est wa( to resol+e their differences man6ind agree not (et 5een in+ented )ndre* +ey*ood! ,--.
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"1II
List o! tie.ins
=y t+e 'on'e)tual a))aratus

Laisse# / faire ,015sol7tism 32 17thoritarianism >" 1dministration >>' 1nti=-emitism 1>> The %ill of *ights 3'# %7rea7crac( >>1 Departmental >>A 17thorit( !the a7thorit($ > The *7le of /aw 3"" The Ear >'5 Begemon( 253 Tender 2>' 9lo5ali;ation 1"> The -tate 10A P75lic administration 30 Ci+il li5ert( >"0 Ci+il Diso5edience 350 Ci+il societ( A Citi;enship 50> 9ro7p interest 33" De+ol7tion 211 Democrati;ation 100 Dictatorship >'# Eest >1 The ideal t(pe 22 0deolog( 52 0mperialism 1'3 0nternationalism 15A E4ec7ti+e power >11 Class conscio7sness 2"2 Coalition 32A Collecti+e sec7rit( 1A> Colonialism 1>' Comm7nism >2 Comm7nitarianism 21# Con+ention 3'1 Consens7s 11 Constit7tionalism 3'5 Constit7tion 3'0 Conf7cianism >> Corporatism 3>1 Corr7ption >># Cosmopolitanism 1>0 C7lt of Personalit( >32
28
C7lt7ral nationalism 13> /egitimac( 2'5 /eadership >2A /o55( 3>A Mandate 2#> Macro management ' Mass Media 255 .f the 0nterstate 1#' 0nternational /aw 1A5 Militarism >'" Ministerial responsi5ilit( >5# -cience, scientism 1A 2ation 132 2ation=-tate 152 2e7tralit( 3"# 2eo=Mar4ism 115 2eopl(7rali;m 112 The new p75lic management >50 ?2ew /eft? 352 P75lic Mo+ement 351 P75lic interest 2AA P75lic class 23A Comm7nit(, comm7nit( of 21" The .m57dsman >5A *esponsi5ilit( 3A3 Paradigm 25 Parliamentar( democrac( A5 Parliamentar( s(stem of go+ernment Management 3#" Parliamentar( so+ereignt( 3"2 Part( Democrac( 31A The Part( and the faction of 310 Part( go+ernment 325 Patriarch( 11# Patriotism 1>2 Primar( elections 31' *e+ision of /aws 3"A Planning 233 Ple5iscitar( democrac( ## Pl7ralism A# Pl7ralist democrac( A" Pol(arch( 3# Polit67lt7rali;m 1>A Political C7lt7re 252 Political part( 30A Political Comm7nit( >A5 Political eL7alit( #5 Pop7lism >35 Postmaterialism 2'> Postmodernism "A B7man rights 3"5 *epresentation 2#0 The presidential s(stem of go+ernment >1' Proportional *epresentation 2#A EL7alit( 503 -eparation of Powers 3## *ace 2>> *ace theor(, racism 1>5 The *e+ol7tion 2"1 *elati+ism 500
"1III List o! tie.ins

Mar6et 22>
29
@reedom 3"0 @ree trade 1## -ocial Capital 2'1 -ocial Mar6et 22# Position 2>0 -75sidiarit( 1A2 -o+ereignt( 1'1 Theocrac( >5 P75lic Choice Theor( 3>2 Terrorism >'A Totalitarianism 33 Tradition 2'5 ?The Third Ea(? "2 Utilitarianism >A0
Let-s )ay attention

The Bead of -tate >12 9lo5al economic go+ernance 1A3 0nterest 9ro7ps3 Pros and Cons 3>3 B7manitarian 0nter+ention 1'A %icameral s(stem3 Pros and Cons 3>3 %icameral s(stem3 strengths and wea6nesses 3A" 1# PrisonersI Dilemma E7ropean 0ntegration3 Pros and Cons 1A0 The iron law of oligarch( 31# Electoral s(stems3 a s(stem of simple maCorit( of the 2A1 Electoral s(stems3 the s(stem of the second ro7nd of 2A2 Electoral s(stems3 a s(stem of alternati+e +ote 2A3 Electoral s(stems3 the s(stem of part( lists 2A# Electoral s(stems3 a s(stem of transitional +otes 2A5 The electoral s(stem3 mi4ed s(stem 2A>
Politi'al !igures
Bannah 1rendt 10 1ristotle " Kerem( %entham #A Edm7nd %7r6e 5" 0saiah %erlin 150 Ed7ard %ernstein "0 Ma4 Ee5er 2'" Mar( :ollsto7n6raft "' 1le4ander Bamilton 203 21> Marc7s 9ar+e( 9eorg Eilhelm @riedrich Begel 10# Kohann 9ottfried Berder, 133 1dolf Bitler "> Thomas Bo55es 3"> 1ntonio 9ramsci 25' Kohn &enneth 9al5raith 2>2 *o5ert Dahl 3>0 Thomas Kefferson 330 0mman7el &ant 15# Kohn Ma(nard &e(nes 231 2aomi &lein 353 :ladimir 0l(ich /enin A3 Kohn /oc6e 55 9i7seppe Ma;;ini 13A 2iccolo Machia+elli # Mao Nedong 2"3 &arl Mar4 ''
30
Utopia 31 @ederalism 202 @ordism, post=@ordism 2>1 @7ndamentalism "# Charisma 2'' ?Cold Ear? 1'5 Ecolog(, en+ironmentalism "" Elite, elitism AA Erosion relations ?class part(? 303 Erosion parties 301 -tatism 123 Ethnicit( 212 Ethnocentrism >A3 The core of the e4ec7ti+e >2" 0nstit7te of Prime Minister >23 The Ca5inet of Ministers3 the strengths and wea6nesses of >2' J7ango3 the pros and cons >52 Codified constit7tion3 strong and Eea6nesses 3'2 Committees3 the ad+antages and disad+antages 3AA The mechanism of the E7ropean Union 1#" Center=peripher( model 215 -ocial Contract -oftware .pen 9o+ernment3 Pros and Cons >A# The political spectr7m 313 The pro5lem of social sec7rit( 501 ?Confrontation 2orth=-o7th? 1"' Direct democrac( and representati+e democrac( #' *egional economic 5loc6s 1#1 *eferend7ms3 Pros and Cons 2#3 The de5ate a5o7t the monarch( >23 Ber5ert Marc7se 'A Kohn -t7art Mill 5' Kean Monnet 1#3 Charles=/o7is MontesL7ie7 3#' Kames Madison 3A' @riedrich 2iet;sche >30 *o5ert 2o;ic6 120 Michael .a6eshott 2'3 Thomas Paine 2#2 Plato 15 Pierre=Koseph Pro7dhon 201 *o5ert P7tnam 2'2 Kohn *owles "1 Kean=KacL7es *o7ssea7 A2 1dam -mith 225 Koseph -talin '# 1le4is de TocL7e+ille 2"> /eon Trots6( >>3 %ett( @riedan 35> Milton @riedman 232 @rancis @767(ama 3" K7rgen Ba5ermas 2'A @riedrich +on Ba(e6 '1 -am7el B7ntington 1#2 2oam Choms6( 1'# E@ -ch7macher 23" Koseph -ch7mpeter 2#'
31
<
Part I & Politi'al t+eory
C+a)ter <& W+at is )oliti's>
Man on his nature, there eing political !ristotle " policy , 1
Politics is an interesting case, 5eca7se we are all +er( different 1mong 7s there is no agreement as to how sho7ld li+e, who sho7ld recei+e from societ(, who are worth( of power is generall( to 5e allocated p75lic reso7rces and that, finall(, is the 5asis of social life = cooperation or conflict People often do not agree, and in fact, e4actl( how these iss7es sho7ld 5e resol+ed = as a collecti+e sol7tions sho7ld 5e wor6ed o7t who and how 0 sho7ld spea6 as a man can do to infl7ence the social life and so on @rom the point of +iew of 1ristotle, all this made a polic( of ?imperial science? = science, which can 5e 7sed to impro+e life and create a decent societ( Politics, therefore = is first and foremost a social acti+it( 0t is alwa(s a dialog7e = and ne+er a monolog7e /et one indi+id7al, li6e *o5inson Cr7soe, capa5le of a lot = to create their own farm, to prod7ce a piece of art and so on, which the( can not, 5eca7se it is in+ol+ed in politics @or politics, fig7rati+el( spea6ing, 5egins onl( when there @rida( Discord, the 7nderl(ing polic(, nat7rall( manifests itself in the L7estion of how e4actl( sho7ld st7d( this s75Cect Bere we are again faced with a different 7nderstanding of what it is that ma6es a partic7lar social pro5lem ?political?, as the anal(sis of political acti+it(, as it is 5etter to e4plain it
Content
Content Poli'y 2a?ing # Politics as 1rt go+ernment $ Politics as a p75lic process 9 Politics as compromise and consens7s << Politics as power <4
32
T+e study o! )oliti's 1pproaches to the st7d( of politics Can the st7d( of politics 5e scientificF The concepts, models and theories Findings Issues !or dis'ussion
<& W+at is )oliti's> #
<8 <8 4; 4< 45 47
0n this chapter we consider the following L7estions
T+e 2ain @uestions

P Ehat are the defining feat7res of the polic( as a specific t(pe of acti+it(F P Bow different thin6ers and traditions interpreted ?political sphere?F P 1re the arena of p75lic polic(, all instit7tions at all or C7st some of themF P Ehat are the different approaches to the st7d( of politics as a scientific disciplineF P Can the st7d( of politics 5e scientific characterF P Ehat is the role pla(ed 5( the political anal(sis of the concepts, models and theoriesF
De!inition o! a )oli'y
0n the most general sense, politics is the process 5( which people create, maintain and enrich their own dorm r7les The polic( therefore ine4trica5l( lin6ed to the phenomena of 'on!li't ! Conflict $ and'oo)eration ! Cooperation $ This is so 5eca7se, on the one hand, in a comm7nit( differences of opinion, needs and interests will ine+ita5l( t7rn into disagreements with regard to the general r7les of the hostel on the other = all 7nderstand that to change the r7les, or at least to maintain them, need to wor6 together Bence, for instance, proposed 5( Bannah 1rendt !see p 10$ definition of political power as a ?co=operations? @or all these reasons, the essence of the polic( often see in the conflict resol7tion process = the process, somehow reconciling di+ergent +iews and interests 0t sho7ld 5e noted, howe+er, that in this, +er( wide, (et the polic( approach is 5est 7nderstood not so m7ch as conflict resol7tion, 57t as a search for wa(s to resol+e them, 5eca7se, clearl(, not all conflicts are resol+ed in the comm7nit(, or ma( 5e allowed ConseL7entl(, when the ine+ita5ilit( of, on the one hand = social di+ersit( !we do not li6e each other$, and the other = the scarcit( of p75lic reso7rces !of all is ne+er eno7gh$, the polic( will alwa(s 5e an integral part of h7man societ( Bowe+er, an( attempt to re+eal the precise meaning of the term ?polic(? in+ol+es sol+ing two pro5lems The first of them = itIs a great +ariet( of associations connected with the e+er(da( 7se of the term ?polic(? is e4tremel( m7lti=+al7ed, e+en the ?o+erloaded? conceptO Eith that, sa(, the econom(, geograph(, histor(, or 5iolog( in most cases, people are treated as p7rel( scientific disciplines, in con+ersations a5o7t politics, few do not ha+e a ?personal opinion? 0t is often said that the st7d( of politics is the occ7pation is not fair that the o5Cect can not 5e st7died witho7t a p7rel( personal preference Eorse, in the e(es of man( people, politics is a lesson 6nowingl( ?co=
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8 I & Politi'al t+eory
A To 'on'e)tual a))aratus
Power X authority Y should distinguish et@een t@o as a ArecogniBed authoritC A " DE the Apo@erF po@erA iGplies the ability to identiEC EorGaliBed rules H cG " section legitiGation oE po@er I"
33
s7spicio7sness, ?and then simpl(? dirt( ?, fore+er associated with the affairs of the d75io7s nat7re, +iolence, fra7d, h(pocris(, if not an o7tright lie Eell, 0 m7st sa( that in s7ch associations is nothing new %ac6 in 1""5, for e4ample, -am7el Kohnson, one said that the polic( = it is ?C7st a means to ma6e a career in this world,? and in the )0) cent7r( 1merican historian Benr( 1dam c spo6e on the same s75Cect as ?an ordered s(stem of hatred ? 1n( attempt to define the polic( sho7ld therefore first of all that the pro5lem of associations of this 6ind @or a start there is eno7gh to sa( at least something that politicians ha+e alwa(s 5een different, L7ite the opposite in the sense of rep7tation = the rep7tation of the necessar(, important and, indeed, in the e(es of the honora5le societ( of the case 1 second and still more diffic7lt pro5lem is that of the greatest a7thorities still do not agree on the fact that, strictl( spea6ing, is the s75Cect of political science Polic( is defined in +ario7s wa(s = as the e4ercise of power as collecti+e decision=ma6ing, as the distri57tion of scarce reso7rces s7ch as the manip7lation of the s(stem, etc The ad+antage of the definition proposed in o7r wor6 = as %olicy creation! %reservation and enrichment of the most common rules of life / is that it is 5road eno7gh to co+er most !if not all$ of the a5o+e interpretations of the data %7t it does not sol+e all the pro5lems and 5road approach, 5eca7se is ?7npac6? o7r definition or tr( to clarif( certain aspects of it, as new L7estions arise -a(, is there a polic( to a specific method of prod7ction, preser+ation and enrichment of the norms and r7les of the comm7nit( !for e4ample, whether there is a peacef7l wa( = thro7gh the political de5ate or p75lic disc7ssion$, or e+en all of the possi5le wa(s for this case, whether the scope of implementation of the polic( comm7nit( as a whole or onl( certain areas of his life !a s(stem of go+ernment control or sa( wider sphere of p75lic polic($F The concept of polic(, therefore, e4tremel( meanings !see p 21$, it incorporated a lot of it is accepta5le and legitimate +al7es 0t is impossi5le, moreo+er, e4cl7de the possi5ilit( that different definitions, incl7ding data a5o+e act7all( represent C7st different aspects of one and the same !not necessaril(
@a1+el Johnson (>&(/3>&)<) 3 ;n2lish ,oet8 an infl+ential critic8 literary historian anle?ico2ra,her ( Note. lane. ) 2 #n the ;n2lish lan2+a2e to refer to these t4o ty,es of ,o4er +se- t4o -ifferent 4or-s 3 Authorityan- power . in the !+ssian lan2+a2e8 this -ifferentiation is 1issin2: both translate- as :,o4er: #n this case 4e are talkin2 abo+t the ,o4er that the ;n2lish lan2+a2e by the 4or- Authority . ( Note. lane. )
1
<& W+at is )oliti's> $
(et f7ll( clear$ phenomenon %e that as it ma(, sho7ld contin7e to consider ?what is politics,? since in an( case we are dealing here with the most that ha+e profo7nd intellect7al and ideological differences 5etween those who ha+e 5een st7d(ing and st7d(ing the s75Cect 2e4t, we consider the following +iews on politics3 politics as the art of go+ernance how p75lic polic( process polic( as a compromise and consens7s politics of power and distri57tion of reso7rces
Politi's as t+e art o! go3ernan'e

?Politics is not a science = itIs an art,? = said at the time, according to legend, the 9erman Chancellor %ismarc6 1rt that meant %ismarc6, is the art of go+ernment, the state control o+er societ( as it comes thro7gh the adoption and implementation of collecti+e sol7tions = pro5a5l( the classical 7nderstanding of politics, going 5ac6 to the original meaning of the words of the ancient 9ree6s The term ?politics? is deri+ed from the word polis ! Polis $, literall( meaning ?cit(=state? 1ncient 9reece, we remem5er, was di+ided into a n7m5er of independent cit(=states, each of which had its own controls The largest and most infl7ential of these policies were 1thens, rightl( regarded as the historical cradle of democrac( 0n the light of histor(, therefore, 7nder the polic( sho7ld 5e 7nderstood e+er(thing that has to do with the affairs of the %olicy! literall( = is ?with regard to the %olicy " The modern form of this definition = ?what concerns the -tate? !see p 10#$ This 7nderstanding of the policies most often manifests itself in e+er(da( lang7age3 for e4ample, a man who too6 a partic7lar state or, more 5roadl(,
34
p75lic office, we sa( ?go into politics ? @rom the same 7nderstanding of the term originall( 5elie+ed and political philosoph( Toda(, the identification of policies with the fact that ?for the state,? is, it seems a 5it o5solete 7nderstanding of the s75Cect, reflecting the long=standing tendenc( of academic science to foc7s on who and how it wor6s in go+ernment Eith this approach to st7d( the polic( is in fact the go+ernment to st7d( or more commonl( = the e4ercise of power This tradition, in partic7lar, carried o7t in the wor6 of the infl7ential 1merican political scientist Da+id Easton ! Da+id Easton , 1A"A, 1A#1$, which defines politics as ?the distri57tion of +al7es, e4ercised power str7ct7res ? This ass7mes that the polic( co+ers onl( those processes 5( which the go+ernment, responding to p75lic press7re, carries o7t the distri57tion of 5enefits and +al7es, or, on the contrar(, reco7rse to meas7res of a negati+e character and +al7es 7nder
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GanageGent H cG " @ith " 30I" Lhough settled even the AGacro GanageGent @ithout governGent AH Mhodes , the scope oE cooperation et@een the pu lic and private sectors , there are ne@ net@orNs oE political relations , all the Gore iGportant
refers to s7ch 5enefits, which are accepted 5( societ( and recogni;ed them as mandator( The polic( is closest to the English=lang7age concept ? Polic( ?, that is the official set of sol7tions that the p75lic a7thorit( shall prescri5e a partic7lar program or acti+it( Clearl( +isi5le draw5ac6 of this approach = its narrowness 0t t7rns o7t that the polic( is red7ced onl( to what is going on inside (y lit+iu2 ! Polit( $ = one of the organi;ations of societ(, which are concentrated aro7nd the apparat7s of power 0n this sense, politics and performed it onl( in offices, legislati+e cham5ers, go+ernment agencies, and heard 5( its +er( small and specific gro7p of people = politicians, 57rea7crats, lo55(ists Most people, most of the instit7tions and the 6inds of social acti+ities are 6nown to 5e +ented o7tside politics %7siness, all 6inds of comm7nities, families, schools and other ed7cational instit7tions = all of this in this case refers to the str7ct7re as ?non=political? in no wa( connected with the ?r7nning the co7ntr( ? Moreo+er, the identification of polic( with the state apparat7s is the fact that o7t of the eL7ation and are factors of the international order, incl7ding those of glo5all( acting forces that toda( are increasingl( affect o7r li+es = cross=5order technolog( and the transnational corporation This approach, therefore, is simpl( an echo of the time when the international arena acted solel( internall( closed national states 1ll this is in direct conflict with the c7rrent state of affairs, where more and more comple4 societies 5ecome s75Cect to the control of the go+ernment rather than as a networ6 of p75lic and pri+ate sectors, and where it is said that it is time the term ?go+ernment? is replaced 5( ?macro management ?
Polity F societC , the uilders on
#n the ori2inal -istinction bet4een the t4o conce,ts in the ;n2lish lan2+a2e e?,resse- by the ter1 : Govern1ent :(state 2overn1ent) an-: Governance :(1ana2e1ent as a +niversal attrib+te of the society8 the 1ana2e1ent at all) The 1ain i-ea is to tie8 an- that no4 the tra-itional for1s of ,olitical 1ana2e1ent of society 3 : Govern1ent :3 2ive 4ay to so1e ne4 1ana2e1ent relations ( Note. lane. )
1
<& W+at is )oliti's> 7
Aristotle *#98.#44 =C,
35
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The pro5lem is represented 5( the a5o+e approach in the fact that in fact it carries e+en more narrow tendenc( = to eL7ate the polic( in its entiret(, and what is called part( politics 0n other words, the area of ?political? here comes down to indi+id7als with certain ideological and eager to p7t them into practice thro7gh acti+ities in the official instit7tions = political parties 0t is in this conte4t, leaders of parties referred to as ?political?, and ci+il ser+ants to the ?non=political? categor( !as long, of co7rse, 7ntil the last act ne7tral and highl( professional manner $ -imilarl(, the C7dge also considered ?non=political? fig7re whose tas6 interpret laws impartiall( and in strict accordance with the facts = 57t the( also can 5e charged in the ?politic6ing? if their decisions affect personal preferences or an( other trend The ha5it of identif(ing with the state polic( also e4plains wh(, in the e(es of the p75lic political acti+it( is so often presented in a p7rel( negati+e light, and spea6 o7t a5o7t the policies sometimes +er(, +er( disrespectf7l This happens C7st 5eca7se e+er(da( conscio7sness tends to eL7ate the sphere of politics and affairs of certain politicians Ee all 6now the image of power=h7ngr( politician h(pocrite, who in con+ersation a5o7t p75lic de5t and ideological 5eliefs is not worth nothing, e4cept his own am5itions Toda( this image is e+en more t(pical than e+er 5efore, as modern media has 5ecome m7ch easier as to attract p75lic attention to the facts of corr7ption and dishonest( in go+ernment @rom deep= rooted association with something eternall( selfish, two=faced and 7nprincipled is mistr7st ?political 6itchen? and the people in+ol+ed in it3 all this is referred to as the ?politic6ing? and ?57rea7crats, who ha+e entrenched themsel+es in their seats ? Creates the potential for anti)oliti?i ! 1nti = Politics $ .ften mentioned are the wor6s of 2iccolo Machia+elli, who in his 5oo6 ?The Prince? !1531$ ga+e a +er( realistic pict7re of deceit, cr7elt( and c7nning r7lers of his time
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Ni''olo Ba'+ia3elli *<85:.<$47,
36
on the position oE the Second Zhancellor H1 498 F one thousand Eive hundred t@elveI oE [lorence , inthis
The negati+e image of politicians and f7eled 5( the li5eral philosoph( as an indi+id7al in this philosoph( is alwa(s attri57ted to one or other interest p7rel( personal nat7re, political power, it t7rns o7t, o5+io7sl( corr7pts, for those who are ?in power?, there will alwa(s 5e a place to 7se in their own forms and 5( other people Bis most famo7s e4pression of this concept was a dict7m of /ord 1cton !1#3>=1A02$3 ?1ll power corr7pts = a5sol7te power corr7pts a5sol7tel( ? Eell, it is possi5le to arg7e, and no one, and the s7pporters of this +iew, no one wo7ld den( the ?ine+ita5ilit(? and the need for polic( in p75lic life <o7 can indefinitel( repeat of the treachero7s and wic6ed c7nning politicians = the societ(, al5eit rel7ctantl(, in the end agree with what the( can not do witho7t Eitho7t some mechanism for the allocation of reso7rces and the 5enefits will ?ci+il war of all against all,? as that written 5( the first theorists of the ?social contract? !see p 111$ The point, therefore, is not to ?get rid of the politicians? and ?cancel the polic(,? and to enter all this into the framewor6 of social control, so that no one a57sed the power of the go+ernment
Politi's as a )u(li' )ro'ess

The second and somewhat 5roader conception of politics ta6es it 5e(ond the control of the go+ernment in that area is called the ?social life?, or ?p75lic matter? Under this approach, the distinction 5etween ?political? and ?non=political? coincides with the distinction 5etween %ublic ! %ublic $ and %rivatespheres of life This +iew of the polic( goes 5ac6 to the famo7s 9ree6 philosopher 1ristotle 0n his ?Politics? he post7lated that ?man is 5( nat7re a political animal? and ?dignit(? people can onl( lead to a societ( where there is a polic( = in the political comm7nit( The polic( is presented here in a predominantl( ethical aspect3 this is d7e to the creation of a ?C7st societ(?, what 1ristotle called ?ro(al science ?
<& W+at is )oliti's> :
The L7estion here is one = where e4actl( is the line 5etween ?p75lic? and ?pri+ate? lifeF 0t is 7s7all( said that it coincides with the di+ision 5etween the state and ci+il societ( 0nstit7tions of the state !go+ernment staff, the co7rts, the police, the arm(, the social sec7rit( s(stem, etc $, we consider as a ?p75lic? 5eca7se the( are responsi5le for the collecti+e organi;ation of societ( and th7s are f7nded 5( the societ( = thro7gh ta4ation Ci+il societ( is composed of ?small cells? as the( are called Edm7nd %7r6e !see p 5'$, that is, instit7tions s7ch as the famil(, 6inship comm7nities, pri+ate 57sinesses, trade 7nions, cl75s, comm7nities, and other similar str7ct7res The( are ?pri+ate? in the sense that it is created and maintained 5( pri+ate citi;ens in their own interest and nothing more %7ilding on the di+ision into p75lic and pri+ate, in the tradition of politics 7nderstood as an acti+it( of the state and other p75lic entities Bere we are, therefore, once again confronted with the fact that those acti+ities where people can li+e on their own, and cost !economic, social, domestic, personal and c7lt7ral areas, and so on$, are seen as deli5eratel( ?non=political? 1 +ariation on the separation of p75lic and pri+ate proCects more s75tle distinction 5etween ?political? and ?pri+ate? !@ig7re 1 1$ @or all their differences from state
37
used to counter alance the AstateA \ in this sense, the terG reEers to AprivateA 107I, ho@ever ,conducted a road ASelEishA F the interests oE a person "
Fig& <&<& Two 'on'e)ts o! )u(li' and )ri3ate

Pu(li'
-tate3 -tate aid control
Pri3ate
Ci+il -ociet(3 independent instit7tions3 pri+ate 57siness str7ct7res, trade 7nions, cl75s, families, etc Pri+ate -cope of pri+ate life3 famil( and home
P75lic -phere of p75lic life3 polic(, trade, la5or, the arts, c7lt7re, etc
Ci+il societ( is also alwa(s in+ol+es a n7m5er of instit7tions that can 5e regarded as ?p75lic? in the sense that the( are open str7ct7res, are L7ite p75licl( and societ( alwa(s ha+e access to them -7ch, for e4ample, economic instit7tions The most important point here is that the translation of the econom( from the pri+ate into the p75lic sphere greatl( e4pands o7r 7nderstanding of the ?political ? Ee do, and 6now from e4perience that in the
<; I & Politi'al t+eory
Hanna+ Arendt *<:;5.<:7$,
deEined as the A analitC oE evil A "
some form of politics is e+er(where = e+en to o7r wor6, to o7r wor6place @or all that, tho7gh we are considering an approach rightl( interprets instit7tions s7ch as pri+ate enterprises, comm7nities, +ario7s associations and trade 7nions as ?p75lic? and he, too, remains limited conception of politics The fact that this tradition is the fact that the polic( does not affect and shall not affect the p7rel( ?personal? 57siness and relationships %7t then came feminism and its theorists were a5le to show that in act7al fact the polic( does not stop ?at the threshold of the ho7se?, and it affects the famil(, and life, and personal relationships .r another ill7stration of this tradition = the tendenc( of certain politicians wall separating their 5eha+ior in the professional field of personal and domestic relations3 one step f7rther and it t7rns o7t that (o7 can decei+e neigh5ors or mistreat children, and all of this will not go 5e(ond the p7rel( ?personal? in no wa( associated with the p75lic image of politicians The concept of politics as a p75lic acti+it(, of co7rse, has alwa(s 5een, and s7pporters and opponents 0n a tradition dating 5ac6 to 1ristotle, politics is seen as a no5le and enlightened occ7pation precisel( 5eca7se of its ?p75lic? character M7ch later, this tradition was contin7ed 5( Bannah 1rendt, who in ?The B7man Condition? ! The +uman Condition ! 1A5#$ wrote that politics is the most important form of h7man acti+it(, 5eca7se here we are dealing with the relationship of free and eL7al citi;ens, = it is something that maintains the 7niL7eness of each person and gi+es him the meaning of life -imilar tho7ghts were +oiced and thin6ers s7ch as Kean=KacL7es *o7ssea7 !see p A2$ and Kohn -t7art Mill !see p 55$, who also arg7ed that political participation is in itself a +irt7e and the good of man *o7ssea7 5elie+ed that onl( thro7gh direct and ongoing participation of all citi;ens in the political life of the state
38
can ser+e the common good, or what he called the ?general will ? 1ccording to Mill, participation in p75lic affairs is a 6ind of ed7cation rights, the promotion of its moral and intellect7al de+elopment This is opposed to the other +iew, which p75lic polic( is a form of hard=core 7nwelcome interference in a personIs life The point here is, in partic7lar, the theoreticians of e4treme li5eralism, alwa(s p7t the ci+il societ( o+er the state on the gro7nds that the ?pri+ate? sphere of life is a choice, personal freedom and personal responsi5ilit( of the same Toda(, the foc7s is more often e4pressed in calls to restrict the scope of the ?political? and ?6eep
<& W+at is )oliti's> <<
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politics o7t ?of these t(pes of pri+ate acti+ities, s7ch as, for e4ample, 57siness, sports or famil( life 1s the polic(=still inter+enes in the wa( companies do 57siness, how and with whom we are engaged in sports and entertainment as we raise children, s7pporters of e4treme li5eralism and can 5e no L7estion to recogni;e her at least some ?good ?
Poli'y as a 'o2)ro2ise and 'onsensus

The third conception of politics is not so m7ch to the region in which it is carried o7t as to the manner in which decisions are made here Polic( is seen as a wa( to resol+e conflicts thro7gh compromise, negotiation, or an( other conciliator( meas7res = after all that is opposed to the 7se of force or na6ed power 0t is this concept ha+e in mind when the( sa( that ?politics is the art of the possi5le ? -7ch a representation is present in e+er(da( parlance @or e4ample, when we spea6 of a ?political? sol7tion to the pro5lem, the( mean peace negotiations as opposed to ?force? or ?militar(? sol7tions /i6e so man( others, and this tradition goes 5ac6 to 1ristotle = 5( then itIs post7late that the ideal control s(stem is a ?watered? = ?mi4ed? form, com5ining 5oth aristocratic and democratic elements .ne of the leading proponents of this tradition in o7r time = %ernard Cric6 ! %ernard Cric6 $ 0n his classic wor6, ?0n Defense Polic(? ! 1n2efence of Politics $ for e4ample, he writes3 Politics = it is an acti+it( in which a gi+en set of r7les conflict of interest is resol+ed 5( the fact that each side of the conflict is passed that part of the power or reso7rces, which corresponds to the importance of this aspect of well=5eing or s7r+i+al of the whole comm7nit( 1 6e( element of the polic( in this case is a 6ind of the dispersion of power !force$ = and wider than it is, the 5etter %ased on the fact that the conflict of interests will persist, % Cree6 shows that the conciliation process ta6es place onl( when the parties to the conflict ha+e some power or a7thorit(, or one of them ma( simpl( 5e s7ppressed Polic( in this regard
<4 I & Politi'al t+eory
defined as ?a sol7tion in which the choice is rather in fa+or of consens7s and reconciliation rather than +iolence and coercion ? Bere we see a strong commitment to the li5eral=rationalist principles and 5elief in the efficac( of p75lic disc7ssion, as well as to the fact that the societ( is sit7ated more to the solidarit( and harmon(, rather than a conflict 0f it contains and an( conflicts arise, the( can 5e resol+ed witho7t resorting to +iolence or the threat of +iolence 2e+ertheless, % Cric6, there were also critics rightl( pointed to the fact that he let himself 5e carried awa( 5( the Eestern e4perience of pl7ralistic
39
democracies, and in fact identified with the policies of s7ch phenomena as the electoral process and part( competition, that 7p to one=part( states, or, sa(, militar( dictatorships, it is not eno7gh that clarifies the position 9i+ing priorit( to compromise and consens7s, this concept is eas( to see that interprets the polic( in a p7rel( positi+e light 2o, it is not considered as a ?7topian? ideal sol7tion to all pro5lems !after all, compromise, in fact, means that as soon as concessions go to all the parties, each of them loses something$, 57t 5e that as it ma(, this is where prefera5le to all other alternati+es, alwa(s fra7ght with +iolence and 5loodshed The polic( is presented here as a ci+ili;ed and ci+ili;ing force that dri+es people to political participation and decent most that ha+e a positi+e attit7de on their part Bowe+er, % Cric6 points o7t that s7ch a polic( is its own str7ggle, where the main threat = a ?desire to settle the clarit( and certaint( at all costs?, whether it manifests itself in a 5lind commitment to democrac(, to the sed7cti+e 57t false clarit( of political ideologies ra5id nationalism or, finall(, in the claims of science in the possession of the 7ltimate tr7th
Politi's as )ower
The fo7rth concept is 5oth the most e4tensi+e and the most radical Polic( is not assigned to an( partic7lar area, whether it 5e the go+ernment, the state or ?p75lic? life = it is post7lated that it is present in all areas of p75lic life, more than that, ?on e+er( corner ? 1ccording to 1drian /eftwich ! 1drian /eftwich$ in ?Ehat is politicsF Political acti+it( and its st7d( ? ! 3hat is Politics 4 The )ctivity and 1ts 5tudy !1A#>$, ?the polic( is at the center of social acti+it( as s7ch = 5oth formal and informal, p75lic and pri+ate, it is present in all social gro7ps, instit7tions, and societies ?Q Ee see it in all social relations, whether famil(, small gro7p, or a gro7p of friends, on the other hand, the nation and the glo5al comm7nit( %( itself, therefore, this 5egs the L7estion3 Ehat, then, disting7ishes the political acti+ities of other h7man acti+ities, what is its specificit(F This L7estion is this tradition so decides Polic( here is all that is associated with the prod7ction, distri57tion and 7se of reso7rces for the s7stenance of societ(, it is mostl( a L7estion of power = the a5ilit( to ?get his? this or that, at all times 5( an(, means This idea is perfectl( s7mmed 7p in, sa(, the title of the 5oo6 5( Barold /asswell ?Politics3 Eho gets what, when and howF? !Barold /asswell, Politics( 3ho "ets 3hat! 3hen! +o*l
<& W+at is )oliti's > <#

"Faces" of #ower R%/)% $=565,;, +,% -75$,; &(%8-78',$8 - ,%. $71+5', =%:05 Q ->)1/05', _ 0'75,; +,%F ,%,+':% _ 732%. *)%. $71+5' &('0&%+'7 2> )' 0'75,;" P(* T,%. Q .%/', -%60'?$,-%-5,; )5 _(56)>.* $&%$%25.*" `,% &%6-%78', :%-%(*,; % (56)>9 -*059 *7* V7*=59W -75$,*\ ^ _>BC@N ABA [F?LJ@?E FEGEL?`. `,%, V7*=W -75$,* %&('0'78',$8 <'7')5&(5-7'))>.* 0'?$,-*8.*, =%,%(>' ,5= *7* *)5+' %&('0'783, $14'$,-% &(*)*.5'.>9 ('U')*?" a75$$*+'$=%' %&*$5)*' T,%? K%(.> -75$,* .%/)% )5?,* - (52%,' ]%2'(,5 O578 Va,% 1&(5-78',b O'.%=(5,*8 * -75$,; - 5.'(*=5)$=%. :%(%0'W H1961I, :0' 5-,%( 65057$8 <'7;3 ->8$)*,;, =%.1 &(*)507'/*,-75$ ,;, *6 5)57*65 ('U')*? * &('0&%+,')*? $5.>9 (567*+)>9 $%<*57;)>9 :(1&&" c% )5 ('U')*8730'? ,%/' .%/)% -%60'?$,-%-5,; (567*+)>.* $&%$%25.*" S =)*:' Vd(* 7*=5 -75$,*W H1989I a*,_%170*) : - T,%? $-86* ->0'7*7 ,5=*' .',%0>, =5= *$&%7;6%-5)*' $*7> *7* 1$,(5U')*' HV=)1,WIJ(567*+)>' K%(.> -65*.%->:%0)>9 %,)%U')*? HV$0'7=5WI * %,)%U')*8, %$)%-5))>' )5 -65*.)>9%2865,'7;$, -59, $*.&5,** * ,%.1 &%0%2)%. HV&(8)*=WI" Eace oE po@er A I" H eoucNs ,
1A3'$ 0n p75lic life, this tradition sees the first mismatch, and e+en the age=old conflict of interest, 57t the main thing = the scarcit( of reso7rces stems from the simple fact that h7man wants and needs are 7nlimited, and the possi5ilit( of meeting them is alwa(s limited Polic( so here is 7nderstood as competition for scarce reso7rces, and the go+ernment = as the main tool in this ri+alr( 1mong the s7pporters of this approach feminists and Mar4ists Modern feminism is the idea of ?political? no7rishes a
40
+er( special interest coming from the fact that politics in the traditional sense, in general, still e4cl7des women from political life, lea+ing it to the ?pri+ate? sphere of life that is 57ilt aro7nd famil( and famil( and domestic d7ties = the same man contin7es to dominate 5oth in politics and in other areas of the ?p75lic? life The theorists of radical feminism is therefore alwa(s the most critical of the di+ision into p75lic and pri+ate in the comm7nit(, as opposed to p7tting forward the slogan of ?pri+ate is political,? which, li6e a drop of water reflects the entire philosoph( of radical feminism = the idea that e+er(thing that happens in the famil(, ho7sehold and personal life are the conseL7ence and reflection of the traditional political relations, moreo+er, all this politics 5egins and ends .f co7rse, this philosoph( comes from and where more radical than the 7s7al 7nderstanding of the nat7re of politics itself -o, &ate Millett, in his 5oo6 ?Politics
se4es ?! &ate Millett , 5exual Politics ! 1A'A$ defines polic( as ?5ased on the power relations that allow some people to control others ? @eminism is therefore set itself a +er( pec7liar niche = the ?politics of e+er(da( life ? Bere, famil( relationships, relationships 5etween h7s5ands and wi+es, parents and children is C7st as ?politic?, as the relations 5etween emplo(ers and emplo(ees or 5etween go+ernments and citi;ens Mar4ism sa(s a5o7t politics in relation to two le+els of societ( = the ?s7perstr7ct7re? and ?5asis? Mar4 himself !see p ''$ was originall( 7nderstood politics in the classical manner, lin6ing it to the apparat7s of the state3 for e4ample, in the ?Comm7nist Manifesto? ! Communist $anifesto ! 1#>#$, he writes a5o7t political power as ?an organi;ed power of one class for oppressing another? /ater, in de+eloping his theor(, he too6 the political relations with the legal and c7lt7ral to the ?s7perstr7ct7re?, towering o+er the economic ?5ase? = the tr7e fo7ndation of societ( 1ccording to Mar4, the economic ?5ase? and ?s7perstr7ct7re? related3 ?s7perstr7ct7re? grow o7t ?5asis? and reflects it The ne4t step was ta6en 5( /enin !see p A3$, post7lating a deeper connection with the political power of the class s(stem of societ(, in fact, with its ?5ase?3 as he wrote a5o7t it, ?politics is the concentrated e4pression of economics ? 1ccording to Mar4ism, ?the econom( = this is politics,? and an arena of political str7ggle is, in fact, the whole of ci+il societ( inf7sed with class antagonisms = a sharp contrast to all of the approaches that red7ce the political factor to the -tate or ine+ita5l( narrow the pri+ate sphere of life 0n the approaches disc7ssed a5o+e, the polic( is drawn primaril( as a force hostile to man = it is alwa(s something that is associated with the oppression and s75ordination of one people 5( another @or radical feminism is what perpet7ates the ?political patriarch(?, where the woman destined to remain 7nder the th7m5 of a man, for Mar4ism = that in a capitalist societ( ma6es possi5le the e4ploitation of the proletariat 5( the 5o7rgeoisie 0n those theories, howe+er, the polic( is attri57ted not onl( negati+e, 57t potentiall( positi+e +al7e = as a tool to o+ercome social ineL7alit( 1ccording to Mar4, for e4ample, the proletarian re+ol7tion wo7ld fore+er p7t an end to the ineL7alit( of classes, feminists are calling for a radical restr7ct7ring of relations 5etween the se4es 0n an( case, the polic( in these c7rrents does not appears ine+ita5le part of social life @eminists calling for an end to the ?politics of se4ism? and to 57ild a societ( in which people will appreciate not on the floor, and personal L7alities Mar4ists are con+inced that with the esta5lishment of a classless comm7nist societ( ?class politics? will 5e part of histor(, and this in t7rn will lead to the ?withering awa( of the state? and an end to policies in the classical sense
C Learning Poli'y
A))roa'+es to t+e study o! )oliti's

Eith s7ch a large n7m5er of points of +iew on the essence of the polic( is onl( nat7ral that +ar( widel( and +iews on the nat7re and stat7s of political science
<& W+at is )oliti's> <$
Plato *847.#87 =C, 41
death oE Socrates in 399 g " eEore Mr " e " flato Eounded his Eairness "gorNs oE flato had @hole "
o@n oE the
doctrine oE
%eing one of the oldest areas of intellect7al acti+it(, the science of politics was originall( part of the philosoph(, histor( and law 0ts main p7rpose was to pro+e the most 5asic principles of h7man societ( -ince the end of )0) cent7r( this p7rel( philosophical approach grad7all( ga+e wa( to attempts to t7rn science into a political independent scientific discipline This mo+ement reached its pea6 in the 1A50=1A'0Is, when the classical heritage of political tho7ght came to 5e seen as meaningless metaph(sics, which can 5e forgotten Toda(, howe+er, the enth7siasm for the possi5ilities of a strictl( scientific st7d( of politics mar6edl( diminished = once again come to 7nderstand the inherent +al7e of the main political principles and normati+e concepts 0f the ?traditional? search of 7ni+ersal +al7es that are accepta5le to all and e+er(one was left, left, and the idea that science and science alone is a5le to gi+e mone( to the disco+er( of tr7th 1s a res7lt, we now ha+e the discipline, and that a more fr7itf7l and more interesting 5eca7se it co+ers a +ariet( of theoretical approaches and schools of anal(sis
The philosophical tradition

The origins of political tho7ght has its origins in ancient 9reece3 here was 5orn what we now call political philosoph( 0t was a philosoph( that is most interested in is not ?5eing? and ?C7stice? = not ?what e4ists?, and ?what sho7ld 5e done? = and 5eca7se she wore mostl( ethical, prescripti+e, or, as we sa( toda(,a nor2ati3e character The fo7nders 5elie+e that philosoph( of Plato and 1ristotle Plato, for e4ample, most too6 the idea of an ideal societ(3 for himself as s7ch wo7ld 5e enlightened dictatorship led 5( the monarch=philosopher 0n the Middle 1ges, the idea of reg7lator( philosoph( were de+eloped in the wor6s of s7ch thin6ers as 17g7stine of Bippo !35>=>30$ and Thomas 1L7inas !1225=12">$ -o there were f7ndamental principles of what is called ?traditional? approach to the st7d( of politics Toda(Is theoretical wor6 in this direction, for the most part a5o+e the comprehension of the classical heritage of political philosoph(
he ratio F an order oE those or other
0t is, in fact, the histor( of political tho7ght in the face of its most prominent representati+es !sa(, from Plato to Mar4$, with anal(sis of their wor6 The main method here = a critical anal(sis of the literat7re, and the tas6 = to 7nderstand the 5asic ideas of +ario7s thin6ers to trace the de+elopment of their +iews, to descri5e that general intellect7al climate in which the( wor6ed .ften it is +er( metic7lo7s wor6 1nother thing is that from a scientific point of +iew, it is not an o(De'ti3e nat7re, as is the case with p7rel( normati+e aspect of political science = L7estions li6e ?Eh( sho7ld 0 o5e( the stateF?, ?Bow to 5e distri57ted to the 5enefit of societ(F?, ?Ehat are the limits of personal freedom in societ(F I
The empirical tradition

1ltho7gh empirical, or, as it is called, descripti+e, has a tradition of more recent origin than the theoretical tradition, it also goes 5ac6 to the origins of political tho7ght 0ts elements we find in 1ristotle in his attempts to gi+e a t(polog( of state s(stems, in Machia+elli in his metic7lo7s detail and the transfer of the realities of go+ernment, MontesL7ie7 in his sociological theor( of go+ernance and law 0n man( wa(s, these wor6s form the 5asis of what is toda( called comparati+e political science The foc7s here =
42
political instit7tions 0n the U - and the U&, for e4ample, it has 5ecome the dominant trend in political science This approach has alwa(s 5een characteri;ed 5( attempts to gi+e an impartial and o5Cecti+e pict7re of the political realit( This approach of ?descripti+e? in the sense that it see6s to anal(;e and e4plain, while the normati+e approach is ?prescripti+e? in nat7re in the sense that it prod7ces C7dgments and offers recommendations The descripti+e anal(sis of the polic( at the time was a serio7s philosophical s7pport from the empiricism that has spread from the middle of ):00 cent7r( , 5eginning with the wor6s of philosophers s7ch as Kohn /oc6e !see p 55$ and Da+id B7me !1"11 = 1""'$ The doctrine of empiricism has p7t forward the position that onl( e4perience can 5e the onl( 5asis of 6nowledge, and all h(potheses and theories m7st 5e chec6ed s7r+eillance %( the 5eginning of )0) cent7r( s7ch ideas ha+e res7lted in positi+ism = for intelligent, the most prominent representati+e of which was 17g7ste Comte !1"A#= 1#5"$ Empiricism has declared that all the social sciences, incl7ding all forms of philosophical 6nowledge sho7ld naistro;ha(shim wa( to stic6 methods of the nat7ral sciences .nce science has 5een declared the onl( relia5le means of re+ealing the tr7th at all, 5egan the most widespread mo+ement for the esta5lishment and political science
The scientific tradition

The first theorist who attempted to descri5e the polic( of scientific categories, was &arl Mar4 Using his concept of the so=called historical materialism, Mar4 attempted to 7nco+er the dri+ing forces of historical de+elopment, as well as ma6e predictions a5o7t the f7t7re, 5ased on the ?laws? that had, in his opinion, the same scientific stat7s as the laws of the nat7ral sciences @ashion for the scientific anal(sis of the pre+alence
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las for all the social sciences 0n the 1#"0s, rates of ?political science? were introd7ced in the 7ni+ersities of .4ford, Paris, and Col7m5ia, and in 1A0' 5egan p75lishing the )merican Political 5cienceRevie* highest point of the enth7siasm in fa+or of political science reached in 1A50 and 1A#0, respecti+el(, when all o+er the place 57t most of all in the U - , has de+eloped a form of political anal(sis, 5ased on the (e+a3ioral s'ien'es& first time it has gi+en relia5le scientific stat7s of political science, as pro+ided something that was not there 5efore = o5Cecti+e and +erifia5le L7antitati+e data on which (o7 can chec6 o7t an( h(pothesis Political scientists s7ch as Da+id Easton, declared that political science is now a5le to accept the methodolog( of science, and this has gi+en rise dissemination of research, most consistent with the principles of L7antitati+e anal(sis, s7ch as +oting 5eha+ior, the 5eha+ior in the legislati+e arena, the 5eha+ior of m7nicipal politicians and lo55(ists Bowe+er, since the 1A'0s, 5eha+iorism was faced with a growing resistance Be heard the statement that it significantl( narrowed the 5o7ndaries of political anal(sis, pre+enting him to go 5e(ond the directl( o5ser+a5le 1ltho7gh 5eha+iorism in political science, no do75t, prod7ced and contin7es to prod7ce +al7a5le res7lts in the areas of electoral 5eha+ior, o5session with L7antitati+e methods to red7ce the threat of political science at most to the anal(sis of these narrow iss7es EhatIs worse, 5eha+iorism 5owed whole generation of political scientists to mo+e awa( from the tradition of normati+e political tho7ght @rom the concepts of ?freedom?, ?eL7alit(?, ?C7stice?, ?h7man rights? are simpl( shr7g off as meaningless as noe2)iri'al +erification, the( o5+io7sl( can not 5e Eith disappointment in 5eha+iorism in the 1A"0s, growing interest in reg7lator( iss7es, as reflected in the wor6 of theorists s7ch as Kohn *awls ! Kohn *a7ls !see p "1$ and *o5ert 2o;ic6 ! *o5ert 2o;ic6 $ !see p 120$ Moreo+er, at iss7e was on scientific gro7nds 5eha+iorism The 5asis for the allegations to the effect that 5eha+iorism is o5Cecti+e and relia5le, is the claim that it is ?+al7e=free?, that is not distorted 5( an( ethical or normati+e 5eliefs and ideas The whole point, howe+er, is that the foc7s of the anal(sis is to ma6e the o5ser+ed 5eha+ior, it is diffic7lt to carr( an(thing more than descri5e the e4isting political relations and instit7tions, than internall( laid appro+al of a political status 6uo This conser+ati+e tendenc( has 5een demonstrated that ? Democrac( ?, in fact, has 5een redesigned in terms of o5ser+a5le 5eha+ior Th7s, rather than to mean "%o%ular self=go+ernment, ?democrac( has 5ecome 7nderstood as a
43
str7ggle for the conL7est of power 5( elites thro7gh the mechanism of elections 0n other words, democrac( has come to mean something that happens in the so=called democratic political s(stems of the de+eloped Eest
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The latest trends

1mong the latest theoretical approaches to politics = what is called a formal political theor(, also 6nown as the ?political econom(?, ?theo=

he dile++a of #risoners 1"2" P%$,5-7'))>' &'('0 ,5=*. ->2%(%., %25 &('$,1&)*=5 $=%('' -$':% &(*6)53,$8 -$%-'(U') )%. &('$,1&7')**\ =5/0>? &%&(%$,1 210', %&5$5,;$8 ,%:%, +,%, '$7* )' &(*6)5',$8 %),&%=565)*8 )5 )':% 05$, ':% )5&5()*=, * %)*, $7'0%-5,'7;)%, &%71+5, .5=$*.57;)>? $(%=" i505+5,,5=*. %2(56 %., 0'.%)$,(*(1',, +,% &% -*0*.%$,*, (5<*%)57;)%' &%-'0')*' .%/', %2'()1,;$8)5*.')'' 275:% &(*8,)>. ('617;,5,%." d5= &%,%.1, +,% 0-5 &('$,1&)*=5 &%&(%$,1 7*U')>-%6.%/)%$,* 0%:%-%(*,; $8 0(1: $ 0(1:%. * 0(1: - 0(1:5 )' -'(8," c5 -$' T,%, -%6.%/)%, 7*U; %0)%-%6(5/')*'\ '$7* 6505+1 &%-,%(*,; )'$=%7;=% (56, &('$,1&)*=* $=%('' -$':% &%?.1,, +,% *.->:%0)'' -$':% $%,(10)* +5,;, * %25 %,=5/1,$8 %, &(*6)5)*8"
Fig& <&4& O)tions out o! t+e )risoners- dile22a
*i(a p75lic choice ?and? rational choice theor( ? This approach 5orrows m7ch of modern economic theor(, partic7larl( the concepts of rational economic 5eha+ior of indi+id7als @irml( rooted onl( in the U - and 5eing associated in partic7lar with the so=called the :irginia -chool 1 , the formal political theor( at least pro+ides a 7sef7l anal(tical tool that can shed light on the 5eha+ior of +oters, lo55(ists, 57rea7crats and politicians, as well as the 5eha+ior of states in the international s(stem This approach has its widest impact on the political anal(sis in the form of what is called instit7tional theor( of p75lic choice The 7se of this concept 5( a7thors s7ch as 1nthon( Downs ! 1nthon( Downs $, Manc7r .lsen ! Manc7r.lsen $ and Eilliam 2is6anen ! Eilliam 2is6anen $ in st7dies of ri+alr( games, the 5eha+ior of interest gro7ps and political infl7ence of the 57rea7crac(
:irgin -chool = in 1A'3 in the town of Charlottes+ille !:irginia$ was the first conference of economists who ha+e chosen political sol7tions and go+ernment sol7tions o5Cect of his anal(sis from 1A'A to 1A#2 P75lic .pinion *esearch Center was in :ir;hins6om Pol(technic 0nstit7te ! Note lane $
1
<& W+at is )oliti's> <:
here stands so Fcalled AscientiEic C their correlation @ith the availa le data this ideological position, according to @hich
44
the scientiEic Gethod should e adopted not onlC in the oE Nno@ledge , liNe philosophC , historC and
natural sciences , ut and inthe
Eields
disc7ssed in s75seL7ent chapters The approach is also 7sed in the form of game theor(, it was here in the field of mathematics The most famo7s e4ample of game theor( = a ?prisonerIs dilemma? !see @ig 1 2$ Bowe+er, we can sa( that the theor( of rational choice has recei+ed widespread recognition Ber s7pporters, of co7rse, claimed that she 5ro7ght with her a n7m5er of new opport7nities in the st7d( of political phenomena, 57t there were also critics L7estioning the most 5asic ass7mptions and it indicated that it might o+erestimate the role of rationalit( in h7man 5eha+ior and ignores that people rarel( ha+e clearl( recogni;ed set of goals, and e+en more rarel( = a complete and acc7rate information for decision= ma6ing Moreo+er, o+er time it 5ecame clear, howe+er, that when his a5stract 7nderstanding of h7man rational choice theor( does not adeL7atel( address the social and historical factors of politics = that the interests of a person are often sociall( conditioned, not ar5itraril( indi+id7al character 1s a res7lt of all these processes, the political scientist in his wor6 toda( is free to 7se a +ariet( of methods, which gi+es political anal(sis of 5oth the depth and +ariet( 0n the last L7arter of the )) cent7r( to the normati+e, instit7tional and 5eha+ioral approaches ha+e alread( 5ecome classics, added not onl( the methods of formal polic( anal(sis, 57t also a whole range of an entirel( new ideas and themes -ince the 1A"0s, de+eloping a feminist direction, significantl( enriches o7r 7nderstanding of gender differences in societ( and forcing 7s to rethin6 the +er( concept of the ?political ? Meanwhile, formed the so=called ?new instit7tionalism?, where the foc7s has shifted from the formal and str7ct7ral properties of so'ial institutions to their wider social significance and their act7al role in the political process The mo+ement of ?green? iss7ed a reCection of anthropocentrism of traditional socio=political theor(, insisting on a holistic, holistic, approach to political and social anal(sis -ocial and neo=Mar4ist critical theor( !see p 115$, coming from the esta5lished 5ac6 in 1A23 the @ran6f7rt -chool has e4posed a thoro7gh critiL7e of all forms of social practice, 57ilding on the achie+ements of different thin6ers = from 3 @re7d to Ee5er 0n the 5osom of postmodernism !see p "A$, call into L7estion the achie+a5ilit( of the a5sol7te tr7th, that is accepta5le to e+er(one, was 5orn the theor( o! dis'ourse& 9eneral and E4traordinar(
Public institution F the eleGent &iscourse F ver al interaction
4; I & Politi'al t+eory
Tea important res7lt of all this was, finall(, the fact that the political philosoph( and political science are no longer percei+ed as different and th7s competing disciplines toda( are +er( close to each other methods of gaining political realit(
Can t+ere (e a s'ienti!i' study o! )oliti's>

.f co7rse, toda(, no one wo7ld disp7te the fact that the st7d( of political phenomena sho7ld 5e scientific nat7re at least in the 5road sense of scientific acti+ities, that is to 5e anal(tic, rigoro7s and consistent in their findings This field of 6nowledge, as we ha+e seen, time and again 5een laid and the reL7irement to 5ecome a science in the narrower sense of the word, that is, to 7se a more rigoro7s, close to the nat7ral sciences, methodolog( The once this reL7irement was p7t forward 5( Mar4ism and positi+ist 5ranch of philosoph(, and it also was the main slogan of the ?5eha+ioral re+ol7tion? that swept the political anal(sis in the 1A50s The idea, to 5e s7re, attracti+e Eith s7ch a political science we immediatel( got to weed o7t the most faithf7l means the tr7e from the false, the facts !empirical$ = from the +al7es of !reg7lator( or ethical ideas$, the o5Cecti+e from the s75Cecti+e, 6nowledge = from the +iews = and the world of politics, we wo7ld ha+e 5een as PalmO BereIs the r75 a few diffic7lties The first deals with the pro5lem of information Unfort7natel(, or rather fort7natel(, the people = itIs not a frog, which can 5e 5ro7ght into the la5 and there long +iewed 7nder a microscope Ee can not ?see? in person or thro7gh a process of repeated e4periments on his 5eha+ior = in this case we ha+e onl( the fact that, as the( sa(, ?is on the s7perficialit( ? Cond7ct a ?test? of o7r h(potheses in the a5sence of relia5le acc7rate information possi5le To 5(pass this pro5lem can 5e
45
onl( one wa( = 5( ignoring the comple4it( and 7npredicta5ilit( of the thin6ing s75Cect in the spirit of the doctrine o! deter2inis2& e4ample of this approach is 5eha+io7ralism !not to 5e conf7sed with 5eha+iorism$ = -chool of Ps(cholog(, associated with the names of Kohn % Eatson !1#"#=1A5#$ and % @ -6inner !1A0>=1AA0$ and post7lates that h7man 5eha+ior is 7ltimatel( alwa(s deterministic conditional refle4es or reactions 1 !Elements of determinism, and this is the second e4ample, can 5e traced in the +ersion of dialectical materialism, which was adopted in the U--* $ 1nother diffic7lt( stems from the pro5lem of ?hidden +al7es? <o7 can ar5itraril( sa( m7ch a5o7t what certain concepts and theories of politics free from +al7es = 7pon closer inspection, is alwa(s fo7nd that this is not the case .ften, the +al7e to s7ch
@ill "
behavio+ralis1 (fro1 the ;n2lish Hehavio+r ) 3 a behavioral a,,roach in ,olitical science8 consi-erin2 the ,olitical events thro+2h the behavior of s,ecific in-ivi-+als 5 n+1ber of 9estern ,olitical scientists ,refer to +se the ter18 4hile in ,sycholo2y an- ,hiloso,hy8 the ter1 :behavioris1: ( Note. lane. )
1
<& W+at is )oliti's> 4<
e4tent merged with the facts that separate them from each other and to consider separatel( the impossi5le Concepts and theories are alwa(s form7lated on the 5asis of some initial ideas a5o7t man, societ(, the state, and so on = and in all this, no matter how loo6, alwa(s latent in a partic7lar political or ideological o+ertones -o, in 5eha+iorism, rational choice theor( and s(stems theor( alwa(s possi5le to disting7ish the elements of conser+ati+e +al7es = the (ias ! %ias $, as well as in the political +iews of feminists = 7niL7e to this c7rrent 7nderstanding of the nat7re and significance of gender differences in societ( @inall(, we m7st ac6nowledge that the m(th is the idea of ne7tralit( in the social sciences This is onl( possi5le in the nat7ral sciences is that the researcher sees his s75Cect o5Cecti+el(, dispassionatel( and witho7t an( pre=formed e4pectations = in political science is rarel( the case, or does not happen at all 2o matter how we set the policies, it is in an( wa( connected with L7estions regarding the str7ct7re and f7nctioning of the societ( in which we grew 7p and li+e Each of 7s has his own famil( and social e4periences, their economic sit7ation, their personal li6es = and all this lea+es the most dramatic imprint on the wa( we percei+e politics and the world in general This means that scientific o5Cecti+it( in the sense of a5sol7te impartialit( and ne7tralit( of political science remains an el7si+e goal, no matter how we impro+e their research methods 1nd letIs sa( one more thing3 ma(5e, for the de+elopment of o7r science, the greatest danger is not 5ias as s7ch, 57t the 7nwillingness to recogni;e the 5ias = a position now and then manifested in false claims to political ne7tralit(
T+e 'on'e)ts % 2odels and t+eories

The concepts, models and theories are tools of political anal(sis %7t as with man( other things in the polic( to treat them with all sorts of necessar( ca7tion Consider, to 5egin the concept Concept = itIs the general idea of something, 7s7all( e4pressed in a single word or sentence %7t it is something more than a name or a proper or common name @or e4ample, there is a difference 5etween whether weIre tal6ing a5o7t a cat !a partic7lar 7nit and cat$ or consider the term ?cat? !the idea of a cat$ The concept of a cat = itIs not a material o5Cect, it is an ?idea?, made 7p of +ario7s attri57tes inherent in all the cats, ?f7rr( creat7re?, ?pet?, ?small si;e?, ?h7nting for rats and mice,? and so on -imilarl(, the concept of ?eL7alit(? is a principle or ideal Ee do not ha+e it in mind, letIs sa(, when we sa( that an athlete has shown time ?eL7al? world record, or that the inheritance was di+ided into ?eL7al? part of the two 5rothers 1ccordingl(, the concept of ?presidenc(? refers not to a partic7lar president, and a set of ideas a5o7t the organi;ation of the e4ec7ti+e 5ranch Ehat is the significance of the conceptsF The concepts, as we ha+e said, are the tools that allow 7s to thin6, critici;e, arg7e, e4plain
and distort the real situation oE aEEairs "
44 I . Politi'al T+eory
46
he ideal ty#e H in the literature soGetiGes Apure tCpe A I inEinitelC coGplej phenoGena oE the @orld , to identiEC
accept and anal(;e 1 simple o5ser+ation does not gi+e 7s the 6nowledge of the o7tside world To e4tract some meaning from the en+ironment, we need to sa(, ?to p7t a +al7e on it,? and we do it thro7gh concepts E4pressed differentl(3 to percei+e it as a cat a cat, we first ha+e to ha+e some idea of what a cat 0n addition, the concepts help 7s to recogni;e o5Cects, seeing in them a certain form, or similar properties3 a cat, for e4ample, we learn, 5eca7se it is representati+e of the 6ind of ?Cats ? Therefore the essence of the concept of a 6ind of ?generali;ation?3 the( reflect the n7m5er of o5Cects or a single o5Cect if it meets certain characteristics of this series 1ll of this is directl( related to the world of politics3 here we also get 6nowledge, shaping and enriching concepts that allow 7s to ma6e sense of the 5o7ndless world of phenomena 1nd concepts, therefore, are a 6ind of 57ilding 5loc6s of h7man 6nowledge %7t it m7st 5e 7nderstood, howe+er, that o7r concepts can pro+ide 7s a disser+ice /etIs start with the fact that political realit(, to 7nderstanding we see6 is constantl( changing and complicated There is alwa(s a danger that s7ch concepts, s7ch as ?democrac(?, ?h7man rights? and ?capitalism? will gi+e 7s too decepti+e clarit(, where the realit( is not so clear This diffic7lt( at one time tried to o+ercome Ma4 Ee5er, L7alif(ing indi+id7al thing as ?ideal t(pes?, ie as s7ch terms are fleshed o7t in onl( the most important, f7ndamental, the feat7res of a phenomenon, and all its other properties relegated to the 5ac6gro7nd 0n this connection, let 7s sa(, for e4ample, that the concept of ?re+ol7tion? is the ideal t(pe when it is p7nct7ated 5( the time of the f7ndamental and, as a r7le, forci5l( implemented polic( changes3 7sing it, we can 7nderstand something in common that 7nites the @rench *e+ol7tion in 1"#A and the Eastern E7ropean *e+ol7tion 1A#A=1AA1 %7t in this case, we did not interfere with ca7tion, 5eca7se the notion of ?re+ol7tion? might 5e hiding some +er( important differences 5etween the phenomena, for e4ample, in terms of ideological and social content of these re+ol7tions The concepts of ideal t(pes and, therefore, it is 5est not to spea6 of as ?tr7e? or ?false?, 57t simpl( as a more or less ?7sef7l? 1nother pro5lem is that the political concepts are often the s75Cect of fierce ideological disp7tes Polic( and partl( 5eca7se there is competition o+er who correctl( percei+e the tr7e meaning of words and concepts .pposing parties ma( arg7e, L7arrel, e+en war = in this case, perhaps, each will claim that it is ?protecting freedom?, ?s7pport democrac(? and ?fighting for a C7st ca7se ? The pro5lem is that the word ?freedom?
<& W+at is )oliti's> 4#
?Democrac(? and ?C7st ca7se? for different people mean different things Bow do we determine what is ?tr7e democrac(?, ?real freedom? and ?a tr7l( C7st ca7se?F Clearl(, this is impossi5le Ee ha+e tried to gi+e a definition of politics, the concept of m7lti=+al7ed = (o7 need to sa( that C7st as am5ig7o7s and self=contradictor( man( other political concepts This 6ind of concept is 5est descri5ed as ?deli5eratel( contro+ersial?3 disagreements a5o7t them ma( go so far as to identif( them in an( wa( ne7tral or generall( accepta5le in principle impossi5le 0n fact, at one and the same term ma( 5e l7r6ing se+eral conflicting concepts to each other = and none of them will not 5e a ?tr7e? meaning of the term Consider, for e4ample, that the polic( ma( eL7all( 5e 7nderstood as ?that which concerns the state,? and as the management of p75lic life, and how the distri57tion of power and reso7rces Models and theories of 5roader concepts, and the( co+er a range of ideas, not one idea Under the2odel ! model $ is traditionall( 7nderstood as something that passes the o5Cect on a smaller scale = a dollho7se or a to( airplane @7nction models = as acc7ratel( as possi5le recreate the original o5Cect %7t the concept7al model is in no wa( to recreate the o5Cect 0t wo7ld 5e a5s7rd, for e4ample, to sa( that a comp7ter model of the econom( sho7ld ha+e a ph(sical resem5lance with the econom( Concept7al models = this is more anal(tical tools, their sense that the( are constr7ctions that ena5le ?attri57te +al7e? to what wo7ld otherwise 5e ine4plica5le and random set of facts J7ite simpl(, the facts did not spea6 for themsel+es, the( need to organi;e and interpret Models li6e the time and help in this tas6, 5eca7se the( contain a certain relationship, somehow ill7minate the meaning and significance of rele+ant empirical data The easiest wa( to 7nderstand this is with an e4ample .ne of the 5est models in political anal(sis is
47
a model of the political s(stem, de+eloped 5( Da+id Easton ! Da+id Easton , 1A"A, 1A#1$ and shown in @ig 1 3 This model had himself a rather am5itio7s tas6 to e4plain on the 5asis of what is called a s(stematic anal(sis of the entire political process in general, incl7ding the wor6 of leading political actors The s(stem is an organi;ed or comple4 str7ct7red whole set of interrelated and interdependent parts that form a 7nit 0n the political s(stem there is a connection 5etween what Easton defined as ?inp7t? and ?o7tp7t? !or ?inp7t? and ?o7tp7t?$ ?Enter? in the political s(stem is the claims and manifestations of s7pport from the comm7nit( *eL7irements +ar( from calls to raise the standard of li+ing, to impro+e the emplo(ment sit7ation, to increase the pa(ment of social allowances to the slogans of the protection of minorities and h7man rights @orms of s7pport, on the other hand, = these are the wa(s in which societ( contri57tes to the political s(stem3 pa(ing ta4es, agreeing with whate+er go+ernment 7nderta6ing and generall( participating in political life ?.7tp7t? is the decisions and actions of the 9o+ernment, incl7ding the +ario7s programs, the adoption of laws, decisions on ta4ation and allocation of p75lic f7nds 0t is eas( to 7nderstand that the ?o7tp7t? generated
g=VE>N # ,'%(',*+'$=%' &('0$,5-7')*' T.&*(*+'$=*9 05))>9, 5=<'),*(134'' )5*2%7'' 6)5+*.>' -65*.%$-86* * -65*.%0'?$,-*8 * ,'. $5.>. $%0'?$,-134'' %24'.1 &%)*.5)*3&(%27'.>"
gi+es feed5ac6, again forming new reL7irements and forms of s7pport The main idea of the model of Easton is that the political s(stem alwa(s see6s long=term eL7ili5ri7m !in this case for political sta5ilit(,
Fig& <&# T+e )oliti'al syste2
mo5ilit($ and the sta5ilit( of this s(stem depends 7pon how the ?withdrawal? is 5alanced with respect to ?inp7t? 0t is important howe+er to remem5er that the concept7al model is alwa(s easier that realit(, the( e4plain This is a simple design to facilitate 7nderstanding3 that in itself is still not 6nown 0n EastonIs model, for e4ample, political parties and interest gro7ps are represented as ?gate6eepers?, the main tas6 = to reg7late the flow of ?0? in the political s(stem 0t is possi5le that it is L7ite permissi5le 7nderstanding = (o7 need onl( to remem5er that parties and political gro7ps also operate p75lic sentiment and th7s contri57te to a more precise design of p75lic demands 0n a word, the realit( is far more interesting and comple4 instit7tions than the( are represented in the model -imilarl(, Easton model 5etter e4plains how and wh( the political s(stem responds to p75lic press7re, than wh( it has resorted to repression and coercion, in +ar(ing degrees, this happens in all political s(stems The terms "t+eory" and ?model? are often 7sed interchangea5l( %oth are the concept7al design, the tools of political anal(sis Bowe+er, the theor( is, strictl( spea6ing, carr( a s(stematic e4planation of the large amo7nts of empirical data, then the model is simpl( a str7ct7re or e4planator( h(pothesis, which is s75Cect to f7rther +erification 0n this conte4t, political anal(st sa(s that the theor( ma( 5e more or less tr7e, the model again = more or less ?7sef7l ? 0t is o5+io7s that the theories and models are often interrelated and comple4 political theor( can 5e ill7strated 5( a range of models @or e4ample, the theor( of pl7ralism !see Chapters > and 5$ can 5e e4plained 7sing a model of the state model of the electoral
48
process, the models of gro7p policies and so on @7rther, we 7nderstand that in fact all the concept7al design theories and models carr( a hidden +al7es or internal
heory F a sCsteGatic ejplanation Nno@ledge "
<& W+at is )oliti's> 4$
Paradig+ . !t the verC general sense, a paradigG reEers to the saGple , the saGple solution oE the pro leG , Godel F soGething is , that AkorGalA science , Eunctioning in an old , esta lished ,intellectual A[alseA \ all this is onlC a general assuGption ne@ paradigG "
nal ass7mptions @or this reason it is diffic7lt to form7late a theor( that wo7ld 5e a p7rel( empirical3 to a+oid the infl7ence of +al7es or ideas of normati+e character fails 1n ill7stration of this is the ha5it of people to 7se the concept 6nown as either positi+e !for e4ample, s7ch ?B7rrahO=Eord? as ?democrac(?, ?freedom? and ?C7stice?$, or negati+e !?conflict?, ?anarch(?, ?ideolog( ?and e+en? the polic( ?$ Models and theories, moreo+er, is initiall( ?primed? 5( certain trends *ational choice theor(, for e4ample !see a5o+e$, does not +al7e=ne7tral, 5eca7se the( are 5ased on the ass7mption that people are inherentl( selfish and self=ser+ing, and from this deri+e polic( concl7sions notorio7sl( conser+ati+e nat7re -imilarl(, the Mar4ist theor( of class politics are repelled from the 5roader concepts of histor( and societ( depend, therefore, on how these concepts are adeL7ate in relation to the historical realit( .ne can therefore sa( that the model and the microscopic theor( are 5ased on 5roader theories = macrotheor( This is the most important theoretical tools of political anal(sis, centered on iss7es of power and the state3 pl7ralism !see p A#$, elitism !see p AA$, class anal(sis, and so on These theories will 5e disc7ssed in Chapters > and 5 0t remains to 5e said is that for one, and an e+en deeper le+el, the macroscopic theor( can reflect the ideas and concepts of a partic7lar ideological tradition, traditions are the same as what Thomas &7hn ! Thomas &7hn $, in his 5oo6 ?The -tr7ct7re of -cientific *e+ol7tions ? ! The 5tructure of 5cientific Revolutions ! 1A'2$ called paradigms Paradigm = a set of interrelated principles, doctrines and theories, allowing str7ct7red learning process 0n fact, this frame in which the search for 6nowledge flows 0n economics, for e4ample, we see a paradigm shift in the displacement of &e(nesianism, monetarism !perhaps with a s75seL7ent transition to &e(nesianism$ in the transport polic( = the rise of the ?green? mo+ement 1ccording to &7hn, in nat7ral science at an( gi+en point in time one dominant paradigm, science as a whole de+elops a ?re+ol7tion? in which the old paradigm is replaced 5( a new one %( Political -t7dies, howe+er, these findings are not necessaril( applica5le, as in politics often warring against se+eral paradigms Paradigm, these ta6e the form of 5road social philosophies, commonl( called ideologies = li5eralism, conser+atism, socialism, fascism, feminism, and so on Each of them in their own wa( reflects social 5eing, each carries its own +iew of the world %7t to spea6 of these ideologies as
theoretical paradigms of all, of co7rse, does not mean to impl( that the political and ideological anal(sis ine+ita5l( onl( ser+es the interests of a partic7lar gro7p or class = no, it is onl( from the fact that it is 5ased on the partic7lar ideological tradition 1cademic political science, for e4ample, for the most part de+eloped on the 5asis of the li5eral=rationalist principles and therefore 5ears the clear imprint of his li5eral past Different le+els of concept7al anal(sis is schematicall( shown in @ig <&8&
Fig& <&8& T+e le3els o! 'on'e)tual analysis
49
C Con'lusions
G The polic( is an acti+it( in which people create, preser+e and enrich the general r7les 5( which the( li+e 1s s7ch, it is a p75lic acti+it(, ine4trica5l( lin6ed, on the one hand, the presence of di+ersit( and conflict, and the other = the desire to cooperate and wor6 together Polic( is 5etter 7nderstood as a search for wa(s to resol+e the conflict, rather than as the achie+ement of s7ch a state, as not all conflicts can 5e sol+ed or resol+ed G 0n the different traditions and different polic( thin6ers 7nderstood in different wa(s -he was treated as an art of go+ernment and the sphere of p75lic life, as the resol7tion of social conflicts thro7gh disc7ssion and compromise, and as the prod7ction, distri57tion and 7se of reso7rces in the p75lic life G .ne of the most contro+ersial iss7es of political science = what range of p75lic relations co+er the areas of ?political? 0n the traditional +iew of things in this area incl7de onl( those instit7tions and actors that operate in the ?p75lic sphere? of societ( 0f, howe+er, 7nderstand the polic( as a field of power relations, it sho7ld 5e classified and certain aspects of the ?pri+ate sphere? of life G Bis approach de+eloped in the st7d( of politics = in political science 1mong them we see a political philosoph( that st7dies the reg7lator( aspects of the pro5lem, empirical=
<& W+at is )oliti's> 47
toric tradition connected with the st7d( of instit7tions, 5eha+ioral anal(sis, a n7m5er of c7rrent approaches, incl7ding the 7se of rational choice theor( G The st7d( of politics is scientific in nat7re insofar as it is possi5le to o5tain o5Cecti+e 6nowledge of the world of politics, separating facts from +al7es Ma6e it so it is not alwa(s eas( d7e to lac6 of information, the infl7ence of the +al7es that are alwa(s present in political models and theories, and, finall(, those tendencies and preferences, which is s75Cect to the researcher G Concepts, models and theories sho7ld 5e 7nderstood as tools of political anal(sis, with which we e4tract the elements of the 6nowledge of the infinite and comple4 realit( 0n the end, as a res7lt, a partic7lar 7nderstanding of societ( and politics is part of a 5roader intellect7al str7ct7res = the ideological paradigm
C Issues !or dis'ussion

R 0f the polic( is deepl( social, wh( not all the social acti+ities politicF R Eh( +iews a5o7t politics so often carried and carr( a negati+e connotationF R Ehat can 5e said in defense of the polic( as it is a no5le and worth(F R 0s it possi5le to ?end of politics?F R Eh( is the idea of the scientific approach in st7dies of politics has alwa(s 5een so pop7larF R 0s it possi5le to st7d( the policies and o5Cecti+el( witho7t an( 5ias itF
49
50
C+a)ter 4& /o3ern2ent % syste2s and 2odes
letter must that the governGent , @hich is not governed " nenrC o " Loro " "i#il $i%obe&ie'ce H 184( I
Political thin6ers since ancient times spec7lated on what disting7ishes one form of go+ernment to another More in 0: c %C 1ristotle made the first of the 6nown attempts to characteri;e the political regimes thro7gh s7ch concepts as ?democrac(?, ?oligarch(? and ?t(rann(? = a term widel( 7sed toda( %( the 5eginning of ):000 cent7r( 5ecame a ha5it to di+ide the state on the monarch( and the rep75lic, constit7tional and a7tocratic regimes 0n the )) cent7r( , new and more specific classification @or e4ample, d7ring the ?cold war? political map of the world was di+ided into ?three worlds? = there was the pict7re of world politics, red7ced to a confrontation 5etween democrac( and totalitarianism Toda(, and this classification seems o7tdated on the 5ac6gro7nd of e+ents s7ch as the collapse of comm7nism, the rise of East 1sia and the emergence of political 0slam -7ppose toda( is still not clear what these changes mean = the world tri7mph of Eestern li5eral democrac( as some thin6, or f7rther political fragmentation of the modern world, is 5elie+ed to others
Content
he traditional classification syste+ ghC classiEC the political sCsteG b Zlassic tCpologC Lhe tCpologC oE the ALhree gorlds A /odes of /odern "orld gestern polCarchC ke@ oeGocracC Lhe East !sian regiGes DslaGic regiGes MilitarC regiGes Findings Issues for discussion
4& /o3ern2ent syste2s and 2odes 4:
%. '2 '! '( '0 '. (% (( (0 (6 ((.
0n this chapter we consider the following 5asic pro5lem
T+e 2ain @uestions

P Ehat are the differences 5etween go+ernments, political s(stems and regimesF P Ehat is the p7rpose of classification s(stems of go+ernmentF P .n what 5asis sho7ld 5e classified modesF P Ehat are the main modes of the modern worldF P There was a glo5al tri7mph of Eestern li5eral democrac(F
C T+e traditional 'lassi!i'ation syste2

%efore t7rning to the L7estion of e4isting classifications, s(stems of go+ernment, letIs thin6 a5o7t what it is to 5e classified and wh( The first L7estion is = what is the ?go+ernment? and the go+ernment
51
differ from the ?political s(stem?, or ?modes? The term ?go+ernment? refers to the instit7tions and processes, within which are 7s7all( made collecti+el(, and with the generall( 5inding decisions, the +ario7s instit7tions of this s(stem will 5e disc7ssed in part 0: of this 5oo6 Politi'al Syste2 ! Political s(stem $, or mode 1 , ser+es a 5road concept, encompassing not onl( the mechanisms of power and the instit7tions of the state, 57t also the str7ct7res and processes thro7gh which the go+ernment interacts with the p75lic The political s(stem of the s75s(stem s7pports a wider social s(stem ?-(stem? it is 5eca7se there is an interaction of parts within a whole, the ?political? = 5eca7se this interaction occ7rs o+er the distri57tion of power, wealth and reso7rces in societ( !in a sense, the organi;ation of economic life characteri;es the political s(stem as as certain as the e4isting mechanisms in this s(stem of go+ernment$ Mode, so there is a ?s(stem of go+ernment,? which is preser+ed 7nder all changes of go+ernment 9o+ernments can ta6e t7rns as a res7lt of the election, the change of d(nasties, co7ps, etc , the selection changes as a res7lt of either militar( inter+ention from o7tside or from within the re+ol7tion
areas oE policC H AejitA I"
0n the domestic political science tradition has de+eloped L7ite the opposite meaning of the term ?regime? = as a narrow concept that reflects a partic7lar state, a historicall( short period, the political s(stem ! Note lane $
1
#; I & Politi'al t+eory
h=CMVBFC@DELL=E M[FBD>EL?E P%0 :%$105($,-%. .%/)% &%)*.5,; 732%? .'95)*6. *7**) $,*,1,, 1&(5-7834*? %24'$,-%., &%00'(/*-534*? - )'. 1$,5)%-7'))>? &%(80%=, %2750534*?$& %$%2)%$,;3 ->(525,>-5,; =%77'=,*-)>' ('U')*8 * %$14'$,-78,; *9" S *6-'$,)%. $.>$7'&%0%2) >? .'95)*6. 1&(5-7')*8 .> %2)5(1/*-5'. &%+,* -% -$'9 $%<*57;)>9 *)$,*,1,59 # - $'.;',U=%7 ', 0'7%->9 $,(1=,1(59, &(%K$%3659 * ,"0" d'(.*) V:%$105($,-'))%' 1&(5-7')*'W %2>+)%%,)%$8, = ,'. %K*<* 57;)>. * *)$,*,1<*%)57;)>. &(%<'$$5., &%$('0$,-%. =%,%(>9 )5)5<*%)57;)>. 1(%-)' &%00'(/ *-53,$8 65=%) * &%(80%=, %$14'$,-783,$8 0'?$,-*8 =%77'=,*-)%:%95(5=,'(5" p'),(57;)>.* K1)= <*8.* :%$105($,-5 8-783,$8 ->(52%,=5 * &(*)8,*' 65=%)%-H65=%)%05,'7;$,-%I, *9 &(',-%(')*' /*6); H.'95)*6.> *$&%7)*,'7;)%? -75$,*I * *9 ,%7=%-5)*'H$10'2)58 $*$,'.5I"
W+y 'lassi!y t+e )oliti'al syste2>

The classification of political s(stems to 7s interesting and important for two reasons The first reason = it greatl( facilitates the 7nderstanding of politics and p75lic administration 1fter all, in political science, as well as in other social sciences, 6nowledge is mainl( thro7gh comparison3 methods of e4perimental nat7re do not appl( here Ee can not, for e4ample, set 7p an e4periment to test it not 5e easier to allow the U - go+ernment or that go3ern2ent 'risis ! 9o+ernment gridloc6 $, if there a5andon the principle of separation of powers, or wo7ld ha+e remained in the U--* socialist s(stem, whether the reform of the co7ntr( started generation earlier Ee, therefore, is to resort to a comparison of phenomena noticing the similarities and differences 5etween them, we can see more clearl( the s75Cect of st7d(, to screen o7t the important from the 7nimportant, and in general are ma6ing some 6ind of order in what otherwise wo7ld ha+e 5een C7st a collection of o5sc7re facts 0n parallel, the political scientist can form7late some of his h(potheses, concepts, theories, and e+en to some e4tent on the act7al test their material 0n short, in the words of 1le4is de TocL7e+ille !see p 2">$, ?no matching e+ents mind does not 6now where to go ? 1s for the classification of control s(stems, itIs C7st a wa( to ma6e o7r operation more methodical comparison and consistent The second reason = the classification facilitates not onl( the anal(sis, 57t also the assessment ofe+ents 0ndeed, since the time of 1ristotle, political thin6ers ha+e so7ght not onl( to 7nderstand 57t also to impro+e power Descripti+e elements in the philosoph( of alwa(s side 5( side with the reg7lator( = L7estions a5o7t *hat to eat! with L7estions a5o7t how it should be in histor( e+en has se+eral times made attempts to draw a pict7re of the maCestic ideal s(stem of go+ernment = in fact 7topia3 e4amples = ?The *ep75lic? 5( Plato, ?Utopia? 5( Thomas More !151'$, ?@ields, @actories and Eor6shops? Peter &ropot6in !1A12$, etc Ehate+er it was, comparing the political e+ents together, we are a5le to gi+e them
52
a partic7lar L7alit( characteristic e+al7ation .nl( within the framewor6 of the comparati+e approach, for e4ample, (o7 can ma6e some C7dgments in L7estions li6e ?-ho7ld we welcome and promotion
<FBD?@E>NC@DELLi` AF?K?C # $*,15<*8 &5(57*+5 -75$,*, ->6-5))58 $%&'()*+'$,-%.:%$ 105($,-'))>9 *)$,*,1,%*7* &%&>,=5.* :%$105($,-5 10%-7',-%(*,; &(%,*-%('+54*' 0(1: 0(1:1,('2%-5)*8 %24'$,-5"
4& /o3ern2ent syste2s and 2odes #<
:to#ia , uto#ia H EroG the qreeN " )*topia F or anC@here +*topia F the good earth I F the ideal or perEect societC " Lhough huGanitC Euture " !t a Gost characteristic ejaGples can speciEC on MarjisG and
r(at transition *7ssia and other former socialist co7ntries to li5eral democrac(F ?,? -ho7ld 0ndia gi+e 7p federalism in fa+or of a 7nitar( s(stem or independence of regions, ?and? -ho7ld the United &ingdom adopt the ?-cript7res? the constit7tionF I 1ll the s(stems of classification, howe+er, has its draw5ac6s !1$ /i6e other anal(tical methods, the( carr( the ris6 of simplification Classification of modes 7nder one heading, for e4ample, draws attention to their matching characteristics, 57t it is possi5le that o7t of the eL7ation will remain some L7ite significant differences 5etween them 9reat danger to o+erloo6 and that the same phenomenon in different conditions ma( 5e +er( neo= dina6o+( sense @or e4ample, a ?state? that e4ists in Kapan and thro7gho7t 1sia, and the t(pe of its +er( nat7re can 5e +er(, +er( m7ch different from the ?state? as it is 7nderstood in the Eest Therefore, the comparati+e anal(sis, we m7st constantl( 5ear in mind the danger o! et+no'entris2 ! Ethnocentrism $ !2$ Classifications can 5e distorted 5( +ario7s +al7e=effects There was a time, for e4ample, when politicians 7nited comm7nist and fascist regimes 7nder the same heading of ?totalitarian? = a pict7re of that in the (ears of the ?Cold Ear? Eestern li5eral democrac( at war, with s75stantiall( the same enem( as the -econd Eorld Ear !3$ 1ll of o7r s(stems of classification inherent another draw5ac6 = the cornerstone the( p7t the state and the co7ntr( is considered as a holistic and self= s7fficient s(stem 0t is +er( 5ig mista6e not call it, 57t in the era of glo5ali;ation, this approach is no longer s7fficient
Classic t(polog(
Bistoricall(, the most a7thoritati+e s(stem of classification s(stems of go+ernment has alwa(s 5een the one in the 0: cent7r( %C e 1ristotle de+eloped = material for it were 15# 9ree6 cit( that e4isted at that time @ollowing 1ristotle, this s(stem pre+ailed in political philosoph( 2500 (ears 1ristotle 5elie+ed that go+ernments differ from each other on two criteria3 ?who r7les? and ?in whose interest it is ? Power can 5e in the hands of one person or gro7p of people of man( citi;ens = and in each of these cases, it ma( 5e either a narrow, sometimes e+en openl( selfish interests of the r7lers, or the interests of the entire comm7nit( -ince 1ristotle identified si4 forms of go+ernment !@ig7re 2 1$
against other ethnicities and groups "
#4 I & Politi'al t+eory
ZbC=>H@?KO # T,% ,'%(*8 * &(5=,*=5 &(5-7')*8, ,(50*<*%))% 5$$%<**(1'.>' $ 52$%73, )%? .%)5(9*'?" P(5-7')*' - ,5=%? $*$,'.' )%$*, V52$%73,)>?W 95(5=,'( &%$,%7;=1, &%$=%7;=1 -75$,; -$'<'7% * )'%:(5)*+'))% &(*)507'/*, .%)5(91" c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
53
Fig& 4&<& T+e siE !or2s o! go3ern2ent a''ording to Aristotle
1ristotle tried to appreciate e+er( form of go+ernment, in order to determine the 5est among them %( worst, spoiled, he too6 the forms of t(rann(, oligarch( and democrac(3 here, in his +iew, respecti+el(, one person, gro7p of people and the masses of the people held swa( in their own interest, and therefore to the detriment of others More sophisticated forms in front of him appeared monarch(, aristocrac( and polit(3 in these s(stems respecti+el( one person, a class of people and the wider societ( go+erned in the interest of all The worst form of go+ernment 1ristotle, of co7rse, declared t(rann(, 5eca7se it red7ces people to the stat7s of sla+es 0n addition, the monarch( and the aristocrac(, he saw that the wea6ness that is so +er( m7ch depended on, will find themsel+es in a go+ernorsI godli6e desire ?to p7t the good of the comm7nit( a5o+e their own Bowe+er, the most perfect and th7s sta5le form of go+ernment was recogni;ed polit( = the power of man(, for all Bowe+er, 1ristotle, and there were words of criticism for the national go+ernment in the sense !and this arg7ment will contin7e 7ntil the )) cent7r( $ = that the masses here if the( entice en+( with respect
4& /o3ern2ent syste2s and 2odes ##
ideological Ganipulation , open regiGes in this sense pursue a Guch provide theGselves 1963I, coGprising in itselE \ r the oEEicial ideologC r a oneFpartC state @ith the allFpo@erEul leader r terror , Apolice state A r the state ss GonopolC oE the Geans oE Gass Gedia r the state GonopolC on arGs r =%),(%7; :%$105($,-5 )50 -$'.* 5$&'=,5.* T=%)%.*+'$=%? /*6)* Gore Godest goal F to
20K to a rich fellow citi;ens easil( fall 7nder the infl7ence of demagog7es ! demagog7e $ The philosopher therefore fa+ored a ?mi4ed? form of go+ernment that wo7ld 5ring together the elements of democrac( and aristocrac(, and the power wo7ld 5e in the hands of the ?middle classes? = not the rich and not the poor 0n the f7t7re the s(stem of 1ristotle was de+eloped 5( thin6ers s7ch as Thomas Bo55es ! ThomasBo55es $ and Kean %odin ! Kean %odin 1530=15A'$, especiall( thoro7ghl( de+eloped the principles of so+ereignt( = in their opinion, the 5asis of sta5ilit( of an( and all states The so+ereignt( of these thin6ers were treated as the ?highest and 7nfailing power? = the power, which alone can g7arantee an orderl( go+ernment 0n ?-i4 principles of the common good? ! The 5ix 7ooks of the Common*eal ! 15"'$ %oden detailed wa( considered the L7estion of who is a carrier !?repositor(?$, the a7thorities in the states, 5oth ancient and modern Be e+ent7all( came to the concl7sion that the most preferred form of go+ernment sho7ld recogni;e the a5sol7tism, 5eca7se here is a carrier of power r7ler who has the freedom to dictate the law, 57t he is not 5o7nd 5( an( law Ehen the power is in the hands of one person, the state, according to %oden, gets all the 5enefits of a single and indi+isi5le so+ereignt(3 it is in this case, one might sa(, spea6s with one +oice 1t the same time, and the
54
monarch is limited in his will = the di+ine law or nat7ral rights of people Bo55es, in t7rn, interpreted so+ereignt( as the e4cl7si+e right to the coerci+e power3 his 5oo6 ?/e+iathan? ! Leviathan ! 1'51$ is a 5earer of the go+ernor general 7nlimited power /ater, with a radical re+ision of these ideas were s7ch representati+es ranneli5eralno( tho7ght, as Kohn /oc6e !see p 55$ and MontesL7ie7 !see p 312$ = the ideolog7es of constit7tional go+ernment /oc6e in ?Two Treatises of 9o+ernment? ! T*o Treatises of "overnment ! 1'A0$ ad+anced the proposition that so+ereignt( ?fits? is not a monarch and the people, the power of the go+ernment is to 5e limited in the name of nat7ral rights = especiall( the right to life, li5ert(, and propert(
&e+agogue F politician , attracting at cause an increased enthusiasG oE the cro@d " hFBjVBLCA=E =bIEC@D= # $K'(5 $14'$,-%-5)*8 )'65-*$*.>9 %, :%$105($,-5 :(1&& *5$$%<*5<*?J +5$,)58 $K'(5 /*6)*, )' 65-*$*.58 %, &127*+)%? -75$,*"
#8 I & Politi'al t+eory #9 I & Politi'al t+eory
1989I\ r qovernGent is oE the elected oEEicials J r elections are Eree and open J r &(5=,*+'$=* -$' 0%$,*:U*' $%-'(U'))%7',*8 *.'3, &(5-% :%7%$%-5,;J r the right to e elected to pu lic oEEice is not liGited to J r the presence oE EreedoG oE speech and the right to criticisG and protests J r 1 :(5/05) '$,; 0%$,1& = )'65-*$*.>. *$,%+)*=5. *)K%(.5<**J r :(1&&> * $%%24'$,-5 &%71+53, &% .');U'? .'(' %,)%$*,'7;)13 )'65-*$*.%$,; %,&(5-*, '7;$,-5
Fig& 4&4& T+e 2ain '+ara'teristi's o! t+e regi2e
! ideological $ approach, in which the main criterion was the le+el of economic de+elopment of the s(stem and its o+erall political and ideological orientation The approach s7ggested in this 5oo6, in some aspects from each of the a5o+e data /et 7s consider the three main characteristics of the regime = its political, economic and c7lt7ral aspects The central idea of o7r approach is that the s(stem does not differ so m7ch in their specific political, economic or c7lt7ral terms, as in how these parameters interact with each other and are intertwined in real life !see @ig 2 2$ The proposed approach, and it is his dignit(, draws attention to the fact that the political and economic instit7tions can f7nction L7ite differentl( depending on their c7lt7ral conte4t3 for e4ample, m7lti=part( elections and a mar6et econom( in the li5eral c7lt7re of Eestern societies = this one, in a c7lt7re non=Eestern societies = something different 0t sho7ld 5e 7nderstood that in the conte4t of the deepest political 7phea+als late )) cent7r( 1n( classification will 5e temporar( -ami political s(stems toda( are changed so rapidl( that classif( them highl( comple43 it is an eternal race for the e+er=changing political realit(
55
4& /o3ern2ent syste2s and 2odes #: $;
C+a)ter # & Politi'al ideologies
Philoso#hers before so far only on - *arious world , then a #roble+ isthat , to change it . tarl Marj " 4he%e% o' 5e*e6bach H 1847 I
eR#lanations
for the
2one of 7s sees the world the wa( it reall( is Ee loo6 at it thro7gh the prism of some alread( formed ideas, ass7mptions and theories Therefore, the o5ser+ation and 7nderstanding are insepara5le3 loo6ing at the world, at the same time we attach to it a partic7lar meaning -omething similar happens when we percei+e politics = different people here ma( 5e initiall( different a4ioms and pre=e4isting +iews The roots of all this hiding 7nder the +er( 5road political traditions that are called political ideologies This is a +ast world of ?isms?, where (o7 can meet li5eralism, socialism, conser+atism, feminism, fascism, and so on, e+er( ?ism? in this case is an intelligent an( partic7lar 7nit, or paradigm, each of them gi+es a pict7re of the political realit( = their world+iew 2eedless to sa(, there are man( +iews on what is the ideolog( and the role it pla(s in societ(
Content
"hat is the #olitical ideology $ Liberalis+ Lhe eleGents oE li eralisG Zlassical li eralisG Modern li eralisG 3onser*atis+ Lhe eleGents oE conservatisG faternalistic conservatisG Ake@ Might A 4ocialis+ EleGents oE SocialisG MarjisG Social F oeGocracC Lhe third @aC 5ther ideological tradition [ascisG !narchisG [eGinisG EnvironGentalisG Meligious EundaGentalisG he end of ideology $ 51 53 53 55 56 58 58 60 61 63 64 65 70 72 73 73 75 75 77 78 79
56
Findings Issues for discussion

#& Politi'al Ideologies $<
80 81
0n this chapter we consider the following 6e( iss7es
T+e 2ain @uestions

P Ehat is the political ideolog(F P Ehat are the main themes of the theor( and principles of each of the maCor ideologiesF P Ehat are the conflicting traditions or the internal contradictions inherent in e+er( ideolog(F P 1s the main ideolog( changed o+er timeF P Bow can we e4plain the rise and decline of ideologiesF P Eorn to ideolog(F 0s it possi5le to the end of ideolog(F
C W+at is t+e )oliti'al ideology>

?0deolog(? = one of the concepts of political science, aro7nd which there were, and are, of co7rse, will still go to man( and man( disp7tes 1ltho7gh toda( the term is 7sed in a ne7tral sense = as a simple s(m5ol of a social philosoph( or world+iew, historicall(, he had L7ite a diffic7lt life, 5eca7se there were times when he ga+e +er( negati+e meaning3 to call the +iews of their political opponents ?ideolog(? then meant to gi+e them the most that is disparaging assessment The word ?ideolog(? was first 7sed in 1"A', the @rench philosopher Despot de Trac( ! Dest7tt deTrac( , 1"5>=1#3'$ 0n de Trac(, it meant some new ?science of ideas? !literall(, the idea= olog($, which wo7ld ha+e to st7d( the origin of o7r tho7ghts Philosopher himself hoping that ideolog( will e+ent7all( 5ecome a recogni;ed science as ;oolog( or 5iolog( D7ring the term, howe+er, st7c6 the importance in )0)cent7r( he ga+e &arl Mar4 !see p '5$ Mar4 saw ideolog( as something tantamo7nt ideas of ?r7ling class? = ideas that, therefore, the pre+ailing sanctif( the class di+ision of societ( and the e4ploitation of the lower classes 0n his earl( wor6, ?The 9erman 0deolog(? !1#>'$, Mar4 and Engels wrote the following3 The ideas of the r7ling class are in e+er( epoch the r7ling ideas, ie the class that ser+es as the mainmaterial force in societ(, is also its main intellectual force The class that owns the means of prod7ction, at the same time controls the prod7ction of ideas The nat7re of the ideolog( of Mar4 saw that it is a false conscio7sness of ha+ing onl( that goal is to 6eep the lower classes in the dar6 and do not let them see the real contradictions, which 7nderpins all class societies 0n the specific case of capitalism, there is an ideolog( proprietar( class !5o7rgeois ideolog($ imposes the proletariat ?false conscio7sness? and all sorts of ill7sions that pre+ent him reali;e its operated position 1t the same time, Mar4 did not 5elie+e that all political +iews are notorio7sl(
$4 I & Politi'al t+eory #& Politi'al Ideologies $$
Fo+n Lo'?e *<5#4.<7;8,
connection @ith the so Fcalled Aqlorious Mevolution A in 1688 g ", Eorever
57
societ(, and contri57tes to its de+elopment, since onl( 7nder these conditions, different points of +iew to reall( chec6ed for +alidit( in the free mar6et of ideas 0ndeed, li5eralism 5elie+es that e+en 5etween competing interests has a ?pre=esta5lished harmon(? and therefore in societ(, there can 5e conflicts that co7ld not 5e reconciled T+e )u(li' 'onsensus% a 'onsensus& 1ccording to the philosoph( of li5eralism power and, more 5roadl(, p75lic relations sho7ld 5e 5ased on social consens7s and agreements p7rel( +ol7ntar( nat7re, e+er( control sho7ld 5e 5ased on the ?consent of the go+erned ? That is wh( li5eralism is committed to the doctrine of democrac( and political representation The same +iew is e4tended to societ( as a whole3 the organi;ations and associations appear here in the order of the contract7al relationship in which people p7rs7e their own goals, ta6e a p7rel( +ol7ntar( The power in this pict7re is alwa(s ?comes from 5elow,? and therefore has a notorio7s legitimac( Constitutionalis2& Tho7gh the state for the li5eral ideolog( has alwa(s 5een a +ital g7arantee of order and sta5ilit( in societ(, there is alwa(s present and a sense of the danger that the go+ernment co7ld degenerate into t(rann( !according to /ord 1cton, ?1ll power corr7pts?$ ConseL7entl(, it m7st 5e restricted This pro5lem is sol+ed 5( separation of state power thro7gh a s(stem of chec6s and 5alances 5etween its instit7tions and the adoption of a codified, or hand=written, with the Constit7tion %ill of *ights, which defines the relationship 5etween the state and the indi+id7al
STUVVWXYVZW[ TW\Y]UTW^_
The core of classical li5eralism was originall( a commitment to e4treme forms of indi+id7alism People are drawn to this tradition fran6l( selfish 5eings who p7rs7e onl( their own goals and hope=
$5 I & Politi'al t+eory
Fo+n Stuart Bill *<9;5.<97#,
Q):7*?$=*? K*7%$%K, T=%)%.*$, * &%7*,*=" R*77; $ 0',$,-5 2>7 &(*1+') $-%*. %,<%.,,'% (',*=%. 1,*7*,5(*6.5 O/'?.$%. R*77'. H1773# 1836I, = )5&(8/'))'?U'? (52%,' )50$%2$,-')) >. %2(56%-5)*'., +,% &(*-'7% 0-50<5,*7',)':% 3)%U1 = )'(-)%.1 (5$$,(%?$,-1" c5K%(.*(%-5)*' &'(-%)5+57;)>9 K* 7%$%K$=*9 -6:780%- R*778 &%-7*87* )'.'<=*' *0'57*$,> *a%7;(*0/" Y:% %$)%-)>' (52%,>, ,5=*', =5= Vu $-%2%0'W H1859I, Vi5.'+5)*8 % &('0$, 5-*,'7;)%.&(5-*,'7;$,-'W H1861I * VP%(52%4')*' /')4*)W H1869I, %=5657* $*7;)'?U'' -%60'?$ ,-*' )5(56-*,*' 7*2'(57;)%? .>$7*" R)%:%$,%(%))*' * :712%=*' ,(10> R*778 -% .)%:%. &(%7%/*7* 0%(%:1%, =75$$*+'$=%:% = $%-('.'))%.1 7*2'(57*6.1" S $-%'. )'&(*8,** :%$105($,-'))%:%-.'U5,'7;$,-5 - /*6); %24'$,-5 R*77; 078 vDv -'=5 )' 2>7 %(*:*)5 7'), )% ,% 6)5+')*', =%,%(%' %)&(*05-57 7*+)%$,*, V*)0*-*0157;)%$,*W, &(%27'.5. /')4*) * ,(1 084*9$8 $7%'- %24'$,-5, 8-)%$27*/5', ':% $ vv -'=%."
)ia onl( on themsel+es 0t is in e+er( sense of the word masters of their own destin(, do not owe an(thing nor societ(, nor to others Parallel to s7ch an ato2isti' ! atomist $ +iew of societ( ad+ocated ?negati+e? li5ert( = reCection of an( indi+id7al whatsoe+er o7tside interference in his life, his freedom
58
from e4ternal constraints 2eedless to sa(, the state and all sorts of go+ernmental regimentation this tradition 5elonged profo7ndl( hostile manner 0n the words of Tom Paine ! Tom Paine $ !see p 2#2$, the state = a ?necessar( e+il ? ?*eL7ired?, as it pro+ides some 6ind of order in societ(, sec7rit(, and compliance with contract7al o5ligations, and ?e+il? 5eca7se imposes on all 6ind of collecti+e will, p7tting the scope of h7man freedom and responsi5ilit( The ideal of classical li5eralism, so it was ?e4tremel( small state?, which wo7ld 5e e4ec7ted, as it was then called, the role of the ?night watchman? = protection of people from all sorts of tro75le with the citi;ens 0n s7ch the +ariet( as e'ono2i' li(eralis2 ! Economic li5eralism $, this position is accompanied 5( a 5o7ndless faith in the free mar6et mechanisms = in the fact that the econom( wor6s 5est when the go+ernment generall( lea+es it alone 0t was ass7med that the free capitalism !or, as was then the words, capitalism, laisse# / faire $ 5( itself will lead to the prosperit( of societ(, g7arantees people the freedom, as their s7ccess or fail7re in this case depend onl( on themsel+es, and th7s ens7re social C7stice
;to+is+ F representation , according to o@e to each other " and econoGic @ellF eing Eor all " /odern liberalis+
Modern li5eralism is characteri;ed 5( a m7ch more conciliator( attit7de to state inter+ention 0n the U - , a ?li5eral? toda(, e+en on=the=
#& Politi'al Ideologies $7
Ed2und =ur?e *<74:.<7:7,
Q):7*?$=*? :%$105($,-'))>? 0'8,'7; * &%7*,*+'$=*? .>$7*,'7;, $+*,534*?$8 %$)%-5,'7 '.5):7%F5.'(*=5)$=%? =%)$'(-5,*-)%? ,(50*<**" ]'&1,5<*8 _w(=5 =5= 12'/0'))%:% =%)$'(-5,%(56 5=('&*75$; 65 )*. &%$7' ->9%05 )'$=%7;=*9 ':% (52%,, - ,%. +*$7' V]56.>U7')*? % x(5)<16$=%?('-%73<**W H1790I, $%0'(/5-U*9 ('6=13 =(*,*=1 $%2>,*? -% x(5)<** H9%,8 = Q.'(*=5)$=%?('-%73<** %) %,)' $$8 $ =105 2%7;U'? $*.&5,*'?I" S %$%2'))%$,* _w(= )' &(*)*.57 &%&>,%=&'('$,(%*,; %24'$,-% ) 5 %$)%-' V52$,(5=,)>9W &(*)<*&%- $-%2%0>, (5-')$,-5 * 2(5,$,-5\&%7*,*+'$=58 .10(%$,;, 1,-'(/ 057 %), =%(')*,$8 )' - T,%., 5 - %&>,', ,(50*<** * *$,%(**" u),%0)5=%, 0%&1$=57, +,% K(5)<16$=*? 52$%73,*6. -% .)%:%. $5. 2>7 -*)%-)*=%. $-%*9 )'$+5$,*?,*2% )' &(*6)5-57 &(*)<*&5 V*6.')*,;$8, +,%2> $%9(5)*,;W" O78 :%$105($,-5 1 _w(=5 2>7* 7*U; $5.>' &'$$*.*$,*+'$=*' %<')=*\ %)%, 1,-'(/057 %), .%/', (56-' +,% &('0%,-(5,*,; 67%, )% )*=5= )'$%0'?$,-%-5,; 0%2(1 * 275:1" ]>)%+)>' $*7> (5$$.5,(*-57*$; *. =5= $K'(5 0'?$,-*8V'$,'$,-'))>9 65=%)%-W"
shows the person who acts not for the small, 57t for (ig go3ern2ent ! %ig 9o+ernment $ -7ch a radical change d7e to 5road awareness that ind7strial capitalism, lea+ing people to their mar6et, e+ent7all( ga+e rise to new manifestations of social inC7stice Under the infl7ence of tradition, going from K- Mill ! K - Mill $, the so=called ?new li5erals? = TB 9reen !T2 9reen , 1#3'=1##2$, /T Bo5ho7se ! / T Bo5ho7se , 1#'>=1A2A$ and Kohn 1 Bo5son ! K 1 Bo5son , 1#5#=1A>0$ = came 7p with the 5roader rationale, ?positi+e?, the concept of freedom 0t was not a5o7t a sit7ation where (o7 simpl( left
59
alone !for it is in fact can mean the freedom to star+e to death$, and of the freedom that in+ol+es the free de+elopment and self=reali;ation of rights This +iew was the 5asis for the so=called social li5eralism, or, in other words, the li5eral ?welfare ?The main idea here is that go+ernment inter+ention, partic7larl( in the form of social 5enefits, e4panding the limits of p75lic li5ert( that protects a person from the sometimes ine+ita5le ?misad+ent7res of fate ? 0n the U&, one of the go+ernment report in 1A>2 pointed o7t in this connection on the fi+e ?monsters?3 need, ignorance, 7nemplo(ment, waste and disease @or all these reasons modern li5eralism a5andoned the ideal of free capitalism 1 special role in this was pla(ed 5( the theor( of Kohn Ma(nard &e(nes ! K M &e(nes $ !see p 231$ that the growth and prosperit( are achie+ed onl( thro7gh a ?managed? or reg7lated, capitalism, when the main economic tas6 ta6es 5( the go+ernment Bowe+er, the /i5erals new model read( to s7pport the idea of go+ernment inter+ention onl( 7nder certain conditions Their main onl( concern is the fate of the wea6est and most +7lnera5le in societ( who are reall( helpless, and p7rpose = to help these people to rise to a le+el where the( will again 5e a5le to arrange their own destin( and ha+e a life of free choice 2ai
liEe "
$9 I & Politi'al t+eory #& Politi'al Ideologies 5#
worn to m7ltic7lt7ralism and the growth of s7pranational 5odies li6e the U2 and the E7ropean Union
C So'ialis2
1ltho7gh the socialist ideas can 5e traced alread( in the /e+ellers 1 and Diggers 2 ):00 cent7r( , in ?Utopia? 5( Thomas More !151'$, and e+en in the ?*ep75lic? of Plato, socialism as a political doctrine too6 shape onl( in the 5eginning of )0) cent7r( , 5ecoming a reaction against the ind7strial growth capitalism 0nitiall(, it was the social 5asis of handicraft, repressed factor( prod7ction, 57t +er( soon it 5ecame a growing proletariat = ?meat factor(? of earl( ind7striali;ation 0n its earliest form of socialism was wearing a f7ndamentalist, 7topian and re+ol7tionar( Bis goal was to eliminate the capitalist econom( and its mar6et e4change and replace it with a L7alitati+el( new socialist societ( 5ased on social ownership The ideas of the most respected thin6ers of the direction of &arl Mar4 5ecame the fo7ndation for the comm7nist ideolog( of )) cent7r( Bowe+er, since the 5eginning of )0) cent7r( in socialism determined reformist stream, reflecting the fact that the grad7al integration of the wor6ing class in capitalism thro7gh the impro+ement of wor6ing conditions, the growth of pa(ment, a strengthening of trade 7nions and the -ocialist Eor6ers Part( *eformism proclaimed the possi5ilit( of a peacef7l, progressi+e and L7ite legitimate from the point of +iew of the law of transition to socialism ?parliamentar( wa( ? The ideolog( had two so7rces3 the h7manistic tradition of ethical socialism, associated with thin6ers s7ch as *o5ert .wen ! *o5ert .wen , 1""1=1#5#$, Charles @o7rier ! Charles @o7rier , 1""2=1#3"$ and Eilliam Morris ! Eilliam Morris , 1#5>= 1#A'$, and Mar4ism re3isionist ! re+isionist $ wing, p7rs7ed mainl( 5( Ed7ard %ernstein ! Ed7ard %ernstein $ !see p "0$ Most of the )) cent7r( -ocialist mo+ement was di+ided into two opposing camps -ocialists re+ol7tionar( direction, following /enin and the %olshe+i6s, e+ent7all( identified themsel+es as comm7nists -ocial=reformists standing on the legal position of constit7tional politics, gathered aro7nd the elements of what e+ent7all( 5ecame 6nown as the -ocial=Democrats The de5ates were not onl( a5o7t the transition to socialism, 57t also of the essence of the socialist idea The -ocial Democrats strongl( reCected claims of the radical nat7re of the 6ind of p75lic ownership and state planning, tr(ing to rethin6 socialism in terms of ?welfare state? reasona5le redistri57tion of p75lic f7nds and strategic economic go+ernance 1t the end of)) cent7r( , howe+er, 5oth trends ha+e 7ndergone a se+ere crisis, which led man( to tal6 a5o7t
Levellers (;n2lish Levellers 3 letters !evol+tion DF## cent+ry ( Note. lane. )
1
e$+aliBers) 3 a ra-ical ,olitical ,arty -+rin2 the ;n2lish
60
Di22ers (;n2lish Di22ers 3 letters theDF## cent+ry ( Note. lane. )
-i22ers) 3 the e?tre1e left 4in2 of the ;n2lish !evol+tion of
kED?K?=L?KO # &'('$.%,( &'(-%)5+57;)>9 *0'?, ,'(.*) &('0&%75:5', %,=56 %, &('/)*9& (*)<*&%- * 12'/0')*?"
?End of socialism ? The most dramatic moment in this sense was the collapse of comm7nism, initiated 5( the Eastern E7ropean re+ol7tions of 1A#A=1AA1, 57t there was a f7ndamental reCection and of the -ocial Democrac( of their traditions, which is wh(, as some theorists, it is now +irt7all( indisting7isha5le from modern li5eralism
Ele2ents o! So'ialis2
Co22unity ! Comm7nit( $ Central to socialism is the +iew of man as a social 5eing, which is the essence of all of its associated with h7manit( as a whole 1s the poet Kohn Donne ! Kohn Donne $ 1 , ?no man is an island, each of 7s is a part of the continent = a part of the whole ? Comm7nit( and in fact is the most important factor in h7man de+elopment3 a large e4tent shaped 5( the personalit( of p75lic relations, social gro7ps and comm7nities -ocialists therefore tend to e4plain h7man 5eha+ior in social factors more than innate L7alities =rot+er+ood ! @raternit( $ The -ocialists are 5ased on the idea that people 5elonging to h7manit( m7st 5e lin6ed 5( relations of 5rotherhood Therefore, this tradition asserts the priorit( of cooperation o+er competition and indi+id7alism o+er collecti+ism3 cooperating, people 7nite their efforts and strengthen the 5onds of comm7nit(, competing, the( oppose themsel+es to each other and come to a ri+alr(, hostilit( and conflict So'ial e@uality ! social EL7alit( $ EL7alit( also ser+es the f7ndamental +al7e of socialism -ocialism is often 7nderstood as a form of egalitarianism, where eL7alit( is gi+en primac( o+er all other +al7es 1 special role in this set of ideas has social eL7alit( = eL7alit( of o7tcome rather than eL7alit( of opport7nit( EL7alit(, 5eca7se it fa+ors the identification of people with each other, there is also 7nderstood as a condition for social sta5ilit( and internal consistenc( of societ(, and as a 5asis for pro+iding mem5ers of the p75lic of appropriate legal and political rights T+e need ! need $ @rom the principle of eL7alit( in the socialist ideolog( and impl( that material wealth in societ( sho7ld 5e distri57ted according to need, and not for an( other reasons The classic e4pression of this principle is fo7nd in Mar4Is form7la allocation 7nder comm7nism3 ?@rom each according to his a5ilit(, to each according to his needs ? .nl( to satisf( their 5asic needs !food, water, shelter, sec7rit(, etc $, the person in this philosoph( 5egins to ta6e part in p75lic life 1s, howe+er, to achie+e that moral factors had the ad+antage o+er the material !namel(, the doctrine reL7ires that distri57tion according to need$, here is 7nclear
John Donne (>'&.3>*I>) 3 ;n2lish ,oet8 a+thor of ,hiloso,hical lyrics in the s,irit of the !enaissance8 ele2ies8 satires {Note. per. )
1
#& Politi'al Ideologies 5$ #& Politi'al Ideologies 7:
Post+odernis+ F is controversial and not al@aCs clear terG , once introduced in general " insociologC and political science is class , religious and ethnic consciousness " Dn this situation, the historCA , once gro@n on the asis oE GoderniBation " theorists oE postGodernisG traditional AMetaF
Ehere does religio7s f7ndamentalism, and what e4plains its res7rgence in the late )) cent7r( F There are two different e4planations 0n one of them, f7ndamentalism appears certain a5erration, a s(mptom of the adaptation, which 7ndergo a traditional societ( and c7lt7re in the co7rse of moderni;ation The second points to the deeper meaning of f7ndamentalism, seeing in it a conseL7ence of the fact thatse'ularis2 ! sec7larism $ was 7na5le to meet the needs of the person in the higher, spirit7al tr7ths 0n different parts of the world ha+e de+eloped +ario7s forms of f7ndamentalism 0n the U - , for e4ample, the 1A"0s, the infl7ence of Christian f7ndamentalism, especiall( after ma6ing the mo+ement
61
?2ew Christian *ight? who oppose a5ortion, with the introd7ction of pra(er in schools, and a ret7rn to traditional famil( +al7es 0n 0srael, the importance of Kewish f7ndamentalism represented 5( a n7m5er of small parties, see6ing to pre+ent the transmission of ?Kewish ancestral territories? Palestinian state Bind7 f7ndamentalism in 0ndia pre+ents the spread of western sec7lar c7lt7re and str7ggles with the competing faiths = 0slam and the religion of the -i6hs %7t the 5iggest political force in modern f7ndamentalism was, of co7rse, 0slamic f7ndamentalism Be drew attention to himself d7ring the 0ranian *e+ol7tion of 1A"A, which esta5lished the worldIs first 0slamic state 7nder the leadership of 1(atollah &homeini !1A00=1A#A$ Then it spread to the Middle East, 2orth 1frica and 1sia 0slam in general has 5ecome the cond7it of anti=Eestern sentiment, a5sor5ing as a reaction to neo=colonialism of the Eest and the growing reCection of materialism This is most clearl( e4pressed the Tali5an regime in 1fghanistan in the period 1AA"=2001 0n addition, 0slamic f7ndamentalism has now 5ecome the aspirations of the 7r5an poor in de+eloping co7ntries = those segments of societ(, which pre+io7sl( attracted socialism, whether 0slamic or Mar4ist= /eninist form
UEAM>JF?KO # -%66(')*', $%:75$)% =%,%(%.1 <'(=%-; )' 0%7/)5 -.'U*-5,;$8 - V6'.)>'W0'75J +54' -$':% ->(5/5',$8 - %,0'7')** <'(=-* %, :%$105($,-5"
C T+e end o! ideology>

1t the end of )) cent7r( was a lot of de5ate a5o7t what the ideolog( e4ha7sted or at least lost its former importance There was a disc7ssion a5o7t the ?end of ideolog(? 0t started 5ac6 in 1A50 after the defeat of fascism in the -econd
9; I & Politi'al t+eory
Eorld Ear and the crisis of the comm7nist ideolog( in the de+eloped co7ntries of the Eest 0n ?The End of 0deolog(F The e4ha7stion of political ideas in the 1A50s, ? 8 The 9nd of edeology 4 :n the 9xhaustion of Politicaledeas in the ;<=-! ;<>-?! 1merican sociologist Deniell %ell ! Daniel %ell $ declared that h7manit( has e4ha7sted itself stoc6 of political ideas, as from now on political parties Eestern nations can compete with each other, simpl( promising to accelerate economic growth and impro+e the standard of li+ing in societ( 1ccording to %ell, the econom( has pre+ailed o+er politics Toda(, howe+er, it is clear that the moment for which he wrote %ell, was not reall( the end of ideolog( and the emergence of a wider than 5efore, ideological consens7s among the maCor political parties This led e4cept for the temporar( s7spension of the ideological de5ate = @or the same reason a consens7s in those (ears ha+e 5een a s7ccess, ?welfare capitalism? &e(nesian sense @rancis @767(ama has re+i+ed the de5ate !see p 3"$ in the essa( ?The End of Bistor(F? !1A#A$ @767(ama did not insist on the fact that political ideolog( is completel( lost +al7e, he arg7ed that one ideolog(, the ideolog( of li5eral democrac( tri7mphed o+er all his ri+als, and this +ictor( is final Essa( was written against the 5ac6gro7nd of the collapse of comm7nism in Eastern E7rope = E+ents in which @767(ama saw the end of Mar4ism=/eninism as an ideolog( of glo5al scale %7t this is not the onl( approach to the pro5lem @or e4ample, 1nthon( 9iddens !1AA>$ arg7es that in the era of glo5ali;ation, the decline of traditions and strengthening o! so'ial re!leEi3ity ! social refle4i+it( $ at all ideologies !5oth left and right=wing$ 5ecome red7ndant 1nother approach to the pro5lem has postmodernism, arg7ing that the main ideologies !these ?great narrati+e?$ were essentiall( nothing more than a prod7ct of moderni;ation, which ended toda( Bere, howe+er, we sho7ld 7nderstand that these statements a5o7t the end of ideolog(, the end of histor( or the end of the era of moderni;ation on their own ideological logical Pro+e that the end of ideolog(, the( can not3 instead, the( arg7e that the +er( disc7ssion of ideologies, as the( sa(, is ali+e and well, and the mo+ement of ideological tho7ght is contin7ing and perhaps ne+er= ending process people and interdependence @ithin societC "
Con'lusions
G The fact that s7ch an ideolog(, alwa(s wal6ed and will wal6 disp7tes, while there were times when ideolog( percei+ed in a p7rel( negati+e light P75lic 7nderstanding of science 5( ideolog( coherent set of ideas, which pro+ides a 5asis for organi;ed political action The main themes of ideologies = one or the other pict7re of
62
power relations, ?proCect? of the f7t7re and the general o7tline of how it can and sho7ld 5e made rele+ant to this ?proCect? political change G 0deologies lin6 political theor( and political practice .n the one hand, close to the ideolog( of political philosophies, as contain one
#& Politi'al Ideologies 9<
a set of +al7es, theories and doctrines = that there is a certain world+iew .n the other hand, the( translate into 5roader political mo+ement, and are e4pressed in the acti+ities of political leaders, parties and gro7ps G Each ideolog( is associated with a well=defined set of principles and ideas 1ltho7gh these ideas are completel( ?loc6ed together?, the( often lac6 the internal organic Co+ering a +ariet( of traditions, ideologies so often self=contradictor( = and these internal conflicts can sometimes 5e e+en more ac7te than the contradictions 5etween competing ideologies G 0deologies in an( case are not hermeticall( closed and stationar( s(stems of tho7ght The( can interfere with each other, sometimes the( face the same pro5lems, the( often sa( +er( similar lang7age The( can at an( time go into the shade, and then coming 5ac6 as intersect with each other, infl7ence each other, e+ol+e o+er time and adapt to changing historical circ7mstances G Prestige ideologies rises or falls depending on how the( are related to the political, social and economic circ7mstances and whether the( are a5le to change creati+el( 0deological conflicts of )) cent7r( led to the fact that the main ideologies rethin6 man( of its traditional principles = in the meantime, new ideologies s7ch as feminism, en+ironmentalism, and religio7s f7ndamentalism G The de5ate a5o7t the end of ideolog( is also changed o+er time 0n the ne4t period after the -econd Eorld Ear, the( initiall( repelled the collapse of fascism, then drop the appeal of comm7nism and, finall(, the fact that at some point the econom( pre+ailed o+er ideolog( The thesis of the ?end of ideolog(? is reall( intended to ser+e as proof of the fact that there has 5een a tri7mph of ideolog( o+er the world = a li5eral democrac( Postmodernism s7ggests that traditional ideolog( lost its significance 5eca7se historicall( the( were the prod7ct of moderni;ation
Dis'ussion 6uestions
R Eh( is the concept of ?ideolog(? so often e+o6ed negati+e associationsF R 0s it possi5le toda( to tal6 a5o7t the differences 5etween li5eralism and socialismF R The e4tent to which the idea of the ?new right? contrar( to the traditional conser+atismF R 0s the ?third wa(? is tr7l( C7stified and coherent ideological positionF R 0s there a f7t7re for Mar4ismF R Ehat are the historical circ7mstances contri57ted to the rise of fascismF R @easi5le whether the reL7irements of anarchistsF R Eh( in modern societ( is growing role of feminism, en+ironmentalism, and f7ndamentalismF Can the( s7pplant traditional political ideolog(F R Can a h7man societ( to li+e witho7t ideolog(F
98
C+a)ter 8& De2o'ra'y
O'.%=(5,*8 # T,% )5*910U58 K%(.5 &(5-7')*8, '$7* )' $+*,5,; -$'9 0(1:*9 K%(., =%:05F 7*2%*$&(%2%-5))>9 +'7%-'+'$,-%." ginston Zhurchill " 8e a6e i' the 96iti%h :o*%e o; "o<<o'% H1947I
*ooting the democratic ideal of politicians and political thin6ers was, witho7t do75t, one of the most remar6a5le moments in the political histor( of man6ind 0nterestingl(, in ancient 9reece = the cradle
63
of democrac( = a democrac( disappro+ed @or Plato and 1ristotle, the concept meant s7ch an order of things in which go+ernment manages weight = to diminish the wisdom and propert( Until the )0) cent7r( The term ?democrac(? had a peCorati+e connotation, meaning ?mo5 r7le ? Toda(, howe+er, we are all Democrats /i5erals, conser+ati+es, socialists, comm7nists, anarchists, and e+en fascists are willing to e4tol the +irt7es of democrac( and demonstrate their own democratic credentials 1nd, of co7rse, when in the late )) cent7r(, staggered and collapsed the main ideological s(stems, the impression that the wa+e of democrac( soared e+en higher than 5efore -ocialism has lost its appeal, appear increasingl( d75io7s merits of capitalism = in this sit7ation, democrac( 5egan to seem, perhaps, the onl( relia5le point of s7pport in the political landscape of o7r time
Content
he definition of de+ocracy ghat is a nation b no@ should control the people b no@ Ear should ejtend po@er to the people b /odels of &e+ocracy Zlassical deGocracC Lhe protective deGocracC oeGocracC oevelopGent Lhe feopless oeGocracC &e+ocracy on the #ractice 7 #oint of *iew fluralist approach Elitist approach Zorporatist approach Lhe approach oE the Ane@ right A Lhe Marjist approach Findings Issues for discussion
8& De2o'ra'y 9#
-' -( -1 -6 --. .2 .! .( .1 .0 .101 102 !2' !2( !21
T+e 2ain @uestions

P EhatIs the point ha+e 5een po7ring into the concept of ?democrac(?F P Ehat are the pro5lems raised d7ring the historical de5ate a5o7t the nat7re of democrac(F P Ehat are the different models of democratic go+ernmentF P Ehat are the ad+antages and disad+antages of each of these modelsF Bow democratic s(stems wor6 in practiceF P 0s democrac( pro+ides the power of the peopleF
C De!inition o! De2o'ra'y
The concept of ?democrac(? comes to 7s from ancient 9reece /i6e other words ending in ?crac(? !eg, a7tocrac(, aristocrac( and 57rea7crac($, the term ?democrac(? is 5ased on the 9ree6 word kratos!which means a power 5oard ?Democrac(? therefore means ?the power of the demos "@demos means ?people?, altho7gh the 9ree6s at first called that onl( ?poor? or ?mass?$ Bowe+er, the mere concept of ?people power? to 7s, there is little to sa( The fact that the pro5lem of democrac( itself has 5ecome the pre+alence of the term, sometimes hindering recogni;e it as a serio7s political concept -ince +irt7all( e+er(where democrac( is considered a ?good thing?, it was too firml( entrenched
64
in the dictionar( of the words that are eL7i+alent lo7d ?h7rra(? at a certain set of ideas or concepts of power 0n the words of %ernard Cric6 ! %ernard Cric6 , 1AA3$, ?in the le4icon of p75lic polic( democrac( is perhaps the most 7nrelia5le word ? 1 term that can mean an(thing in the end does not mean an(thing 1mong the +al7es imparted 5( the word Idemocrac(I, we point o7t the following3 a s(stem in which power 5elongs to the poorest segments of societ(Q is the go+ernment that is directl( and contin7o7sl( carries o7t the people, witho7t the need for professional politicians or ci+il ser+antsQ is a societ( 5ased on the principle of eL7al opport7nities and merit, not on hierarch( and pri+ilegeQ a s(stem of social 5enefits for the poor and general redistri57tion of the social prod7ct in order to red7ce social ineL7alitiesQ is a decision=ma6ing s(stem 5ased on the principle of maCorit( r7leQ a s(stem of go+ernance that ens7res the rights and interests of minorities, limiting the power of the maCorit(Q a wa( to ser+e the p75lic in the co7rse of competition for +otesQ
a s(stem of go+ernment that ser+es the interests of the people, regardless of their political participation 1nal(sis of the pro5lem, it ma( 5e 5est to start with 15raham /incolnIs speech, deli+ered to them in 1#'> at 9ett(s57rg in the midst of the Ci+il Ear in 1merica /incoln spo6e of democrac( as ?go+ernment of the people = of the people = for the people ? @rom these words it is clear that democrac( 5inds the go+ernment to the people, 57t this +er( connection can 5e made in different wa(s3 as the act7al power of the %eo%le! as the power of those who came from the %eo%le! and as a r7le in the interests of the %eo%le E4actl( how to 7nderstand these components, alwa(s was the s75Cect of the most heated political and ideological de5ate /ater in this chapter we will disc7ss the different models of democrac(, there is still foc7s on a n7m5er of concepts aro7nd which the disc7ssion was and is The essence 5oils down to three L7estions3 Ehat is a nationF 0n what sense sho7ld r7le the nationF Bow far can and sho7ld e4tend the power of the peopleF
W+at are t+e )eo)le>

.ne of the f7ndamental characteristics of democrac( is the principle of political eL7alit( = the idea that political power sho7ld 5e distri57ted as widel( as possi5le and e+enl( The L7estion, howe+er, is on what e4actl( a social le+el = as part of an( of the social whole, = it sho7ld 5e distri57ted 0n other words, who is part of ?the people?F 1t first glance, the answer is clear3 7nder the "demos"! or ?the people? is o5+io7sl( to 5e 7nderstood of all the people, that is the entire pop7lation of the co7ntr( 0n practice, howe+er, all the democratic s(stem of limited political participation, and sometimes +er( se+erel( Ee ha+e alread( said that the earl( 9ree6 writers 7nder the demos 7s7all( mean those ?man(? = the poorest, if not depri+ed of an( propert( mass The word ?democrac(? so there is not an e4pression of the idea of political eL7alit(, as this or an( other +iolation of the political 5alance in fa+or of the poor 0n the 9ree6 cit(=states political participation was limited to a +er( small part of the pop7lation = male citi;ens o+er 20 (ears of it th7s e4cl7ded women, sla+es and foreigners 0n most Eestern co7ntries, and in the f7t7re !7ntil the 5eginning of )) cent7r($ e4isted restricti+e electoral law, 7s7all( in the form of a propert( L7alification or discrimination against women 0n the U&, 7ni+ersal s7ffrage was onl( in 1A2#, when to the polls were admitted women The United -tates ha+e achie+ed this at the 5eginning of the 1A'0s, when man( so7thern states allowed 5lac6s to +ote for the first time in -wit;erland, women ha+e f7ll +oting rights onl( in 1A"1 in all democratic s(stems are stored and the age limit, and +aries widel( and esta5lished the age of maCorit( = 21 (ears to 15 (ears !as in the presidential elections in 0ran$ .ften
65
imposed as a formal legal restrictions, for e4ample, in respect of persons fo7nd mentall( ill, and persons in c7stod(
8& De2o'ra'y 9$ 99 I & Politi'al t+eory
the pu lic right to ejpress their vie@s on political issues " LhereEore , this practice F attri ute so F called direct Gasses , appealing to their premudices and passions I" ple iscitarC deGocracC is not enoughoE representative deGocracC "
tsialistiches6om demand the sociali;ation of propert( and the introd7ction of wor6ersI self= management, where the former and the latter 7nderstood as a means of democrati;ation of economic life 0nstead of political democrac(, so the socialists called for ?social democrac(? or ?ind7strial democrac( ?1lso, representati+es of the feminist demand to democrati;e famil( life, which is 7nderstood as the 7ni+ersal right to participate in decision=ma6ing in relation to famil( and pri+ate spheres 0n the latter cases, democrac( is 7nderstood as a force friendl(, not hostile to h7man li5ert( = and a disregard for these principles, pa+es the wa( for the oppression and e4ploitation of man 5( man
C Bodels o! De2o'ra'y
Democrac( is too often 7nderstood as a 7nified and internall( consistent 0s that a little less often the sole or the onl( correct form of democrac( is that 7nder this designation e4ists in most Eestern societies !the s(stem of reg7lar and competiti+e elections 5ased on 7ni+ersal s7ffrage$ -ometimes the latest 7nderstanding of democrac( is specified 5( adding the epithet ?li5eral ? %7t in fact, there are se+eral competing theories or models of democrac(, each of which offers its own +ersion of democrac( This reflects not onl( the di+ersit( of democratic forms and mechanisms, 57t also the di+ersit( of the logical 5asis on which the possi5le C7stification of the democratic idea 1fter all, e+en for s7ch a common term li6e ?li5eral democrac(?, in realit(, there are +er(, +er( different, and e+en +;aimoproti+orechi+(e, position 9enerall(, there are fo7r different models of democrac(3 classic Democrac( ! Classical Democrac( $ The protecti+e Democrac( !protecti+e democrac($ democrac( de+elopment !de+elopmental democrac($ PeopleIs Democrac( ! people I s Democrac( $
8& De2o'ra'y 9:
Fere2y =ent+a2 *<789.<9#4,
Afrinciples oE Gorals and legislation A H1789I"
Classi'al de2o'ra'y
The classical model of democrac( was 5ased on the polic( !the ancient 9ree6 cit(=state$ and, more specificall(, on the power s(stem, which was de+eloped in the largest and most powerf7l cit(=state of 9reece = 1thens @orm of direct democrac( that e4isted in 1thens d7ring the :0 and : cent7r( %C, is often 7nderstood as the onl( clean or e+en a perfect s(stem of political participation 1ltho7gh this model
66
has had a significant infl7ence on later thin6ers s7ch as *o7ssea7 !see p A2$ and Mar4 !see p ''$, 1thenian Democrac( is a +er( specific form of direct democrac( = the form in toda(Is world, ha+ing a +er( limited application Democrac( in 1thens was tantamo7nt to manage thro7gh the national assem5l( 1ll maCor decisions are ta6en ecclesia! which consisted of all citi;ens -he was going at least fort( times a (ear 0f the reL7ired state emplo(ees to r7n contin7o7sl(, the( were elected on the 5asis of lots or a s(stem of rotation, so that was the greatest n7m5er of citi;ensQ positions were 7s7all( designed for non=d7ra5le period of time than was also ens7red the widest possi5le representation E4ec7ti+e 5od( of the PeopleIs 1ssem5l( pla(ed the 9reat Co7ncil, which consisted of 500 citi;ens, there was also a College of fift(, -er+e offers great ad+ice The chairman of the %oard performed the Co5 for one da(, and ta6e pride of place it co7ld 5e C7st a once in a lifetime The onl( e4ception was made for the ten generals, who, 7nli6e other p75lic ser+ants, co7ld 5e re=elected 1 remar6a5le feat7re of 1thenian democrac( was the le+el of political acti+it( of citi;ens The( not onl( participated in the reg7lar meetings of 1ssem5l(, 57t most of them were read( to perform an( p75lic office 2e+ertheless, this democrac( had its critics, and while most infl7ential among them = the philosopher Plato !see p 15$ Be critici;ed the principle of political eL7alit( on the gro7nds that the mass has neither reason nor e4perience to manage on their 5ehalf The sol7tion e4pressed 5( them in
:; I & Politi'al t+eory
wor6 "The Re%ublic"! he saw to hand o+er power to a class of 6ings, philosophers = c7stod(, which wo7ld ha+e r7led in the spirit of a 6ind of enlightened dictatorship Bowe+er, the main draw5ac6 of the 1thenian democrac( was that of her entire gro7ps were e4cl7ded certain categories of the pop7lation, as participation was restricted to men 5orn in 1thens o+er 20 (ears -la+es !the maCorit( of the pop7lation$, women and foreigners had no political rights 0t is clear that the 1thenians had the opport7nit( to de+ote all the time politics onl( 5eca7se sla+er( freed them from an( stren7o7s acti+ities, and womenIs wor6 in the famil( = from domestic responsi5ilities 0n this sense, the 1thenian polis is the antithesis of the democratic ideal 2e+ertheless, the classical model of direct and contin7o7s participation in national political life, and has fo7nd applications in a m7ch more recent times, it is, for e4ample, town meetings in 2ew England and the 1merican comm7nit( meetings small -wiss cantons 0t also lies at the heart of referenda, especiall( with regard to constit7tional iss7es, and the introd7ction of a new democratic e4perience, s7ch as peopleIs meeting ! people I s panel $ and e=democrac(
T+e )rote'ti3e de2o'ra'y

Eith its re+i+al in the ):00 and ):000 cent7ries of democratic ideas ha+e ta6en the form, which was +er( different from the classical democrac( of ancient 9reece Democrac( is now interpreted not onl( as a mechanism for comm7nit( participation in political life, 57t as a means 5( which people can protect themsel+es from e4cessi+e go+ernment interference in their li+es Bence the name ?The protecti+e democrac( ? This 7nderstanding of democrac( in partic7lar was t(pical of the earl( li5eral thin6ers, most thin6 of e4panding the field of freedom of the indi+id7al There was the same desire to protect the indi+id7al against the all=powerf7l go+ernment that had once 5een e4pressed in the, pro5a5l(, earl( applications of all democracies = the L7estion of 1ristotle to Plato3 " Auis custodiet Custodes 4 " !?Eho will g7ard the g7ardsF?$ %eca7se of these same concerns to 7nlimited power, Kohn /oc6e !see p 55$ in the ):000 cent7r( arg7ed that the political right to +ote deri+es from t+e natural rig+ts ! 2at7ral *ights $ rights, partic7larl( their right to own propert( 0f the go+ernment thro7gh ta4ation has the power to e4propriate a partic7lar piece of propert(, the citi;ens on the other hand has the right to defend (o7rself thro7gh the control of the composition of the decision=ma6ing 5od( on ta4es, that is, the legislati+e power 0n other words, democrac( has come to mean a s(stem of ?r7le 5( agreement?, f7nctioning thro7gh a representati+e assem5l( %( toda(Is standards, howe+er, +er( diffic7lt to name /oc6e, a Democrat, as he 5elie+ed that the political right to +ote sho7ld 5e gi+en to propert( owners, 5eca7se onl( the( ha+e the nat7ral rights which are, in fact, 5e constrained 5( the go+ernment 1 more radical in
lC@EC@DELLiE [FBDB # &(5-5, &%71+'))>' %, _%:5, 05))>' -$'. 7308. * &%,%.1)'%,h'. 7'.>'"
67
8& De2o'ra'y :<
7nderstanding of 7ni+ersal s7ffrage were made from the end of ):000 cent7r( 7tilitarian theorists s7ch as Kerem( %entham and Kames Mill ! Kames Mill , 1""3 = 1#3'$ Utilitarianism in his C7stification of democrac(, too, was 5ased on the need of protection or s7pport to indi+id7al interests %entham th7s post7lated that as soon as the indi+id7al tries to pleas7re and a+oid pain, the 7ni+ersal right to +ote !for what are, at the time meant the right of ad7lt men$ is the onl( wa( to pro+ide ?the greatest good for the greatest n7m5er of people ? Bowe+er, the C7stification of democrac(, the principle of protection of the indi+id7al is important, 57t not decisi+e The protecti+e concept still is a limited and indirect form of democrac( 1lmostagree2ent ! Consent $ managed here e4pressed thro7gh the 5allot 5o4 on reg7lar and competiti+e elections, which ens7res p75lic acco7nta5ilit( of those who go+ern Political eL7alit( in this case, therefore, is meant p7rel( technical = as the eL7alit( of +oting rights Moreo+er, it first and foremost a s(stem of constit7tional democrac(, which operates according to certain formal or informal r7les limiting the power of go+ernment %7t if the right to +ote is reall( a means of protection of indi+id7al li5ert(, this freedom sho7ld also 5e ens7red strict implementation of the principle of separation of powers thro7gh the formation of a separate e4ec7ti+e, legislati+e, and C7dicial 5ranches, as well as thro7gh the pro+ision of 5asic h7man rights and freedoms = freedom of speech, freedom of mo+ement and protection from ar5itrariness The protecti+e democrac( is aimed at gi+ing citi;ens the widest possi5le range of opport7nities to li+e as (o7 want Bere is the o5+io7s wa( resonates with the principles of free=mar6et capitalism and the concept that it is the indi+id7al sho7ld 5e gi+en the highest degree of responsi5ilit( for their own economic and social sit7ation @or these reasons, most of the s7pporters of democrac( The protecti+e fo7nd among the followers of classical li5eralism, and modern politics = the ?new right?
De2o'ra'y De3elo)2ent
The original theor( of democrac( was most concerned a5o7t the protection of the rights and interests of indi+id7als, 57t soon it appeared essentiall( a new foc7s = foc7s on h7man and social de+elopment 2ew concepts that ha+e arisen in this line, can now 5e attri57ted to the model, called the de+elopment of democrac( The most daring for its time, the approach in this area p7t forward KK*o7ssea7 0n man( wa(s, the ideas of *o7ssea7 mar6ed a decisi+e reCection of the dominant li5eral conception of democrac(, in the f7t7re the( will 5e destined to ha+e an impact on 5oth the Mar4ist and anarchist traditions, and later = in the ?new left ? @or *o7ssea7, democrac( was a means 5( which people find freedom and independence in the sense of ?o5edience onl( to the law, which reL7ires each of 7s to himself ? Citi;ens in his theor( of ?free? onl( when the( are the most direct and permanent formation,
U=m>BC?E # $5)=<*8 *7* (56('U')*'J - &%7*,*=' %2>+)% %,)%$*,$8 = &(*6)5)*3 730;.*'(9%-)%? -75$,* )50 $%2%? * '' &(5-5 (1=%-%0*,;"
:4 I & Politi'al t+eory
Fean.Fa'@ues Rousseau *<7<4.<779,
x(5)<16$=*? K*7%$%KF.%(57*$, * &%7*,*+'$=*? .>$7*,'7;" Y:% *0'*, -%6.%/)%, %=5657*$5.%' 2%7;U%' -7*8)*' )5 x(5)<16$=13 ('-%73<*3" ]1$$% 2>7 $5.%1+=%?" u) (%0*7$8 - y')'-',- 1742 :" %) &'(''957 - P5(*/, :0' &%6)5= %.*7$8 $ %$)%-)>.* 0'8,'78.* K(5)<16$=%:%P(%$-'4')*8, %$%2'))% 2>7 0(1/') $ O*0(%" S ':%
68
(52%,59, =5$534*9$8 %2(56%-5)*8, *$=1$$,-,)51=*, 7*,'(5,1(> * K*7%$%K**, %,(5/')5 -'(5 - 0%2(%0','7;)%$,; V'$,'$,-'))%:% +'7%-'=5W *&%(%+)%$,; V+'7%-'=5 $%<*57;)%:%W" P%7*,*+'$=%' 1+')*' ]1$$%, =(5,=% *67%/'))%' - V`.*7'WH1762I * &%71+*-U'' 057 ;)'?U'' (56-*,*' - Vu24'$,-'))%. 0%:%-%('W H1762I, &(%&5:5)0*(%-57%*0'* (50*=57;)%? 0'.%= (5,**, -&%$7'0$,-** &%-7*8-U*' )5 7*2'(57;)13, $%<*57*$,*+'$=13,5)5(9*$,$=13 *, =5= )'=%,%(>' $+*,53,, K5U*$,$=13 .>$7;" S $-%'? 5-,%2*%:(5K** Vz$&%-'0;WH1770I %) $ &%(56*,'7;)%? *$=(' ))%$,;3 5)57*6*(1', $-%? /*6)'))>? &1,; * 0'.%)$,(*(1',:%,%-)%$,; &(*6)5,; $-%* %U*2=* * $7 52%$,*"
Noom participate in comm7nit( affairs *o7ssea7 th7s went 5e(ond the 7nderstanding of democrac(, which red7ces it to the election, and p7t forward the ideal of direct democrac(, L7ite radical for its time 2o accident that he has s75Cected itself to harsh criticism that the election s(stem that has de+eloped in the U& 0n the ?-ocial Contract? !1"'2$, for e4ample, he wrote3 %elie+ing himself to 5e free, the English people are deepl( mista6en, he is free onl( when the elected mem5ers of Parliament, as soon as the( are elected, people fall into sla+er( is empt( Ta6ing a 5rief moment of freedom, the English people enCo( it so m7ch that deser+es to 5e depri+ed of his freedom of this Bowe+er, in an entirel( new theor( of *o7ssea7 was his profo7nd con+iction that the 7ltimate h7man freedom is impossi5le witho7t its s75mission to t+e will o! t+e general ! 9eneral Eill $ Be 5elie+ed that the general will is the ?tr7e? will of each citi;en as opposed to his ?pri+ate?, or selfish, and will .5e(ing the general will of the people th7s follow their own ?tr7e nat7re?3 the general will is something that e+er(one wanted to 5e, he alwa(s act 7nselfishl( *o7ssea7 th7s meant the widest democrac( that reL7ires a +er(, +er( high le+el, 5oth political and economic de+elopment Be was not an ad+ocate of p75lic ownership, 57t s7ggested that ?no citi;en was rich eno7gh to 57( another man, and none is so poor that he had to sell themsel+es ? *o7ssea7Is theor( helped shape a modern idea, which in the 1A'0=1A"0=ies were made 5( the theorists of the ?new left? Ee are tal6ing a5o7t the ?p75lic participation? = a societ( in which e+er( citi;en wo7ld ha+e the f7ll freedom to de+elop thro7gh participation in the decisions that determine their li+es This will not 5e achie+ed witho7t transparenc(, acco7nta5ilit( and decentrali;ation of the maCor social instit7tions = the famil(, the wor6place and the comm7nit(, and with it the political instit7tions = parties, interest gro7ps and
5*erall the will F the true interests oE the collective , a sCnonCG oE the terG AcoGGon goodA , @illall coGplied @ith the condition , that each person acts selElesslC "
8& De2o'ra'y :#
1ladi2ir Ilyi'+ Lenin *<97;.<:48,
capitalisG A , 1917I" qlorC
legislat7res 1t the core of this model is the concept of ?grass roots? democrac(, or, as it is called, ?grass roots democrac(?3 the idea here is that political power sho7ld rise from the 5ottom 7p, and th7s with the lowest possi5le le+el Bowe+er, *o7ssea7Is theor( has 5een critici;ed on the gro7nds that the ?tr7e? will of the people completel( c7t off from their ?imaginar(?, or p7rel( s75Cecti+e will The danger
69
here is indeed that, since the general will can not 5e determined 5( inter+iewing people a5o7t their wishes !5eca7se the( can lead the elementar( self=interest$, it is possi5le to determine the will of this top, and can not 5e completel( r7led o7t that in practice it will not ma6e a dictator imagines himself to 5e a carrier of the ?tr7e? interests of societ( ThatIs wh( sometimes a har5inger of *o7ssea7 sees the so=called totalitarian democrac( ! Talmon , 1A52$ The concept of de+eloping democrac( and had a more moderate +ersion, largel( co7pled with the li5eral model of representati+e go+ernment 0ts 5asic elements were form7lated 5( Kohn -t7art Mill !see p 5'$ The main ad+antage of democrac( Mill saw that it contri57tes to the ?highest and harmonio7s? de+elopment of h7man capa5ilities Political participation increases the le+el of conscio7sness of citi;ens and fosters their sense of a word, de+elops them Democrac( is presented here as a 6ind of ed7cation Therefore, Mill called for widening the scope of participation of citi;ens in politics, 5elie+ing that +oting rights sho7ld 5e granted to all people, e4cept for the illiterate The right to +ote = a radical idea at that time = he was distri57ting and women 1n important place in his theor( held and the local a7thorit(, a strong and independent, so that more people pla(ed these or other positions Mill, li6e other li5erals, and was aware of the danger of democrac( Bowe+er, 7nli6e the main representati+es of li5eral tho7ght he did not recogni;e the idea of formal political eL7alit( K7st as Plato in his time, he did not 5elie+e that all opinions in the world of politics ha+e the same dignit( Bence his proposal to introd7ce m7ltiple +oting = a s(stem in which 7ns6illed wor6er wo7ld ha+e one +ote, L7alified = two and a college grad7ate and a scientist = fi+e or si4 +otes %7t Mill was in this case, and the more serio7s L7estions coming from the eternal
/i5erals fear 5efore that 1le4is de TocL7e+ille !see p 2">$ in his famo7s phrase, called the ?t(rann( of the maCorit( ? Democrac( in this +iew is alwa(s the danger that the rights of minorities and freedom of the indi+id7al can 5e sacrificed to the idea of the people that freedom of disc7ssion, criticism, and spirit7al life in general = all of which can 5e sacrificed for a certain will of the maCorit(, and then reign monoton( 5oring and conformist MostIm not alwa(s right, the tr7th is not fo7nd o7t the proced7re for a show of hands +ote Mill therefore strongl( s7pported the idea of retiring ! deli5erati+e Democrac( $, or parliamentar( democrac(
T+e Peo)le-s De2o'ra'y

The term ?peopleIs democrac(? comes from those orthodo4 comm7nist regimes that were created on the -o+iet model after the -econd Eorld Ear Ee shall, howe+er, appl( it in a 5roader sense, referring here a +ariet( of models of democrac( generated 5( the Mar4ist tradition 1 lot of them, and the( are all in star6 contrast to the more common of the li5eral=democratic model Mar4ists, as we 6now, has alwa(s fended off a li5eral, or a parliamentar( democrac(, seeing it as nothing more than a form of ?5o7rgeois,? ?capitalist? r7le .n the concept or ideal of democrac(, the( ne+ertheless appealed 5eca7se the( present the idea of eL7alit( ?Democrac(? is meant social eL7alit( ran6ed on the sociali;ation of ownership !?social democrac(? as Mar4ism initiall( 7nderstood the L7estion$, which were to 5e disting7ished from ?political? democrac( = apparentl(, the facade of eL7alit( Mar4 was con+inced that it is eno7gh to o+erthrow capitalism and democrac( will pre+ail sooner or later Bowe+er, 7p to now comm7nism is still far awa(, 5eca7se it will ta6e a transition period with his t(pical ?re+ol7tionar( dictatorship of the proletariat ? -o e+ent7all( replace the ?5o7rgeois? democrac( will come an entirel( new s(stem of ?proletarian? democrac( Mar4 did not go into the details of how this can 5e arranged transitional societ(, 57t in general his 7nderstanding of the iss7e is e+ident from the admiration which it called the Paris Comm7ne of 1#"1 = a +er( short=term e4periment, within the meaning of close direct democrac( @7rther perspecti+e, he 7nderstood this3 the o+ercoming of class antagonism and the final constr7ction of comm7nist societ(, the proletarian state simpl( ?wither awa( ? Eith him lea+e in the past the need for go+ernment, laws, and e+en politics as s7ch = in fact, all of this applies to democrac(
70
%7t more than Mar4 model of democrac( is reali;ed in the comm7nist states in the )) cent7r(, owes :0 /enin /eninIs slogan in 1A1", ?1ll Power to the -o+iets of wor6ers, soldiers and sailorsI so7nded, of co7rse, in the spirit of democrac( comm7ne, 57t in practice the power here +er( soon passed into the hands of the %olshe+i6 Part(, later renamed the Comm7nist Part( .n
helps to identiEC the interests oE societC "
8& De2o'ra'y :$
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w(=5,&5(75.'),5()58 0'.%=( 5,*8 &('0&%75:5', %2865))%$,; &5(75.'),5(*'- 652%,*,;$8 &('/0' -$':% %2 *),'('$59 $-%*9 *62*(5,'7'?" S $-%'. )>)'U)'. -*0' &5(,*?)58 &%7*,*=5 %$)%->-5',$8 )5 *0'8 9)' ,%7;=% &5(75.'),5()%?, )% * .5)05,)%? 0'.%=(5,**"
/enin, it was the ?+ang7ard of the wor6ing class?, armed with Mar4ism and therefore a5le to 7nderstand the tr7e interests of the proletariat and to direct the wor6ing class to more complete disclos7re of its re+ol7tionar( potential This theor( has 5ecome the cornerstone ?of /eninIs democrac(? in the -o+iet Union and was then accepted 5( all orthodo4 comm7nist regimes as one of the central tenets of Mar4ism=/eninism Toda(, we 6now the main wea6ness of this s(stem3 /enin did not pro+ide for her no control o+er the power of the Comm7nist Part( !and especiall( its leaders$, as well as ma6e her an( reall( responsi5le and acco7nta5le to the wor6ing class To paraphrase the L7estion of 1ristotle to Plato, one co7ld sa(, ?Eho will g7ard the g7ards = the Comm7nist Part(F?
C De2o'ra'y in )ra'ti'eG t+e )oint o! 3iew

Ehile the de5ate a5o7t the merits of +ario7s forms of democrac( is 5( no means o+er, toda( more than arg7e a5o7t something else = a5o7t how democrac( wor6s in practice, what is the point sho7ld 5e to in+est in the concept of ?democrati;ation ? 0n this case, it is mainl( a5o7t one model of democrac(, one wa( or another recogni;ed all o+er the world, = the model of li5eral democrac( 1ltho7gh within this tradition has its contradictions, in general, it is characteri;ed following feat7res3 li5eral democrac( = a form of indirect and representati+e democrac(, power is gi+en to those who won the election, the election is 5ased on the principle of formal political eL7alit( of all citi;ensQ model is 5ased on competition, it all depends on the choice of the +oter, for societ( is characteri;ed 5( political pl7ralism, tolerance to a +ariet( of +iews and the a+aila5ilit( of a wide range of social philosophies and competing political mo+ements and partiesQ the state and ci+il societ( are strictl( separated from each other3 a societ( made 7p of independent social gro7ps and organi;ed on the principles of the mar6et, that is, capitalist econom(
There are for li5eral democrac( and its iss7es @or e4ample, does the model reall( effecti+e dispersal of political powerF Ehat 7ltimatel( t7rn o7t for the democratic processes of societ( = winning or losingF Political eL7alit( is compati5le with economic ineL7alit(F Different theorists ha+e different answers to these L7estions 1ccording to how the answers are a+aila5le, the following 5asic approaches3 pl7ralism elitism Corporatism M2ew *ight? Mar4ism
71
Pluralist a))roa'+
Pl7ralist ideas go 5ac6 to ranneli5eralno( political philosoph(, in partic7lar, to the wor6s of /oc6e and MontesL7ie7 !see p 3#'$ 1 more s(stematic form, howe+er, the first time the( ga+e Kames Madison !Kames Madison $ !see p 3A'$ in those articles the( p75lished in the newspaper ?The @ederalist? 8 TheBederalist Pa%er $ *eflecting on the transformation of the Confederate -tates of 1merica, loosel( co7pled together, in a single federation, Madison most feared ?irritant? in the co7ntr( /i6e most li5erals, he 5elie+ed that the 7ncontrolled de+elopment of democratic trends in the co7ntr( threatens to ?maCorit( r7le?, trampling the rights of the indi+id7al and the e4propriation of propert( in the name of the people Be himself, howe+er, has 5ro7ght to the disc7ssion a special s75Cect = the m7ltiplicit( of interests and a +ariet( of gro7ps in societ(, as well as the idea that if all of these gro7ps do not pro+ide a political +oice, sta5ilit( and order in the societ( will not Madison therefore insisted on the ?separation of powers? in accordance with the principles of the independence of its 5ranches, the (i'a2eral parliament ! 5icameralism $ and federalism, that all the +ario7s interest gro7ps co7ld 5e heard 1risen as a res7lt of the power s(stem, representing in fact a minorit( of the co7ntr(, and 5ecome what is called ?medisono+s6o( democrac( ?1c6nowledging the di+ersit( and pl7ralit( of interests in societ( and insisting that this di+ersit( is a phenomenon completel( health(, Madison, in fact the first to form7late the principles of pl7ralism Toda(, the most infl7ential representati+e of the theor( of political pl7ralism is *o5ert Dahl ! *o5ertDahl $ !see p 3>0$ 0n his 5oo6 ?Eho 9o+ernsF Democrac( and power in an 1merican cit( ? 8 3ho"overnes 4 2emocracy and Po*er in an )merican City ! 1A'1$, Dahl too6 an empirical anal(sis of the pro5lem of distri57tion of power in the cit( of 2ew Ba+en, Connectic7t, U-1 Be fo7nd that altho7gh the politicall( pri+ileged
he bica+eral syste+ F separation {ne oE the guarantees oE EreedoG oE societC EroG the possi le ar itrariness oE the authorities "
8& De2o'ra'y :7
Lhe concept oE "#luralistic de+ocracy " deGocratic sCsteG , ased on r the Eact oE the distri ution oE political r )'?,(57;)>? 5&&5(5, &(5-*,'7;$,-5, -)1,('))' 0%$,5,%+)% $,(1=,1(*(%-5))>?, +,%2>&( '0%$,5-*,; &%7*,*+'$=*. :(1&&5. &%7' 078 )'&%$('0$,-'))%? &%7*,*+'$=%? 0'8,'7;)%$,*"
0T1T0.2 and economicall( strong la(ers 7sed in m7ch more political weight than ordinar( citi;ens, in general, the political process was not noticea5le s7periorit( of an( one gro7p or the r7ling elite Ba+ing come to the concl7sion that ?for all its imperfections, 2ew Ba+en is a model of a democratic s(stem,? Dahl noted the fact that the c7rrent democratic s(stem are +er( different from the classical democracies of ancient 9reece 0n this regard, he has introd7ced !together with Charles /ind5lom$ the term ?pol(arch(?, which literall( means ?power of man(? as opposed to ?democrac(? = ?the power of all ? Ee are tal6ing a5o7t a s(stem which ens7res the democratic competition 5etween the parties d7ring election campaigns and opport7nities for interest gro7ps to freel( e4press their +iews = and formed the channel of comm7nication 5etween the go+ernment and the societ(, which is needed to maintain the totalit( of relations 5etween them .f co7rse, this s(stem is li6e hea+en on earth is far from the classical ideal of pop7lar self=go+ernment, according to its s7pporters, howe+er, it pro+ides a high le+el, on the one hand, the acco7nta5ilit( of politicians in relation to societ(, and on the other = social acti+it(, to 5e called a democrac( Bowe+er, 5etween pl7ralism and democrac( ma( ha+e its differences E+en for Madison, for e4ample, the challenge was how to ma6e s7re that democrac( does not 5ecome a threat to the propert( Toda(, one can wonder whether the power of the ?man(? of its 6ind plo( to close the wa( to the power of ?maCorit(?, that is, the masses depri+ed of propert( 1nother pro5lem = the danger of a ?pl7ralistic stagnation? = a sit7ation occ7rs when the press7re gro7ps are so strong that the( create a ?cap?, 5eca7se of what the go+ernment is wor6ing in the ?o+erload? 0n s7ch cases, the pl7ralist s(stem can 5e simpl( 7nmanagea5le @inall(, in his later wor6s, s7ch as ?0ntrod7ction to Economic Democrac(? 8 Preface to 9conomic 2emocracy ! 1A#5$, Dahl pointed to another pro5lem3 the 7neL7al
72
distri57tion of economic reso7rces in the trend leads to the fact that political power from the hands of ?man( ?grad7all( goes to the few This 6ind of o5ser+ation is L7ite in t7ne with the Mar4ist critiL7e of pl7ralist democrac(, ga+e impet7s to the esta5lishment of neopl(7rali;ma
:9 I & Politi'al t+eory <;; I & Politi'al t+eory
nEO=AFB@?KBP?J %6)5+5', &'('9%0 %, 5-,%(*,5()%:% ('/*.5 = 7*2'(57;)%? 0'.%=(5,**"c 5*2%7'' $14'$,-'))>.* +'(,5.* T,%:% &(%<'$$5 8-783,$8 &('0%$,5-7')*' %$)%-)>9 $-%2%0 *%$%2'))% &%7*,*+'$=*9 &(5-, --'0')*' 57;,'()5,*-)>9 * %24'0%$,1&)>9 ->2%(%- *, %$%2'))% T,%=5$5',$8 &%$,=%..1)*$,*+'$=*9 ('/*.%-, )5+57% (>)%+)>9 ('K%(." O'.%=(5,*65<*8 -=73+5', -$'28 ,(*, *)%:05 &'('$'=534*9$8, &(%<'$$5\ H1I &50')*' $,5(%:% ('/*.5J %2>+)% T,% &('0&%75:5',1,(5,1 7':*,*.)%$,* -75$,*" `,%, &(%<'$$ +5$,% $-865) $ &(%-57%. T=%)%.*+'$=%? &%7*,*=* *%,$1,$,-*'. 7%87;)%$,* $,(%3 - -%'))>9 =(1:59 * 1 $*7 &(5-%&%(80=5J H2I V0'.%=(5,*+'$=*?&'('9%0W, &%0(561.'-534*? $,(%*,'7;$,-% )%->9 7*2'(57;)%F 0'.%=(5,*+'$=*9 $,(1=,1(J H3IV0'.%=(5,*+'$=13 =%)$%7*05<**3W, ,"'" 1=%(')')*' )%->9 $,(1=,1( * &(%<'$$%- - $%6)5)** T7* ,> *.5$$ - ,5=%? $,'&')*, +,% %)* 1/' )' .%:1, 2>,; (56(1U')>"
Fig& 8&<& Bodels elite

T+e 2odel o! t+e )ower eliteG single% 2onolit+i' grou)
Bodel ri3al elite elite% di3ided into !a'tions
:oters ma( well decide which elite r7le = the( can not onl( change the fact that power alwa(s 5elongs to some elite %ased on the model of competiti+e elitism 1nthon( Downs ! 1nthon( Downs , 1A5"$ de+eloped the ?economic theor( of democrac(?, s7ggesting the concept that competition in elections creates a 6ind of political mar6et where politicians can 5e represented as entreprene7rs see6ing to gain power, and +oters = cons7mers, +oting for the part(Is political line which 5est reflects their preferences 1ccording to Downs, a s(stem of open and competiti+e elections g7arantee democrac( that gi+es power to the part(, philosoph(, +al7es and policies that 5est meet the preferences n7mericall( strongest gro7p of +oters 1s -ch7mpeter p7t it, ?democrac( = it is power politics ? The concept of elite competition as a model of democratic politics in general is tr7e e4plains the act7al mechanisms of the li5eral=democratic political s(stem 0t seems, at its origin, and it was rather an attempt to describe how the democratic process, rather than to %rescribe certain +al7es and principles = political eL7alit(, political participation, freedom and the li6e Democrac( in this e4planation appears, in fact, as a political method = as a means of political decision=ma6ing in the comm7nit(, ?citing? the res7lts of the election process To the e4tent that this model is correct, it adeL7atel( reflects the act7al +al7e of the political elite = that the power is in the hands of the most 6nowledgea5le, capa5le and politicall( acti+e mem5ers of societ( .n the other hand, altho7gh ri+alries
8& De2o'ra'y <;<
73
8& De2o'ra'y <;$
personal de+elopment of the indi+id7al PeopleIs democrac( is foc7sed not so m7ch on the political empowerment of the indi+id7al, 57t on its economic emancipation G 0n practice, the most widel( recogni;ed as one of the models of democrac( = li5eral democrac( 0ts main feat7res are that it is an indirect, representati+e form of democrac( 5ased on reg7lar elections .perating on the 5asis of part( competition and electoral s(stem, it o5ser+es a clear distinction 5etween the state and ci+il societ(, and a7thori;es the e4istence of independent social gro7ps and pri+ate propert( G The s75Cect of disc7ssion is the fact, as the li5eral=democratic s(stems wor6 in practice @rom the point of +iew of pl7ralism, its main ad+antage lies in the fact that stim7lates political participation of citi;ens and politicians acco7nta5le to societ( Theorists elitism indicate that political power tends to 5e concentrated in the hands of a pri+ileged minorit( Corporatism is concerned that power also incl7ded the 5roadest categor( of societ( The theoreticians of the ?new right? point to the danger of a ?democratic o+erload? societ( 1nd finall(, the Mar4ists spea6 of the incompati5ilit( 5etween democrac( and capitalism
R Eh( is the idea of democrac( has historicall( pro+ed to 5e so pop7larF R 0s it possi5le in toda(Is +ersion of a direct democrac(F R Ehat are the main ad+antages of democrac(F R Ehat is the manifest imperfections and dangers of democrac(F R Ehat models of democrac( is the most attracti+e and wh(F R 0s it possi5le to modern forms of representati+e democrac( L7alif( as democraticF R Ehat are the main threats facing democrac( toda(F
<;5
C+a)ter $& State
he #ur#ose of the state is always one , and that is Maj Stirner " o'ly , a'& it% = H1845I
The shadow of the state lies almost in all 6inds of h7man acti+it( @rom ed7cation to economic go+ernance, s(stems of social s7pport to health care and protection from internal order to the e4ternal sec7rit( of the state all the forms and controls, and where to shape and control, that reg7lates, s7per+ises, ena5les or disa5les E+en those aspects of life that are 7s7all( considered personal or pri+ate !marriage, di+orce, a5ortion, religion, etc $ somehow are in the field of +iew of the state 2ot s7rprisingl(, political science, and is often 7nderstood as the st7d( of the state, its instit7tions as anal(sis, e+al7ation of its impact on societ( and so on 1nd the ideological de5ate !and with it, and part( politics$ alwa(s re+ol+e aro7nd the same iss7e = how 5etter to define the f7nction of the state, that societ( sho7ld 5e done 5( the state, and what sho7ld 5e left to the discretion of indi+id7al and comm7nit( associationsF Th7s, the essence of the go+ernment and in fact has 5ecome one of the central pro5lems in political science Perhaps the most important sections of the political theor( in some wa( connected with this ?state iss7e ?
74
Content
W+at is t+e state> T+eories o! t+e State Pl7ralistic state The capitalist state -tate le+iathan The patriarchal state T+e role o! go3ern2ent -mall !minim7m$ state The state of de+elopment -ocial=democratic states The collecti+i;ed state Totalitarian states "Hollow" state> 9lo5ali;ation The restr7ct7ring of the state -75=national go+ernance Findings Issues !or dis'ussion
$& T+e State <;7
<;7 <<; 111 113 11' 11" <<: 11A 121 122 122 123 <48 12> 125 12' <47 <49
0n this chapter we consider the following 5asic L7estions
T+e 2ain @uestions

P Ehat is the state and how it differs from the go+ernmentF Ehat e4isted in the histor( of approaches to the anal(sis and e4planation of the stateF P Bow to regard the state as a whole = as a force friendl( or hostile to manF P Ehat is the role of the state has historicall( set asideF Bow to 7nderstand the distri57tion of responsi5ilit( 5etween the state and ci+il societ(F P Ehat are the threats facing the modern state which of its f7nctions, it losesF
C W+at is t+e state>

The term ?state? is 7sed to refer to most that there are different things3 it is a set of instit7tions, and a geographical concept, a philosophical idea, and a tool of coercion or oppression This discordance stems partl( from the fact that, historicall(, three approaches to the 7nderstanding of the state = an idealistic, f7nctional and organi;ational idealistic approach characteristicall( e4pressed in the writings of 9E@ Begel Begel pointed o7t three of the ?moment? of social life = famil(, ci+il societ( and the state Eithin the famil(, in his opinion, has a ?partic7laristic altr7ism? that enco7rages people to forget a5o7t their own interests for the good of their children or elders in the famil( 0n contrast, the ci+il societ( is the area of the ?7ni+ersal selfishness?, where an indi+id7al p7ts their interests a5o+e those of others The state in this scheme, for Begel was an ethical comm7nit(, im57ed with 7ni+ersal s(mpath( = ?7ni+ersal altr7ism ?0dealism, in this wa( !and this shows the serio7sness of his lac6 of$ generates an 7ncritical attit7de, re+erence to the state, in addition, in determining the state of ethical categories, he is 7na5le to ma6e a clear distinction 5etween those instit7tions that 5elong to the state, and those that are o7tside it Bunctionalapproach to the state foc7sed on what are the role and p7rpose of go+ernment instit7tions The main f7nction of the state is declared to the maintenance of p75lic order, the state is act7all( defined as a set of instit7tions that s7pport the order and sta5ilit( in societ( -7ch an approach, for e4ample, is characteristic of modern Mar4ists, considering the state as a mechanism 5( which somehow achie+ed mitigation of class antagonism and the s7r+i+al of the capitalist s(stem The wea6ness
75
of the f7nctional point of +iew on the state, howe+er, is that with the state here, in fact, associated generall( any instit7tion that s7pports the order !the famil(, the media, trade 7nions and ch7rch$
<;9 I & Politi'al t+eory
/eorg Wil+el2 Friedri'+ Hegel *<77;.<9#<,
c'.'<=*? K*7%$%K" ^':'7; 657%/*7 %$)%-> $%-('.'))%:% *0'57*6.5 * (56(52%,57&%7%/')*' % '0*)$,-' $%6)5)*8 * .5,'(**" S Vx')%.')%7%:** 0195W H1807I %) &('0& (*)87 &%&>,=1$%605,; $*$,'.1, (5-)%.5$U,52)13 ,(50*<*%))%.1 9(*$,*5)$,-1, - =%,%(%? &(%<'$ $ (56-*,*8+'7%-'+'$,-5 *, U*(', -$'7'))%? 2>7 &('0$,5-7') =5= &(%<'$$ $5.%(56-*,*8 52$%73,) %:% ]561.5"P% ^':'73, *$,%(*8 '$,;, - $14)%$,*, 0-*/')*' +'7%-'+'$=%:% 0195 = =%)'+)%?, ->$U' ? ,%+='" Y:%:75-)58 (52%,5 % &%7*,*=' # Vx*7%$%K*8 &(5-5W H1821I &('0$,5-7875 :%$105($,-% =5= T,*+'$=*?*0'57 * )5*->$U'' ->(5/')*' +'7%-'+'$=%? $-%2%0>" R>$7* ^':'78 %=5657* 6)5+*, '7;)%' -7*8)*')5 R5(=$5 * ,5= )56>-5'.>9 V.750%:':'7;8)<'-W, 5 &%6/' # * )5 7*2'(57;)13, * )5 K5U*$,$=13*0'%7%:*3"
Eith all this in the 5oo6, where+er it is not specified separatel(, adopted the organi;ational approach to the 7nderstanding of the state !see 5elow$ @rom the standpoint of organi#ational approach the state administrati+e apparat7s is presented in the 5roadest sense of the term, ie as a set of instit7tions, there is prono7nced ?p75lic? in nat7re in the sense that the( are responsi5le for the collecti+e organi;ation of social life, and are f7nded 5( the societ( The ad+antage of this definition is that it ma6es a clear distinction 5etween the state and ci+il societ( The state co+ers the +ario7s instit7tions of go+ernment = the 57rea7crac(, the arm(, the police, the co7rts, social sec7rit( and so on, it, in fact, can 5e identified with all the ?political 5od(? of societ( Therefore, the origin of the modern state can 5e carried from E7rope ): = ):0 cent7ries, when there arose a centrali;ed management s(stem, grad7all( s75C7gated all other instit7tions and str7ct7res, religio7s and sec7lar, and in the Peace of Eestphalia in 1'># was first form7lated the concept of state so+ereignt( .rgani;ational approach allows 7s to 7nderstand and that is 7s7all( 5ehind the phrase ?e4pand the scope of the state? or, on the contrar(, ?to p7sh the state to its former 5orders? = all of what we sa( when we ha+e in mind the need to e4pand or red7ce the scope of state responsi5ilit( increase or decrease the state apparat7s 0n light of the a5o+e we can disting7ish fi+e 5asic feat7res of state3 The state is sovereign 0t has an a5sol7te and 7nlimited power, in the sense that it is a5o+e all other p75lic 5odies Thomas Bo55es !see p 3">$ e4pressed this idea 5( presenting it as a ?/e+iathan? = a h7ge sea monster 2ational 0nstit7tes of "%ublic" +ers7s ?pri+ate? instit7tions of ci+il societ( P75lic a7thorities are responsi5le for the adoption and implementation of collecti+e decisions, while pri+ate entities, s7ch as famil(, pri+ate enterprises and trade 7nions, ser+e to satisf( pri+ate interests -tate = is an instr7ment of legitimation Decisions of the state is 7s7all( !tho7gh not alwa(s$ the mem5ers of the societ( are accepted as 5inding to +ersions
$& T+e State <;: <45 I & Politi'al t+eory
76

R Bow do (o7 imagine life in a ?primiti+e state of nat7re?F R EhoIs Eho controlled = the state go+ernment or the state go+ernmentF R Can (o7 tal6 a5o7t the ne7tralit( of the state in relation to the competing interest gro7psF R 0s the social nat7re of the state elite has an impact on the perception of social pro5lemsF R Ehat sho7ld ideall( 5e the relationship 5etween the state and ci+il societ(F R Bow far sho7ld stop the process of ?empt(ing? of the state, 5efore it e+er cease to 5e a stateF R Does glo5ali;ation that an( need for a state disappearsF
<4:
Part II & Nation and /lo(ali0ation

<#;
C+a)ter 5& Nation and Nationalis2

oBP?=LB>?KO p q@= VE@CABJ b=>EKLN WE>=DEWEC@DB, W@=-@= DF=VE A=F?. !l ert Einstein " >ette6 H 1(?1 I
.+er the past two h7ndred (ears, the nation was the onl( !if not the onl( possi5le$ form of political organi;ation of societ( Until now, the 5asis of all international h7man rights law is the idea that the nation, as people ha+e a n7m5er of inaliena5le rights, incl7ding the right to self=determination and political independence %7t ne+er a national pro5lem was not as ac7te as from the time of formation of nationalist ideologies 2ationalism is one force was completel( eclipsed, it wo7ld seem m7ch more solid and thoro7ghl( de+eloped ideolog( !which we saw in Chapter 3$ Eith this ideolog( 57rned in war and re+ol7tion, the new 5orn state, the empire fell apart and redrawn 5o7ndaries, 7nder his slogans as people destro(ing political regimes, and so7ght to perpet7ate them Toda(, howe+er, there is reason to 5elie+e that the era of nations coming to an end The nation=state = the ideal so7ght 5( generations of nationalist politicians = now saddled with too man( pro5lems, 5oth internal and e4ternal
The reader sho7ld 6eep in mind that the concept of ?natsonali;m? the a7thor interprets the spirit of the Eestern tradition of political science as a philosoph( or ideolog( of the nation, the e4pression of her spirit 0n domestic politics, the term is 7nderstood in a different wa( = as an ideolog( of the indi+id7al la(ers of societ(, 7sing the national idea to achie+e certain, 7s7all( aggressi+e goals Translated sa+ed the a7thorIs 7nderstanding of the pro5lem ! Note lane $
1
TA=LE OF CONTENTS
"hat is a nation $ Lhe nation as a cultural coGGunitC Lhe nation as a political coGGunitC Varieties of nationalis+ ei eral nationalisG Zonservative nationalisG Ejpansionist nationalisG !'! 132 135 !'6 138 142 144
77
!ntiFcolonial nationalisG /ulticulturalis+ here is a future in the nation - state $ Findings Issues for discussion
5& Nations and Nationalis2 <#<
147 !(. !1' !1( !11
T+e 2ain @uestions

P Ehat is a nationF P Ehat c7lt7ral nationalism is different from political nationalismF P Ehat e4plains the rise and rise of nationalismF P Ehat are the accepted forms of political nationalism, which reflect the goals and reflectF P EhatIs the appeal of the idea of the nation=state, what the power of the nation=stateF P 0s there a f7t7re for the nation=stateF
C W+at is a nation>
1ll disp7tes will re+ol+e aro7nd the phenomenon of nationalism, largel( coming from the fact that so far, in fact, no common 7nderstanding of the nation The +er( idea of the nation is so familiar that few tho7ght is gi+en to anal(;e it or to L7estion = it is simpl( accepted as a matter of co7rse %7t the L7estions remain and e+en worsen Meanwhile, the term ?nation? is eL7all( well applied to +er( different phenomena = to the state, co7ntr(, ethnic gro7p or e+en to race The United 2ations, for e4ample, is named completel( wrong, 5eca7se it is an organi;ation of states, not the national comm7nities Ehat then are the characteristic feat7res of a nationF Ehat separates the nation from other social gro7ps, from other forms of comm7nit(F To 5egin with, here to gi+e an( precision determination and reall( eas(, 5eca7se a nation is a 7nit( of o5Cecti+e and s75Cecti+e, a com5ination of c7lt7ral and political characteristics @rom an obCective %oint of vie*! a nation = is a c7lt7ral comm7nit( = in other words, a gro7p of people spea6ing the same lang7age, professing the same religion, related to the common past, etc K7st s7ch an 7nderstanding of the case and is the 5asis of nationalism Canadian residents of J7e5ec, for e4ample, identif( themsel+es on the 5asis of what the( sa( in @rench, while the rest of Canada = in English 2ational iss7es in 0ndia are associated with the religio7s opposition3 e4amples = the str7ggle of the -i6hs in the P7nCa5 for the ?famil( home? !&halistan$, or the mo+ement of &ashmiri M7slims for the accession of &ashmir to Pa6istan The pro5lem, howe+er, is that determine a nation on the 5asis of o5Cecti+e factors alone can not, 5eca7se in realit( the nation are a m7ch 5roader com5ination of a +er(, +er( specific c7lt7ral, ethnic and racial feat7res The -wiss were the -wiss and despite the fact that in the co7ntr(, apart from the local dialects spo6en in three lang7ages !@rench, 9erman and 0talian$ The differences 5etween Catholics and Protestants, so ac7tel( manifest themsel+es in 2orthern 0reland, for the rest of the U& do not ha+e a f7ndamental importance, and, sa(, in 9erman(, the( are not significant at all
<#4 II & Nation and /lo(ali0ation
nation F it is a coGGunitC oE people , is conscious ejpression in the |uest Eor the attainGent F or Gaintain F state , ut also
0t all loo6s the idea that e+ent7all( the nation is that 7nder s7ch a subCective 7nderstanding 5elonging to her people = a 6ind of political=ps(chological str7ct7re @rom an( other gro7p or comm7nit( of the nation a5o+e all disting7ished 5( the fact that 5elonging to her people themsel+es recogni;e as a nation Ehat does this meanF This means that a nation can onl( spea6 when 5elonging to her people reali;e the integrit( of the political comm7nit( itself, what act7all( is the difference 5etween a nation of et+ni' grou)s& 0ndeed, ethnic gro7p is also connected and a sense of internal 7nit( and a common
78
c7lt7re, 57t in contrast to the nation, she has no political aspirations 2ation is historicall( ha+e alwa(s so7ght to ens7re that the get !or 6eep$ their statehood and independence, as a last resort to ens7re that sec7re the a7tonom( or f7ll mem5ership in a federation or confederation of states The comple4it( of the pro5lem, howe+er, does not end there The phenomenon of nationalism often el7des rigoro7s anal(sis also 5eca7se 5( his own species ha+e different 7nderstandings of the nation Bere are the two concepts .ne nation is predominantl( c7lt7ral comm7nit(, while emphasi;ing the importance of deep ethnic lin6s = material and spirit7al, the other sees it primaril( a political comm7nit(, emphasi;ing the role of ci+il = social and political = ties .ffering a +iew of the origin of nations, 5oth concepts ha+e fo7nd their place in the different c7rrents of nationalism
T+e nation as a 'ultural 'o22unity

The idea that the nation first and foremost, is an ethnic and c7lt7ral comm7nit(, rightl( considered the ?primar(? concept of nation ! /afont , 1A'#$ The roots of this idea goes to 9erman( ):000 cent7r( = To the wor6 of Berder and @ichte !1"'2=1#1>$ 1ccording to Berder, the nat7re of an( nation is determined 5( factors s7ch as the nat7ral en+ironment, the climate and ph(sical geograph( = forming factors and lifest(le ha5its and la5or, and preference and creati+e inclinations of people 15o+e all Berder p7t lang7age factor, and in it he saw the em5odiment of the characteristic of the people of tradition and its historical memor( Each
Ethnic grou# F a large group oE historical identitC "
5& Nations and Nationalis2 <##
Fo+ann /ott!ried Herder *<788.<9;#,
c'.'<=*? &%T,, =(*,*= * K*7%$%KJ $+*,5',$8 &(5(%0*,'7'. =17;,1()%:% )5<*%)57*6.5"_1 01+* 1+*,'7'. * 73,'(5)$=*. $-84'))*=%., ^'(0'( %2h'957 -$3 Y-(%&1, &('/0' +'. - 1776 :"%2% $)%-57$8 - S'?.5(' - =5+'$,-' :75-> 60'U)'? <'(=-*" S (5))*' :%0> )5 )':% &%-7*87* ,5=*'.>$7 *,'7*, =5= a5),, ]1$$% * R%),'$=;w, %0)5=% *.'))% ^'(0'( $,57 -'014*. =(*,*=%. *0'%7%:**P(%$ -'4')*8 * %=5657 ('U534'' -7*8)*' )5 65(%/05-U''$8 - ^'(.5)** (%.5),*+'$=%' ,'+')*'"S $-%*9 (52%,59 ^'(0'( 10'787 %$%2%' -)*.5)*' )5<**, $+*,58 '' %(:5)*+)%? :(1&&%?, =%,%(5895(5 =,'(*61',$8 )57*+*'. $%2$,-'))%:% 86>=5, =17;,1(> * V0195W" d5=*. %2(56%., %) K5=,*+'$=*657% /*7 %$)%-> *$,%(** =17;,1(>, 5 ':% -6:780> &(%210*7* ,% ,'+')*' - )5<*%)57*6.', =%,%(%'&%0+'(=*-57% $5. %<'))%$,; )5<*%)57;)%? =17;,1(>"
Doi nation, according to Berder, inherent in its Volks eist , which finds its e4pression in songs, m(ths and legends, and is for the people of the so7rce of all forms of creati+it( BerderIs nationalism sho7ld 5e 7nderstood as a 6ind of c7lt7ralism, which 5ro7ght to the forefront of national traditions and collecti+e memor(, 57t not statehood 0deas of this 6ind in no small meas7re contri57ted to the awa6ening of national conscio7sness of the 9ermans in the )0) cent7r(, when the( disco+ered the ancient m(ths and legends, as is e+ident, for e4ample, in the tales of the %rothers 9rimm and the operas of *ichard Eagner !1#13=1##3$
79
The main idea gerdero+s6ogo c7lt7ralism is that the nation = a ?nat7ral? or organic comm7nit( that go 5ac6 to ancient times and will contin7e to e4ist as long as h7manit( e4ists The same position is ta6en 5( contemporar( social ps(chologists, pointing to the need of people to form gro7ps in order to gain a sense of sec7rit(, comm7nit( and 5elonging The di+ision of man6ind into nations, according to this +iew, as time goes on and this nat7ral tendenc( for people to associate with those who are close to them in origin, c7lt7re and wa( of life Ps(chological reconstr7ction, howe+er, do not e4plain the historical phenomenon of nationalism = the phenomenon that emerged at a specific time and place, namel( in E7rope, 5eginning )0)cent7r( 0n the 5oo6 ?2ations and 2ationalism? !1A#3$ Ernest 9elner showed that nationalism is associated with moderni;ation, especiall( with the process of ind7striali;ation 1ccording to his concept, pre=capitalist era societ( held together great +ariet( of different ties and relationships that are so characteristic of fe7dalism = emerged as ind7strial societies ha+e relied on social mo5ilit(, independence and competition3 for the preser+ation of the c7lt7ral 7nit( of the whole of societ( is reL7ired is a completel( new ideolog( The role of this ideolog( and nationalism too6 o+er = reaction to new social conditions and circ7mstances Eith all of this, according to 9elnera, nationalism f7ndamentall( persist 5eca7se to ret7rn to pre=ind7strial p75lic relations compan( can not The post7late of the relationship 5etween nationalism and moderni;ation, howe+er, has ca7sed o5Cections from 1nthon( -mith, who in his ?ethnic roots of the nations? ! The 9thnic:rigins of Nations ! 1A#'$ showed contin7it(
Volrsgeist H)'."I # 21=-57;)% V019 )5(%05WJ )5*2%7'' 95(5=,'()>' +'(,> )5(%05,)59%08 4*' ->(5/')*' - ':% =17;,1(' * 86>='"
<#8 I & Nation and /lo(ali0ation 5& Nations and Nationalis2 <$$
ci+ili;ation with its case 5( case specific L7alities as a 7niL7e, historicall( determined and an organic whole @or its part, the political wing nationalism sees the nationIs closed political comm7nit( and therefore p7ts forward the idea of so+ereignt( and self=determination G -ome political thin6ers 5elie+e nationalism is a phenomenon of modern times, associated with ind7striali;ation and the spread of democrac(, others see its origins in the ethnic comm7nities that ha+e de+eloped in the Middle 1ges The nat7re of nationalism is e4tremel( di+erse3 in each case, their role has 5een pla(ed as the historical circ7mstances that infl7ence on this form of nationalism and political goals that he p7rs7ed G There are se+eral +arieties of political nationalism /i5eral nationalism is 5ased on a 5elief in the 7ni+ersal right of nations to self=determination Conser+ati+e nationalism a5o+e all p7ts the role of patriotism in the p75lic and political 7nit( of the nation 2ationalism=wing e4pansionist ideolog( acts of aggression and conL7est 1nti=colonial nationalism lin6ed to the str7ggle for national li5eration and social and economic de+elopment of societ( G The philosoph( of modern m7ltic7lt7ralism in +ar(ing degrees, alwa(s 7ndermines nationalism /east of all the pro5lems in this case arises 5efore the li5eral nationalism, 5eca7se he sees the nationIs more political than c7lt7ral, ethnic comm7nit(, and reL7ires onl( that m7ltic7lt7ralism is not contrar( to the principles of social tolerance and indi+id7al freedom Conser+ati+es see the di+ersit( of c7lt7res a direct threat to the nation = a so7rce of mistr7st 5etween people, hostilit( and e+en +iolence G Up to now, the main form of political organi;ation in the world is the nation=state3 man( see it as the onl( possi5le at all ?cell? polic( -he is indeed inherent in the merit that it integrates the societ( 5oth c7lt7rall( and politicall(, there5( gi+ing a comm7nit( 7nited 5( a common past and ethnic identit(, the right to political self=determination and independence G 1t present, the nation=states face a n7m5er of challenges De+elop centrif7gal tendencies generated 5( factors of ethnic order E4ternal calls nation=states come from the increasing de+elopment of s7pranational str7ct7res of economic and c7lt7ral glo5ali;ation and the need to find sol7tions to international en+ironmental crisis

R Bow do these nationsF 1re the( nat7ral or artificial entitiesF
80
R Eh( is it so great is the significance of national pride and patriotismF R @oc7ses whether c7lt7ral nationalism solel( on the past of the nationF R Eh( nationalism has historicall( pro+ed to 5e so powerf7l political forceF R 1lwa(s if nationalism leads to isolation and conflictF R Bow to assess the c7lt7ral di+ersit( of h7manit( = as a so7rce of c7lt7ral enrichment of societ(, or as a threat to its sta5ilit(F R 0s the nation=state of the onl( legitimate form of political organi;ation of societ(F
C+a)ter 7& World )oliti's
Dn our scientiEic age oE the @ar in the end result oE huGanitC " lertrand Mussell " @'pop*la6 tho*Aht% H 1(7B I
Geans one
thing F the
total destruction
The end of the )) cent7r( has 5ro7ght to h7manit( the reali;ation that the world is, in the words of Marshall Mc/7han ! Marshall Mc/7han $, has 5ecome one 5ig ?glo5al +illage ? 9lo5ali;ation has completel( changed o7r 7nderstanding of the +er( essence of politics and political relations The traditional perception of the polic( was ?tied? to the state3 the state is considered as the main actor in the polic( and political anal(sis at the foc7s was p7rel( national le+el of go+ernment acti+it( @rom this 7nderstanding flows nat7rall( and the fact that (o7 can ma6e a clear distinction 5etween domestic and foreign polic(, that is what ta6es place within the nation=state, and what is happening o7tside 0n the latter case, came to the aid of a new and e+ol+ing discipline (o7rself = ?international relations? 9lo5ali;ation, howe+er, is shaded !some e+en sa( that erased$ the 5o7ndaries 5etween ?internal? and ?e4ternal?, g7iding h7manit( on the path to a single ?glo5al societ( ? 1ltho7gh the nation=state remains the most important actor on the world stage toda( is L7ite impossi5le to den( the fact that the rapidl( growing importance of s7pranational 5odies and m7ltinational organi;ations
TA=LE OF CONTENTS
sy understanding the global #olicy DdealisG MealisG fluralisG MarjisG he changing world order leginning and end oE the Acold @ar A Lhe @orld order oE vvD centurC &yna+ics of )lobali9ation [actors and trends oE glo aliBation qlo aliBation \ Zoncept and de ate Regionali9ation Lhe European }nion ;ccording to the direction of a world go*ern+ent $ !16 158 160 162 163 164 164 168 !6% 172 175 180 184 !-.
81
{rganiBation oE the }nited kations Findings Issues for discussion

7& World Politi's <$7
191 !.1 !.0
This chapter addresses the following 6e( iss7es
T+e 2ain @uestions

P Ehat e4isted and e4ist approaches to the anal(sis and e4planation of world politicsF P Ehat is h7manit( ))0 cent7r( = peace and harmon( or chaos and destr7ctionF P Ehat is glo5ali;ationF Ehat it is the nation=stateF P 0s glo5ali;ation a positi+e or a hostile forceF P Ehat is the f7t7re of the s7pra=regional organi;ationsF P Can the idea of a world go+ernment to 5ecome a realit(F
C To understand t+e world )oliti's

That the polic( is addressed not onl( inside, 57t also o7tside of societ(, people 7nderstood since ancient times, 5eginning with those of wars and conflicts 5etween cit(=states that ha+e ta6en place in ancient 9reece The modern s(stem of international relations, howe+er, there was onl( with the emergence of centrali;ed states in the ):0 = ):00 cent7ries *eflected this process fo7nd in the Treat( of Eestphalia !1'>#$ that ended the Thirt( <earsI Ear, and in which the E7ropean powers for the first time officiall( proclaimed the principle of state so+ereignt( /ater, the E7ropean s(stem of states Coined the United -tates, when, after the +ictor( o+er -pain in 1A0# the( were in the e(es of the world comm7nit( ha+e 5ecome a great power, and Kapan, which recei+ed the same stat7s after his +ictor( o+er *7ssia in 1A0> = 1A05 1t the end of )0) cent7r( imperialism and the E7ropean ?scram5le for colonies? in 1frica and 1sia ha+e gi+en the international s(stem tr7l( glo5al shape )) cent7r( witnessed the esta5lishment of world politics in the sense that the relationship of conflict and cooperation 5etween -tates and international organi;ations ha+e spread thro7gho7t the world Most dramaticall( manifested in the @irst Eorld Ear !1A1>=1A1#$, the -econd Eorld Ear !1A3A= 1A>5$ andt+e "'old war" ! Cold Ear $ %( the end of )) cent7r( it 5ecame apparent that change the +er( fo7ndations of political life 1t iss7e was, in fact, the +er( di+ision into internal and e4ternal aspects of the polic(, so familiar 5efore Toda(, these comple4 and m7ltilateral changes are referred to as ?glo5ali;ation ? The anal(sis of these and other trends, (o7 m7st first 7nderstand the different approaches to the position which is 7s7all( considered an international and glo5al politics 0n this area, there were the following main ?schools?3 idealism *ealism pl7ralism Mar4ism
@ith 1945 g " eEore the collapse oE the socialist sCsteG in the 1989 F 19991 Cears "
<$9 II & Nation and /lo(ali0ation
I22anuel Hant *<748.<9;8,
82
c'.'<=*? K*7%$%K" S$3 $-%3 /*6); a5), &(%/*7 - a')*:$2'(:' H,%:05 S%$,%+)58 P(1$$*8 I"S 1770 :" %) $,57 &(%K'$$%(%. 7%:*=* * .',5K*6*=* a')*:$2'(:$=%:% 1)*-'($*,',5" ^75-)13 *0' 3 ':% V=(*,*+'$=%?W K*7%$%K** $%$,5-787 &%$,175, % ,%., +,% &%6)5)*' )' &(%$,% 8-78',$8 $1..%? +1-$,-'))>9 -%$&(*8,*?, 5 65-*$*, %, &%)8,*?)%:% 5&&5(5,5 +'7%-'=5" S %$)%-1 $-%'? &%7*,*+'$= %?K*7%$%K** a5), &%7%/*7 )(5-$,-'))>? &(*)<*&" X%:75$)% a5),1, 65=%)> (561.5 0*=,13, +'7%-'=1=5,':%(*+'$=*' *.&'(5,*->, :75-)>. *6 =%,%(>9 8-78',$8 %2865))%$,; +'7%-'=5 %,)%$*,;$8 =0(1:*. 7308. )' =5= = V$('0$,-5.W, 5 =5= = V<'78.W" ^75-)>' ( 52%,> a5),5 # Va(*,*=5 +*$,%:%(561.5W H1781I, Va(*,*=5 &(5=,*+'$=%:% (561.5W H1788I * Va(*,*= 5 $&%$%2)%$,* $1/0')*8W H1790I"
Idealis2
The essence of political idealism is that he sees international politics from the point of +iew of moral +al7es and the r7le of law Bis less interested in empirical anal(sis !ie how go+ernments act7all( 5eha+e$ and more reg7lator( aspects !ie how the( sho7ld 5eha+e$ Therefore it is sometimes regarded as a form of 7topianism 0n the co7rse of histor( has de+eloped man( idealistic theories of politics 0n the Middle 1ges, for e4ample, Thomas 1L7inas !122>=12">$ arg7ed that s7ch a ?C7st war?, which considered the actions of the r7lers in their relations with each other in terms of moralit( Bowe+er, he arg7ed that war can 5e C7stified if three conditions are met @irst, it m7st declare the so+ereign r7ler -econd, the ca7se for which the war is waged, sho7ld 5e right in the sense that its aim sho7ld 5e to fi4 the perfect inC7stice Third, in s7ch a war sho7ld hold good and a+oid e+il, not s7cc7m5ing to the passions of cr7elt( and greed /ater 0mman7el &ant proposed a 6ind of world go+ernment proCect 0n his +iew, the moralit( and the mind at the same time telling people that the war sho7ld not 5e, and the f7t7re of h7manit( is destined to come to a ?7ni+ersal and eternal peace ? Most forms of idealism com5ined with internationalism, that is, the con+iction that h7man affairs sho7ld 5e arranged in accordance with the 7ni+ersal, not onl( 5( national g7idelines This +iew, in t7rn, is reflected in the ass7mption that the li+es of people 5oth at national and international le+els sho7ld 5e organi;ed on the principles of harmon( and cooperation .ne of the most infl7ential forms of idealism 5ecame li5eralism Ehile the /i5erals ha+e traditionall( seen in the state primar( 7nit of political organi;ation of societ(, C7st as important to them has alwa(s 5een the interdependence of states and free trade3 the war, in their opinion, more often simpl( ?not
7& World Politi's <$:
Internationalis+ F itss theoretical the politicalidentitC that representation , that universal asis or practical application his postulate , that
is C7stified ? The internationalism of this 6ind is also committed to the idea of collecti+e sec7rit( and international law = the principles em5odied in organi;ations s7ch as the /eag7e of 2ations and the U2 @or e4ample, U - President Eoodrow Eilson arg7ed that the @irst Eorld Ear was the prod7ct of the ?old politics? of militarism and e4pansionism m7ltinational empires, is the 5est antidote to war ma( 5e the constr7ction of the world democratic nation=states a5le to cooperate in areas of m7t7al interest and de+oid of an( interest was in war and pl7nder
83
The fate of idealism was not 7nclo7ded, his (ears critici;ed and ridic7led theorists of realism, and (et he was re+i+ed with a 5ang at the end of )) cent7r( as neoideali02a& 2eoideali;m was a reaction to the amoralit( of power politics, the era of s7perpowers 1n e4ample of this is the attempt to 5ring that ethic in U - foreign polic(, which in the 1A"0s made the U - President Carter, his administration has pro+ided economic and militar( aid onl( to co7ntries where h7man rights are respected /o7der theme of international cooperation and common sec7rit( in the late 1A#0s so7nded the president of the U--* Mi6hail 9or5ache+, who spo6e of the ?common E7ropean home? and that the iss7e of h7man rights in its importance goes 5e(ond the ideological ri+alr( 5etween comm7nism and capitalism %7t perhaps the most powerf7l impet7s to the re+i+al of idealism has 5ro7ght widespread recognition that the world is facing the threat of total n7clear annihilation = the res7lt of the escalation of militar( spending, which the Eest and the East competed for decades There was a mo+ement for peace that emanated from the largest internationalist philosoph( with an emphasis on pacifism = a f7ndamental denial of the war and all forms of +iolence 2eoideali;ma positions were reflected in the concept of the ?world comm7nit(?, the occ7rrence of which is 7s7all( associated with the name of an 17stralian diplomat and scholar Kohn %7rton ! Kohn %arton , 1A"2$ The concept of the ?world comm7nit(? s7ggests that the idea of so+ereign nation=states o5solete = in their place comes a model of comple4 and interdependent relationship, which %7rton descri5ed as ?spiderIs we5? This nat7rall( followed that traditional international polic( m7st gi+e wa( to a non=+iolent resol7tion of international conflicts and cooperation among states
oE=?VEB>?KO # -6:780 )5 .'/01)5(%0)>' %,)%U')*8, &%0+'(=*-534*? V&(5=,*+'$=%'W6 )5+')*' .%(57*, %$%2'))% &(*)<*&> 1-5/')*8 &(5- +'7%-'=5 * )'65-*$*.%$,* :%$105($,-"
<5; II & Nation and /lo(ali0ation <78 II & Nation and /lo(ali0ation
9lo5ali;ation can 5e seen in the economic, c7lt7ral and political dimensions 0n the concept ofeconomic glo5ali;ation 5ased on the idea that toda( no national econom(, fig7rati+el( spea6ing, a sharp=
7"1
Fig& 7&<& T+e interde)enden'e o!
tion3 all the economies of the world to a greater or lesser e4tent a5sor5ed 5( the glo5al econom( .ECD !1AA5$ therefore defines glo5ali;ation as the transition from the world of specific national economies to the glo5al econom( in which prod7ction is international, and financial flows smoothl( and contin7o7sl( flow from co7ntr( to co7ntr( The collapse of comm7nism has gi+en a strong acceleration of glo5ali;ation3 the or5it of the glo5al capitalist s(stem was drawn into the last maCor 5loc6 of co7ntries, primaril( remained o7tside 0t can 5e ass7med that economic glo5ali;ation and its part contri57ted to the collapse of comm7nism3 first, the demonstration effect, when it was re+ealed the g7lf that separates the capitalist Eest from economicall( deca(ing East !partic7larl( to the e4tent that, as here, since 1A#0, passed to freer trade, wea6ened e4change controls and opened the econom( to a more free mo+ement of capital$ and, secondl(, the wea6ening of the go+ernment in managing the econom( = an ine+ita5le conseL7ence of glo5ali;ation
84
7& World Politi's <7$
Cultural glo5ali;ation is creating the conditions for ens7ring that the information, prod7cts and image, prod7ced in a partic7lar part of the world, merged into a single glo5al flow = an ine+ita5le conseL7ence of the fact that c7lt7ral differences 5etween nations, regions and people with more or less smoothed This process has the aspect of how B'Donaldi0ation ! McDonaldi;ation $, 57t in general it appears the dri+ing force 5ehind the information re+ol7tion, the spread of satellite comm7nications, telecomm7nications networ6s, the 0nternet and other forms of information technolog(, glo5al news agencies 0t sho7ld not, howe+er, lose sight of the fact that c7lt7re is as glo5ali;ation and resists her, not eno7gh to prod7ce Boll(wood films to flood the mar6et r7nning shoes ? 2i6e ?and the 75iL7ito7s open?-tar57c6s Coffee Bo7ses ?, = e+en to sell it all aro7nd the world (o7 need to ta6e into acco7nt local tastes, c7stoms and local c7lt7re in general Political glo5ali;ation we see primaril( in the growing importance of international organi;ations 1mong them is its own classification There are m7ltinational organi;ations that are not within its powers of a state, and in relation to a +ariet( of states Most organi;ations of this 6ind arose after the -econd Eorld Ear3 the U2, the E7ropean Economic Comm7nit( and its s7ccessor = the E7ropean Comm7nit( and the E7ropean Union, the Eorld %an6, the 0nternational Monetar( @7nd !0M@$, the .rgani;ation for Economic Cooperation and De+elopment !.ECD$ and the Eorld Trade .rgani;ation !ET. $ 0f international organi;ations are responsi5le to the principles of intergo+ernmental relations, the( pro+ide a mechanism for go+ernments, at least in theor(, to ta6e concerted action, witho7t compromising so+ereignt( 0n contrast, the s7pra=national a7thorit( is empowered to dictate certain decisions of national states Characteristic of political glo5ali;ation emphasis on the principles of interstate ma6es it different from the phenomena of economic and c7lt7ral glo5ali;ation3 the latter are, as a r7le, and non=mar6et factors 0n addition, reflecting the idealistic commitment to internationalism and the idea of a world go+ernment, political glo5ali;ation, so to spea6, lags 5ehind the economic and c7lt7ral glo5ali;ation, 5eca7se toda( (o7 can not tal6 a5o7t a world go+ernment = r7n more or less distant, and perhaps that of the glo5al ci+il societ( co+ering a transnational corporations, non=go+ernmental organi;ations and international press7re gro7ps
/lo(ali0ation G Con'e)ts and De(ates

.+er glo5ali;ation toda( is a lot of contro+ers( Most go+ernments and maCor political parties f7ll( share the philosoph( of glo5ali;ation, see6ing to 5enefit from the new glo5al econom( .n the other hand, mainl( in de+eloped co7ntries 57t also in de+eloping co7ntries, too, had the anti=glo5ali;ation mo+ement 0n some of the=
and GarNeting strategies , related to the industrC oE East F Eood H East Eood I"
<75 II & Nation and /lo(ali0ation <:5 II & Nation and /lo(ali0ation
tea dignit( sta5ilit(, whereas m7ltilateralism can generate new and 7npredicta5le forms 5esides international conflict G 9lo5ali;ation is a comple4 networ6 of relationships in which o7r li+es are increasingl( determined 5( the decisions and actions ta6en somewhere in the greater or lesser distance from 7s The concept of economic glo5ali;ation reflects the growth of transnational flows of capital and goods, 7ndermining the fo7ndations of the economic so+ereignt( of states C7lt7ral glo5ali;ation = e+en tho7gh she does not act solel( from the top down = still ma6es more 7niform c7lt7re G 9lo5ali;ation = e4tremel( contro+ersial set of processes Disc7ssions a5o7t her start with, can (o7 tal6 a5o7t the phenomenon in general, and end with a disc7ssion of +ario7s dri+ing forces of this process Enth7siasts of glo5ali;ation arg7e that it promotes democrac(, prosperit(, de+elopment and e4pansion of choices and opport7nities, opponents sa( that it gi+es rise to new forms of ineL7alit(, allows corporations to a+oid controls and generates new en+ironmental pro5lems G co7nterweight to glo5ali;ation are the trend towards regional integration, some scholars arg7e that regionalism ma( well come to replace the classical nationalism The most s7ccessf7l e4periment on the part of regional integration is the E7ropean Union = a sample of 5oth a political and economic 7nion
85
of states @or all that, m7ch closer to the sit7ation of ?pooled so+ereignt(?, it is still far from 5eing a5le to 5ecome a E7ropean ?s7perstate? G 1n arg7ment in fa+or of a world go+ernment 5asicall( is that in the a5sence of a glo5al state international s(stem will operate on the ?laws of nat7re ? U2Is capa5ilities to pla( this role, howe+er, is +er( limited d7e to the rel7ctance of states to pro+ide reso7rces for the wor6 of collecti+e sec7rit(, the 7ne+en distri57tion of responsi5ilit( in the new international s(stem, and the pro5lematic role of the U2 in a world that is not di+ided according to the logic of ri+alr( 5etween the East and the Eest

R Ehich approach to international politics can 5etter 7nderstand the c7rrent trendsF R 0s it possi5le to sa( that a m7ltipolar world as ha+ing intrinsic insta5ilit(F R Bow did regard glo5ali;ation = as a m(th or realit(F R Ehat is it 5rings with it the glo5al econom( = e4panding opport7nities for all co7ntries or increasing insta5ilit( along with widening ineL7alitiesF R Can the E7ropean Union 5e a model of regional organi;ation for the worldF R Ehat role can the U2 8 or to ta6e on a new international s(stemF R 0s a world go+ernment desira5le prospectF
<:7
C+a)ter 9& Internal )oliti's
;ny #olicy - this is a local #olicy . 5a#o6ite eCp6e%%io' o; the ;o6<e6 DpeaEe6 4he :o*%e o; Fep6e%e'tati#e% o; the "o'A6e%% @DG LhoGas { s keal F ~unior
Ehen we tal6 a5o7t international politics, nation=states seem to 7s whole formations, 57t in fact each of them has its own internal str7ct7re with the di+ision into different le+els of go+ernment @irst of all, we see that each co7ntr( has its own territorial di+ision with its corresponding le+els of go+ernment = is, therefore, central !national$ go+ernment and there are all sorts of pro+incial, regional and local a7thorities 0t is a matter of state constit7tion, where it is said, is whether the co7ntr( federation or a 7nitar( state %oth in the first and in the second case, set a specific spatial distri57tion of state power = a s(stem 7nder which de+elop in each case, their relationship 5etween the center and the peripher( 0n all modern states, al5eit to +ar(ing degrees, here we ha+e the opposite of the c7rrent trend .n the one hand, the de+elopment of economic relations, international and other factors, it can 5e said, with the most se+ere need to p7sh to the centrali;ation of the state, on the other = at the end of )) cent7r( intensified thro7gho7t the centrif7gal forces that reflect the 7nprecedented re+i+al of ethnic, regional and local policies
TA=LE OF CONTENTS
he centrali9ation or decentrali9ation $ Relationshi# center-#eri#hery !.%22
86
[ederated sCsteG }nitarC SCsteG Ethnic and local #olitics Lhe revival oE ethnic politics eocal politics b Findings Issues for discussion
<:9 II& Nation and /lo(ali0ation
201 208 214 214 218 %!. %%2
T+e 2ain @uestions

P Ehat are the comparati+e ad+antages of centrali;ation and decentrali;ationF P Ehat federal s(stem differs from a 7nitar( how effecti+el( each harmoni;es territorial and other differences in the stateF P Eh( the trend towards centrali;ation in modern societiesF P Ehat are the reasons d7e to the re+i+al of ethnic politicsF P Bow serio7s a threat this poses to the e4istence of the nation=stateF P Bow realistic 7nder c7rrent conditions the prospect that the nation instead of a maCor role in politics will pla( a local comm7nit(F
T+e 'entrali0ation or de'entrali0ation>

1ll modern states are the central !national$ and peripheral !regional, pro+incial or local$ a7thorities -7ch a di+ision is primaril( d7e to the territorial factor, 57t the principles on which it is made, it is e4tremel( di+erse Cr7cial in each case ma( 5e3 the constit7tion that defines the relationship 5etween the center and the peripher(, the distri57tion of roles and responsi5ilities 5etween different le+els of go+ernment, methods of appointment of ci+il ser+ants for each le+el, the political, economic and administrati+e capacit( of power, which has a center to monitor o+er the peripher(, and finall(, e+er( time a certain degree of independence from the peripher( of the center 0n all this it is L7ite clear e4cept one thing3 for the state are +ital 5oth central and peripheral organs of power Eitho7t a central go+ernment go+ernment simpl( will not 5e a5le to act in the international arena to enter into militar( alliances, enter into trade agreements, to participate in international meetings at the highest le+el, or wor6 of s7pranational 5odies @or the international relations of the state meets the central go+ernment, which also deals with foreign polic(, diplomac( and defense 0n addition, witho7t the mediation of a central a7thorit( and peripheral organs, in fact, can not wor6 in areas where their interests coincide 1ll of this means that the tas6 of the central go+ernment in an( case is a general g7ide to the economic life of the state, and iss7es of trade, transport and comm7nications Together, we can tal6 a5o7t a +er(, +er( powerf7l arg7ment in fa+or of f7rther strengthening the power of the central go+ernment at the e4pense of peripheral instit7tions Centrali0ation is important or in some cases 5ecomes important 5eca7se it pro+ides3
the national level "
9& Do2esti' Poli'y <::
I national unity& .nl( the central go+ernment is a5le to represent the interests of the whole and not parts, that is, not the interests of local, ethnic or regional gro7ps and the nation as a whole Ehen the political s(stem has a strong center, the go+ernment is easier to act in the p75lic interest, the wea6ness of the center leads to contradictions and ri+alries 5etween the parts of the co7ntr(Q uni!or2ity& .nl( the central go+ernment can esta5lish 7niform laws and create a p75lic infrastr7ct7re, in which people are a5le to completel( mo+e freel( from one end of the co7ntr( Ehen a co7ntr( has different ta4 regimes and different s(stems of law, ed7cation and p75lic safet(, mo5ilit( of societ(, 5( contrast, fallsQ
87
e@uality& Decentrali;ation has the disad+antage that the peripheral instit7tions of go+ernment are 5ased e4cl7si+el( on local reso7rces @rom this, as a r7le, the ine+ita5le conseL7ence that the areas with the most ac7te social pro5lems are least a5le to sol+e them = a sit7ation that is a5le to correct onl( the central go+ernmentQ e'ono2i' de3elo)2ent& Centrali;ation reL7ire man( of the tas6s of economic de+elopment Th7s, onl( the central go+ernment s7pports a single monetar( s(stem, controls the ta4 and spending policies for s7staina5le economic growth that pro+ides an infrastr7ct7re as roads, railwa(s, airports and the li6e Bowe+er, centrali;ation is good onl( 7p to a certain limit Toda(, in general it wo7ld 5e a5s7rd to 5elie+e that the state can properl( manage the li+es of tens or e+en h7ndreds of millions of people Ehether so, wor6 all the modern management s(stem 5( decree from a5o+e, wo7ld reign contin7o7s chaos and conf7sion This sit7ation is what economists call ?loss of scale ? There is no do75t that ?local iss7es?, s7ch as ed7cation, health, social sec7rit( and planning, sho7ld 5e transferred to local a7thorities the same %7t that is not often p7t forward and the reL7irement to pro+ide peripheral organs ha+e more a7thorit( De'entrali0ation is good when it is pro+ided3 'i3i' )arti'i)ation& /ocal or regional go+ernment is m7ch more efficient than the central, pro+ides citi;ens with the opport7nit( to participate in the political life of the comm7nit(, ta6ing part in the general affairs of the citi;ens while 5ecoming more 6nowledgea5le and e4perienced in matters of local politicsQ e!!i'ien'y& Peripheral instit7tions, of co7rse, are ?closer? to the people and more aware of their needs 0t pro+ides more political acco7nta5ilit( of go+ernment, and their participation in the affairs of partic7lar comm7nitiesQ legiti2a'y& 6nown that matter how close or far awa( the go+ernment depends on the attit7de of the people to his decisions Decisions made at the local le+el, as a r7le, more ?7nderstanda5le? and therefore legitimate Central
nEPEL@FB>?KBP?J # (5$U*(')*' .'$,)%? 5-,%)%.** +'('6 &'('05+1 -75$,)>9 &%7)%.%+ *?%, <'),(5 )5 .'$,5"
4;; II & Nation and /lo(ali0ation 4;4 II & Nation and /lo(ali0ation
Madison EederalisG rought one oE oE EederalisG should e considered the coGponents oE a roader ideologC sign
properties, which in this case, howe+er, wanted to preser+e their identit( and sometimes a7tonom( This clearl( shows the histor( of the worldIs first federal state = the United -tates 1ltho7gh the 13 former %ritish colonies in 1merica +er( L7ic6l( disill7sioned with the confederal s(stem of m7t7al relations, all of them ha+e had some 6ind of its own political traditions, and who so7ght to retain for itself in a new, more centrali;ed s(stem of relations @or e4ample, the e4=pri+ileged areas s7ch as *hode 0sland and Connectic7t in colonial times possessed a degree of political freedom from the %ritish Crown, and that since independence ha+e contin7ed to 7se their old colonial charters as constit7tions Unwillingness of former colonies to esta5lish a strong national go+ernment was manifested, among other things, on the Philadelphia constit7tional con+ention in 1"#", which adopted the proCect of the 1merican constit7tion
Fig& 9&<& Federated States
88
9& Do2esti' Poli'y 4;#
AleEander Ha2ilton *<7$$.<9;$,
Q.'(*=5)$=*? :%$105($,-'))>? 0'8,'7;, $%5-,%( Vx'0'(57*$,5W H1787#1789I -.'$,' $O/ '?.$%. RT0*$%)%. * O/%)%. O/''." ^5.*7;,%) (%0*7$8 - S'$,Fz)0**" S 9%0' S%?)> 65)'65-*$* .%$,; %) $,57 50h3,5),%. O/" S5U*):,%)5" P%71+*- 3(*0*+'$=%' %2(56%-5)*', - 1782 :"-%U'7 - $%$,5- a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
tion, as well as the ens7ing de5ate o+er its ratification ?2ationalist? position in fa+or of ratification has 5een form7lated in the articles printed in the ?@ederalist,? which was p75lished 5etween 1"#" and 1"#A The a7thors were 1le4ander Bamilton, Kames Madison !see p 3A'$ and Kohn Ka( !1">5= 1#2A$, who wrote 7nder the collecti+e pse7don(m P75li7s The( insisted on the esta5lishment of a strong centrali;ed go+ernment, which, howe+er, wo7ld ens7re the freedom of states and indi+id7als The Constit7tion was ratified in 1"#A, 57t onl( after it had 5een adopted the %ill of *ights and the Tenth
89
1mendment to the Constit7tion, that is formed when the ass7rance that the powers not delegated to the official federal go+ernment will 5e ?left to the -tates respecti+el(, or people ? This was the constit7tional 5asis of 1merican federalism 1 similar pict7re is seen when com5ined in 1#"1 in 9erman( The main role is pla(ed Pr7ssia, 57t that the federal idea has helped to dispel the fears that the remaining 3# states, which from time immemorial acc7stomed to independence e4perienced 5efore centrali;ation This tradition of regional a7tonom(, 5riefl( interr7pted onl( 5( the 2a;is, had enshrined in the constit7tion of the @ederal *ep75lic of 9erman( in 1A>A = the doc7ment that pro+ided the right to ha+e its own constit7tion of each of the 11 9erman states !1fter the 9erman re7nification in 1AA0, the n7m5er increased to 1'$ 2 0nfl7ence on the formation of federations of s7ch factors as the presence of an e4ternal threat and the p7rs7it of new states to pla( a more prominent role in international affairs3 in a small, strategicall( +7lnera5le states is, therefore, a serio7s moti+e for entering into larger political entities Ba+ing gained independence, the 1merican states +er( soon disill7sioned with the ?1rticles of Confederation?, does not accord them the proper diplomatic weight for contracts, entr( into 7nions, etc The willingness of the 9erman states in the )0) cent7r( to concl7de federal 7nion and come to terms with the ?pr7ssifi6atsie(? of the co7ntr( largel( d7e to increased ri+alr( 5etween the great powers, in partic7lar the threat emanating from 17stria and @rance -imilarl(, the mo+ement towards a federal E7rope, which 5egan with the esta5lishment in 1A52
4;8 II & Nation and /lo(ali0ation 4;9 II & Nation and /lo(ali0ation
ling7al J7e5ec 1 Canada since the late 1A#0s em5ar6ed on a path of ne+er=ending search for the magic form7la that will 7ltimatel( 5e decided on mem5ership of J7e5ec in the Canadian federation 0n 1A#", it reached an agreement in the so=called Meech /a6e, J7e5ec for which recei+ed a ?special stat7s? in the federation, 57t after three (ears, when the pro+ince of Manito5a and 2ewfo7ndland were against the principle of ?as(mmetrical federalism?, its meaning completel( disappeared 1AA2 1greement in Charlottetown s7ggested another form7la, 57t it was reCected in a national referend7m3 J7e5ecers ha+e decided that it does not gi+e them eno7gh a7tonom(, as English=spea6ing Canadians saw in it a threat to the integrit( of the state %7t in a referend7m in 1AA5 in the pro+ince of J7e5ec, the pop7lation of this small, howe+er, the maCorit( reCected the option of f7ll separation from Canada, which was and is a separatist part( ?&+e5e67a Part(? ! Parti J7e5ecois $
Jnitary Syste2
The +ast maCorit( of modern states has a 7nitar( s(stem of go+ernment in which the s7preme 5earer of so+ereignt( is a single instit7tion on a national scale and significance 0n the U& this Parliament em5odies, at least in theor(, the co7ntr(Is highest legislati+e a7thorit( = the recogni;ed and 7ndisp7ted Parliament here can accept and cancel an( law on its own initiati+e, and his power is not limited to an( codified or written constit7tion, the co7ntr( has no other eL7al to it of legislation adopted 5( them laws ha+e precedence o+er an( and all other laws of England and -cotland -ince the constit7tional r7le in a 7nitar( s(stem has a center, an( other s(stem peripheral or local go+ernment e4ists, so to spea6, with the permission of the center !@ig7re # 2$ 1t first glance, it is fra7ght with the danger of 7nrestricted centrali;ation, as long as local agencies can 5e ar5itraril( reformed, restr7ct7red or e+en a5olished, and their powers and responsi5ilities can 5e 5oth limited and e4panded 0n practice, howe+er, the relationship 5etween the center and the peripher( in 7nitar( s(stems are no less complicated than the federal Moreo+er, political, c7lt7ral and historical factors pla( an eL7all( important role as the formal constit7tional Bowe+er, in 7nitar( states, there are two different forms of peripheral go+ernment = local go+ernments and instit7tions to whom the center passed certain of their powers %oth are attached to the center to the peripher( of the relationship in each case a specific character
90
Lo'al /o3ern2ent
/ocal go+ernment in the normal sense of the word referred to the go+ernment specific areas = +illage, district, town, cit( or co7nt( !co7nties$
E+ebec 3 a ,rovince in eastern 6ana-a8 fo+r fifths of 4hich inhabit the French36ana-ians8 an- 4hich are e?tre1ely stron2 se,aratist senti1ents ( Note. lane. )
1
9& Do2esti' Poli'y 4;:
Fig& 9&4& Jnitary States
More precisel(, it is the go+ernment that is not +ested in the so+ereignt( and therefore f7ll( s75Cect to the central go+ernment, and in the federal s(stem = the state go+ernment or area The go+ernment of this t(pe we see e+er(where = in federal, confederal and 7nitar( s(stems 0n the U - , for e4ample, there are more than #',000 local go+ernments, which emplo( 11 million people, which, of co7rse, a lot, if (o7 compare with the eight million people that are engaged in the organs of the federal go+ernment and the states .f partic7lar importance in the 7nitar( s(stem of local go+ernment is gi+en 5( that for most areas it ser+es generall( the onl( a7thorit( that e4ists o7tside of the central go+ernment <et it wo7ld 5e wrong to thin6 that the stat7s of local go+ernments, constit7tionall( low, depri+ing them of an( serio7s political significance The +er( a57ndance of e+idence that the( are necessar( as organs of administration, is it worth while to sa( that, 5( their +er( nat7re the( are +er(, +er( ?close? and 7nderstood 5( the comm7nit( that ser+e 0t is for this reason that politicians, locall( elected, ha+e a +er( special legitimac( that often allows them to sol+e pro5lems far 5e(ond their d7ties J7ite often this means that the relationship 5etween the center and the peripher( can not 5e 57ilt on the dictates from a5o+e, 57t on the 5asis of negotiations or what is commonl( called a political 5argaining 0n this case, on the relationship 5etween the center and the peripher( and affected 5( factors s7ch as political c7lt7re !especiall( the deep=rooted tradition of local a7tonom( and local general spe=
4<; II & Nation and /lo(ali0ation 44; II & Nation and /lo(ali0ation
G .ther factors affecting the territorial organi;ation of power, are the part( s(stem and political c7lt7re, economic s(stem and the le+el of material de+elopment of societ(, the geographic si;e of the state and degree of c7lt7ral, ethnic and religio7s di+ersit( in it Most s(stems = or the( = tend to centrali;e .nl( the central go+ernment has the appropriate reso7rces and ?strategic heights? to control the economic life of societ( and the redistri57tion of economic o7tp7t to certain o5Cecti+es of social de+elopment
91
G Political decentrali;ation, among others, stim7lated 5( ethnic and religio7s factors The formation of ethnic polic( d7e to the fact that ethnic gro7p prod7ces special feeling = ?organic? = the identit( of the comm7nit( and of man, which is pro+ing to 5e stronger than the ?ci+ilian? political, ties, t(pical of a larger comm7nit( = the nation 0n addition, in man( wa(s the rise of ethnic nationalism is a response to the glo5ali;ation of the world G B7manit( is increasingl( concerned that in the modern state of people lost a sense of ?comm7nit(? = hence the growing glo5al interest in ?local? Comm7nitarianism in this conte4t raises the slogans of self=go+ernment and radical decentrali;ation of the state, comes 5ac6 to the idea of manIs responsi5ilit( to other people and their comm7nit(, calls for the strengthening of respect for a7thorit( and traditional +al7es and c7lt7re

R Bow do (o7 see the relationship 5etween centrali;ation and decentrali;ationF R To all -tates to appl( the federal principleF R Ehat are the comparati+e ad+antages of federalism and de+ol7tionF R 1lwa(s a trend towards centrali;ation in modern states is ins7rmo7nta5leF R Does the formation of ethnic polic( that will reCect the nationalismF R 1lwa(s if in an attempt to strengthen the comm7nit( sho7ld see the manifestation of conser+atismF
44<
Part III& Politi'al intera'tion

444
C+a)ter :& E'ono2y and So'iety

ADtss the econoGC , Goron A MeGo to the @all ca inet o; 9ill "li'to' at the tiGe oE the presidential election caGpaign in 1992 g " in the }nited States "
1t all le+els of their polic( is closel( intertwined with the economic and social relations Manifestations of this comm7nication are manifold Theorists and ideolog7es arg7e a5o7t the merits of the two economic philosophies = capitalism and socialism @rom that to which the socio= economic strat7m 5elongs to the people, depends on how he +otes in an election or to an( part( 5elongs The parties themsel+es are str7ggling for power, +(ing with each promising +oters to accelerate economic growth, red7ce inflation, to cope with po+ert(, etc 1s President Clinton, the election res7lts are often in direct proportion to the state of the econom( if things are going well in it, the societ( +oted for the c7rrent go+ernment is 5ad = against .rthodo4 Mar4ist here wo7ld go e+en f7rther and ha+e said that the polic( = it is nothing more than a ?s7perstr7ct7re?, entirel( determined 5( the economic ?5ase?, and the political process is a simple reflection of the class s(stem of societ( 1ltho7gh toda( no one, incl7ding Mar4ists, do not s75scri5e to this 6ind of statement, it is +er( straightforward, no one wo7ld disp7te, and that the polic( !and politics$ -ocio=economic factors are reall( e4tremel( important Eas e+en more 7neL7i+ocal3 politics in general can not 5e 7nderstood o7tside of its economic and social conte4t
TA=LE OF CONTENTS
he econo+ic syste+ gorld species %%'
92
ZapitalisG Lhe varieties oE socialisG Lhere Ds in EconoGics ALhird @aC A b 4ocial structure fu lic class Mace faul Findings Issues for discussion
:& E'ono2y and So'iety 44#
226 234 238 %'. 241 245 247 %(%(.
T+e 2ain @uestions

P Bow and to what e4tent the econom( affects politicsF P Ehat are the maCor economic s(stems of the modern worldF Ehat are their strengths and wea6nessesF P Bow deepl( the go+ernment can and sho7ld inter+ene in the econom(F P Ehich economic and social categories are di+ided into modern societ(F P To what e4tent the polic( affected 5( factors s7ch as class, race and gender of the gro7ps of societ(F
C T+e e'ono2i' syste2

The economic s(stem = a form of organi;ation of prod7ction, distri57tion and e4change of goods and ser+ices Mar4ism calls all manner of prod7ction Bere, howe+er, sho7ld ma6e a reser+ation immediatel( 0n principle, it is not necessar( to mi4 the economic s(stem that o5Cecti+el( e4ist, the ideas and doctrines in which the( are promoted 15o7t capitalism, for e4ample, sometimes the( sa(, not onl( as an economic s(stem, 57t also as a 5rand of ideolog( = an ideolog( that e4tols the +irt7es of pri+ate propert(, pointing to the importance of competition and arg7es that welfare can onl( 5e achie+ed when each will p7rs7e their own interests E+en more diffic7lt with socialism, 7nder what are 7nderstood as a certain s(stem of +al7es, theories and 5eliefs, as well as a wa( of organi;ing economic life, on the 5asis of which these +al7es are, in fact, and come to life 1ltho7gh in this chapter some attention is paid to the L7estion of the ad+antages and disad+antages of economic s(stems !incl7ding the wa( the( promoted or, on the contrar(, critici;ed$, mainl( it still goes on socio=economic iss7es, rather than on legal political theories 1 more comprehensi+e re+iew of the rele+ant ideological disp7tes can 5e fo7nd in Chapter 3 @or nearl( two h7ndred (ears, the economic de5ate has re+ol+ed aro7nd the two opposing s(stems = capitalism and socialism The difference 5etween them seems so f7ndamental that it is determined then the whole spectr7m of political positions and 5eliefs, 7ltimatel( coming down to one +er( simple choice = ?who is not socialism, that of capitalism,? and +ice +ersa ?/eft? while demanding socialism ?right? did not ha+e an(thing against capitalism -ince 5oth s(stems, again, were seen as the polar opposite, this dichotom( is 6ept +er( long
448 III & Politi'al intera'tion
kiL=A # T,% $*$,'.5 ,%-5()%:% %2.')5, =%,%(58 $-%0*, .'/01 $%2%? &(%*6-%0*,'7'?,&(% 0534*9 ,' *7* *)>' ,%-5(> *7* 1$71:*, * &%=1&5,'7'?, /'7534*9 ,5=%->' &(*%2('$,*" c5 -$'9(> )=59, 65 *$=73+')*'. $5.>9 &(*.*,*-)>9, :0' &(*.')8',$8 )5,1(57;)>? %2.') H25(,'(I,)5*2%7' ' 10%2)>. $('0$,-%. %2.')5 8-783,$8 0');:*" ]>)=* 2'67*+)>\ %)* (':17*(13,$8 )'730;.*, 5 =%7'25)*8.* <'), +,% %,(5/5', *:(1 $&(%$5 * &('07%/')*8 # ,5= )56>-5'.>9 (>)%+)>9$*7" X,%( %))*=* (>)=5 -*08, - )'. $7'0134*' &('*.14'$,-5\
93
r $%0'?$,-1', TKK'=,*-)%$,* %24'$,-'))%:% &(%*6-%0$,-5, &%0+*)88 -$' V0*$<*&7*)'&(* 2>7*WJ r $,*.17*(1', )%-%--'0')*8 - &(%01=<** * &(%*6-%0$,-'))>9 &(%<'$$59J r &%6-%78', &(%*6-%0*,'78. * &%=1&5,'78. $7'0%-5,; $%2$,-'))>. *),'('$5. *&%7;6%-5, ;$8 $-%2%0%? ->2%(5J the nuG er oE personal preEerences and decisions " a(*,*=*, )5&(%,*-, 1=56>-53, )5 $7'0134*' )':5,*-)>' $,%(%)> (>)=5\ r 0'75', 730'? $%<*57;)% 186-*.>.*\ *9 /*6)* &%0+*)')> $*75., )59%084*.$8 -)' *9=%) ,(%78J r 1$*7*-5', *.14'$,-'))%' )'(5-')$,-% * &%(%/05', 2'0)%$,;J r &(%-%<*(1', /50)%$,; * T:%*6., 652-')*3 &('053,$8 2%7'' ->$%=*' <'7* %24'$,-5J r creates insta ilitC Eor its ups and do@ns "
1s the main feat7res of the capitalist econom( considered the following3 Capitalism is foc7sed on the prod7ction of goods = tangi5le prod7cts or ser+ices prod7ced 5( the exchange and which, therefore, the mar6et +al7eQ prod7cti+e reso7rces !?means of prod7ction?$ in this s(stem are predominantl( in %rivateownershipQ Economic life is go+erned 5( the laws of the market = a game of s7ppl( and demandQ moti+es and incenti+es for wor6 and entreprene7rship are the self/interest and the p7rs7it of higher profits The gro7nds of the socialist econom( considered the following principles3 prod7ction here !at least in theor($ is foc7sed on the direct use of the prod7ct, ser+ing the needs of manQ dominated 5( %ublic ownership of the means of prod7ction, first of all, of co7rse, on the ?commanding heights? of the econom(Q the econom( is s75Cect to %lanning = Management !again, according to the theor($ the location of prod7cti+e forces and reso7rcesQ wor6 is 5ased on the collective acti+it( emanating from the common good Th7s in theor( 0n practice, howe+er, economic s(stems are far more comple4, and smash e+er(thing on the shel+es is +er( diffic7lt @irst of all, it wo7ld 5e wrong to thin6 that there e+er was one and onl( and all the accepted model of capitalism or socialism 0n fact, e+er( societ(
:& E'ono2y and So'iety 44$ :& E'ono2y and So'iety 48:
c7lt7re -ocial conflicts entail reform and re+ol7tion -ocial str7ct7re determines the appropriate forms of political 5eha+ior and participation G Modern societies are internall( di+ided on gro7nds s7ch as race, class and gender The +al7e of the classes toda( ma( 5e red7ced to ;ero, do not originate s7ch phenomena as the ?7nderclass? = a set of marginali;ed sections of societ( The formation of the ci+il rights mo+ement and womenIs rights has led to the fact that race and gender ha+e now 5ecome s7ch a significant social and political factors, as once the class

R Eh( are political pro5lems so often red7ced to p7rel( economic iss7esF Does this ma6e an( patternF R Ehat 6ind of capitalism, in (o7r opinion, 5est meets the reL7irements of ))0 cent7r(F R Can we sa( that the econom( 5ased on the free mar6et, internall( 7nsta5le and tend to reprod7ce social ineL7alit(F R Eill 0 lose an( socialist models to modern societ(F R Ehat, in (o7r opinion, is an en+ironmentall( s7staina5le econom(F R 1llow to modern societ( = or C7st disg7ised = the pro5lems of class conflictF R Bow significant are the changes that are coming from the political awareness of the +al7es of the factors of race and genderF
4$;
94
C+a)ter <;& Politi'al 'ulture % 'o22uni'ation and legiti2a'y
its strength in the right , and o edience to hiG F in charge " ~ean F ~ac|ues Mousseau " )' the Docial "o't6act H 18H? I
1 +er( large part of the polic(, so to spea6, ta6es place in peopleIs minds, 5eca7se o7r polic( is formed ideas, +al7es and ideas a5o7t how societ( sho7ld 5e organi;ed, as well as o7r e4pectations, hopes and fears a5o7t the co7ntr( Ultimatel(, all of this ta6en together, ma( 5e e+en more important than the realit( of politics = what is in fact in the societ( distri57ted power, reso7rces and opport7nities Moreo+er, o7r perception of realit(, not onl( can 5e more important than herself = in a sense, it is itself is realit( 1ll of this points to the importance of what is called political c7lt7re %eliefs and +al7es of people shape their attit7de to politics in general as well as to the s(stem of go+ernment 7nder which the( li+e, 5eca7se in all of this there are alwa(s L7estions = 0s this a fair s(stem, whether it has a right to e4istF Political anal(sts sa( in s7ch cases the pro5lem of the legitimac( of the regime legitimac( as the 6e( to political sta5ilit( and, conseL7entl(, to the +ia5ilit( of the s(stem
TA=LE OF CONTENTS
Policy , co++itted in the +inds of 7 3ulture and 3o++unication Zivic culture or ideological hegeGonC b Means oE Gass Gedia and political coGGunication Lhe degradation oE social capital b Legiti+acy and #olitical stability Lhe legitiGation oE po@er Lhe crisis oE legitiGacC ghC coGe the revolution b Findings Issues for discussion
<;& Politi'al 'ulture% 'o22uni'ation and legiti2a'y 4$<
%1! %1% 255 261 %0( 265 268 270 %60 %66
T+e 2ain @uestions

P Bow do indi+id7als and gro7ps ha+e formed their political attit7des and +al7esF P Do 0 need to democratic regimes, a special ?ci+ic c7lt7re?F P Does modern societies free competition 5etween ideas and +al7es, or (o7 can onl( tal6 a5o7t a ?mainstream? c7lt7reF P Bow do political regimes s7stain and preser+e its legitimac(F P 1re modern societ( in a sit7ation of ?crisis of legitimac(?F P Ehat happens when the regime loses its legitimac(F Eh( do re+ol7tions occ7rF
95
C Poli'y 'o22itted in 2indG Culture and Co22uni'ation

The thin6ers of the past, tal6ing a5o7t politics, consistentl( recogni;ed the tremendo7s role pla(ed 5( the societ( +al7es and 5eliefs of the people, tho7gh not called it political c7lt7re @or e4ample, %7r6e !see p 5"$ wrote a lot a5o7t the c7stoms and traditions of Mar4 !see p ''$ = the ideolog( and Berder !see p 133$ = the national spirit Eith each other all of them, howe+er, wo7ld agree that the +al7es and 5eliefs of the people are of enormo7s importance for the sta5ilit( and +ia5ilit( of the social order Bowe+er, interest in the idea of political c7lt7re, political scientists ha+e emerged onl( in the 1A50= 1A'0Is, when new methods of st7d(ing h7man 5eha+ior s7pplanted the traditional, instit7tional approaches to the s75Cect The classic wor6 in this regard was the ?ci+ic c7lt7re? 1lmond and :er5a ! 1lmond and :er5a , The Civil Culture ! 1A'3$, in which the anal(sis of the political specificit( of fi+e co7ntries = the U - , %ritain, Eest 9erman(, 0tal( and Me4ico = were 7sed polls The wor6, among other things, so7ght to e4plain wh(, in the period 5etween the world wars ha+e failed, seemingl( democratic go+ernments in 0tal(, 9erman( and other co7ntries, and wh( democrac( is so hard finding its wa( in man( de+eloping co7ntries that 5ecame independent after 1A>5 to the 1A"0=1A#0Is, howe+er, interest in the political c7lt7re of some sleep, 57t again re+i+ed in the earl( 1AA0s, when in Eastern E7rope on the r7ins of comm7nism 5egan constr7ction of democratic states, and in mat7re democracies s7ch as the United -tates, tal6ing a5o7t the ?crisis of social capital? and the fall of ci+ic engagement -par6ed de5ate and that does not form a political c7lt7re of ideas and interests of elite gro7ps in societ(, the role pla(ed 5( the media and the e4tent to which the state is a5le to handle toda(Is political comm7nication
4$4 III & Politi'al intera'tion
ko reaction oE people on speciEic political issues "
Ci3i' 'ulture or ideologi'al +ege2ony>

Man( a7thors, spea6ing a5o7t the political c7lt7re, refer to the notion of ci+ic c7lt7re, introd7ced into scientific 1lmond and :er5a !1A'3, 1A#0$ 0n an effort to esta5lish what 6ind of political c7lt7re is 5est promotes democrac(, these a7thors ha+e identified three of its t(pe = ?acti+e c7lt7re? !c7lt7re of political participation$, ?passi+e c7lt7re? !c7lt7re of lawf7lness$ and ?local? c7lt7re 1ccording to their concept, for "active culture" is characteristic of the li+eliest interest of citi;ens in politics3 participation in it and the( consider important and necessar( 0n the "%assive culture" the( act more o5Cect than the s75Cect of politics, ha+ing a +er( limited capacit( to infl7ence the go+ernment3 the main element here is the willingness of citi;ens to o5e( the a7thorit( of go+ernment "Local culture" differs in a complete lac6 of ci+ic sense3 People here do not identif( with the nation, and with their immediate s7rro7ndings, and ha+e no desire or a5ilit( to participate in politics Post7lating that the democratic idea is most f7ll( corresponds to the acti+e c7lt7re, 1lmond and :er5a at the same time came to the concl7sion that the ?ci+ic c7lt7re? is act7all( alwa(s com5ines components of all three political c7lt7res3 for it is also important that the citi;ens of eager to participate in the political process, and the fact that the state co7ld manage it The sta5ilit( of democrac(, in their opinion, warrants s7ch a political c7lt7re in which is fo7nd the golden mean 5etween acti+it( and passi+it( of the citi;ens and the state ass7mes onl( those lia5ilities that can perform 0n his first paper !1A'3$, 1lmond and :er5a ha+e come to the concl7sion that the closest to the ideal of ci+ic c7lt7re came U&3 feat7res are fo7nd here, and acti+e and passi+e political c7lt7re, in other words, the %ritish are con+inced that the( can and sho7ld infl7ence the go+ernment, 57t the( e4hi5it and the willingness to s75mit to the a7thorities %ehind them in the ran6ing followed 5( the United -tates3 the wea6 point of their political c7lt7re, the a7thors ass7med onl( that the elements of the acti+e c7lt7res !political acti+it($ are clearl( predominate o+er the feat7res of the c7lt7re of passi+e !s75Cect to a+aila5ilit($, which is wh( the 1mericans are not partic7larl( law=a5iding That 57ild or re57ild a ci+il c7lt7re
<;& Politi'al 'ulture% 'o22uni'ation and legiti2a'y 4$# <;& Politi'al 'ulture% 'o22uni'ation and legiti2a'y 477
96
G Modern states are threatened 5( a crisis of legitimac( = the res7lt of m7ltiple str7ct7ral contradictions that ha+e acc7m7lated in the societ( The crisis of legitimac( for the most part associated with the contradiction 5etween the increased role of the state in economic and social spheres, on the one hand, and the reL7irements of the free mar6et = on the other3 the -tates, therefore, all the more diffic7lt in the same time meet the growing e4pectations of societ( and to maintain the moment7m the free mar6et G The phenomenon of re+ol7tions e4plained in different wa(s3 as a manifestation of deep=seated social contradictions, a s(mptom of im5alance in the political s(stem, the impact of rising p75lic e4pectations are not C7stified 5( the state, and, finall(, as a res7lt of a sharp drop in the efficienc( of the state

R Bow sho7ld 0 7nderstand the ci+ic c7lt7re = as a premise or as a conseL7ence of democrac(F R Ehat is more characteristic of the media = to shape p75lic opinion or reflect itF R Does the fall in modern societies ci+ic engagement or she is reall( C7st ta6ing on new formsF R Ehat are the conditions that are reL7ired toda( to maintain the legitimac( of the stateF R 0s it possi5le to sa( that the capitalist s(stem ?programmed? to a crisis of legitimac(F R Ehat are the more essential aspects of re+ol7tions = social or politicalF
479
C+a)ter <<& Re)resentation % Ele'tions and 1oting
DE Cou @ould EroG the election even though that F soGething dependent , theC @ould have long agoa olished " Lhe title oE the ooN C ten eivingstone H1987I
The elections are considered the +er( essence of the political process Man( people are pro5a5l( more than once as6ed a simple L7estion = altho7gh this ma( 5e the most important iss7e in politics = do those now in power, and in fact elected 5( 7s, and 5( what r7les it is so tric6(, itIs interesting, there was a FBowe+er, as neither see, the elections = this is democrac( in action, the( gi+e the p75lic a means to 6eep the go+ernment 7nder control, or at least comforted 5( the fact that there is alwa(s an opport7nit( to ?6ic6 those 5astards o7t ? Elections are 5ased on the principle of representation 0n a n7tshell, its meaning is that the politicians, the ?ser+ants of the people? entr7sted to act on his 5ehalf 1s long as democrac( in its classical form, the direct and contin7o7s participation of citi;ens in go+ernance, toda( it is not possi5le, it is the political representation for ma4im7m appro4imation to the ideal of ?go+ernment of the people ? @7rther, howe+er, raises L7estions of how to prod7ce s7ch a representation, in practice, what is the 5est wa( to elect politicians that act7all( mean the res7lts of +oting in the electionsF Consens7s on all this, as (o7 wo7ld e4pect, no
TA=LE OF CONTENTS
Re#resentation LheorC oE representation Elections [unctions oE elections Electoral sCsteGs \ the de ate and controversC ! out @hat theC saC voting results b %6. 280 %-0 287 290 298
97
Electoral beha*ior Lheories oE voting Findings Issues for discussion

<<& Re)resentation% ele'tions and 3oting 47:
'22 302 '21 '20
T+e 2ain @uestions

P Ehat is the missionF E4actl( how one person can ?represent? the otherF P Bow representation is ens7red in practiceF P Ehat, indeed, is the electionF Ehat are the f7nctions of the electionF P Ehat are the differences 5etween the esta5lished electoral s(stems in the worldF Ehat are the strengths and wea6nesses of these s(stemsF P Ehat are the res7lts of the +oteF P Eh( do people +ote one wa( rather than anotherF Ehat factors infl7ence +oting 5eha+iorF
C Re)resentation
1ro7nd representation alwa(s raged hottest political passions E+en the a5sol7te monarchs of the past were e4pecting that in his administration of the state, the( will see6 the ad+ice of ?estates of the realm? !no5ilit(, clerg(, etc $ The Ci+il Ear ):00 cent7r( in England 5etween Parliament and the 6ing and 5egan d7e to the fact that the Crown was tr(ing to den( the representation of some infl7ential sections of the societ( 0n the disc7ssions that accompanied the spread of democrac( in the )0) and )) cent7ries, perhaps the central L7estion was who sho7ld ha+e representation -ho7ld it 5e onl( those who are s7fficientl( informed, ed7cated and has the leis7re to ind7lge in thin6ing a5o7t politics !in fact it was a5o7t the representati+es of the stronger se4, and propert( owners, of co7rse, not foreigners$ or a representati+e sho7ld 5e e4tended to the entire ad7lt pop7lation of the co7ntr(F 2ow these L7estions allowed almost 7ni+ersal appro+al of the principle of political eL7alit(, which, at least formall(, is pro+ided 5( 7ni+ersal s7ffrage and the principle of ?one person = one +ote? E4amples of how recent was this process incl7de the a5olition of the principle of pl7ralit( of the +ote in 1A>A in the U&, gi+ing women the right to +ote in 1A"1 in -wit;erland, the remo+al of racial restrictions in 1AA> in -o7th 1frica Ee C7st need to 7nderstand that the mission is not limited to elections and +oting, and politicians sho7ld not 5e considered ?mem5ers? onl( on the 5asis that the( had won the election @ar more important are the iss7es in *hich case the person ma( 5e someone elseIs representati+e, and *hat !s$ he is = the +iews of their constit7ents, their f7ndamental interests, certain social gro7p, or an(thing elseF
49; III & Politi'al intera'tion
<FEVC@BD?@E>NC@D= S &%-$'0)'-)%? ('+* $7%-% V&('0$,5-78,;W %6)5+5', V*6%2(5/5,;W* 7* V%,(5/5,;W\ :%-%(8,, )5&(*.'(, +,% )5 =5(,*)' V&('0$,5-7')5W $<')5 *7* 7*+)%$,;"P('0$,5-*, '7;$,-% =5= &%7*,*+'$=*? &(*)<*& # T,% %,)%U')*', - =%,%(%. *)0*-*0 *7* :(1&&5730'? 0'?$,-1 ', %, 7*<5 * %, *.')* 2%7'' U*(%=%? =5,':%(** 730'?" u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
98
T+eory o! re)resentation
Unified theor( of representation does not e4ist, there are se+eral theories, each of which is 5ased on certain ideological or political premises 1 lot of L7estions here Ehat, in fact, in+ol+es the principle of representation = that the go+ernment is ?alwa(s 6nows 5est? that the go+ernment ?properl( instr7cted? societ(, or that it is, in fact, and ?a societ(?, onl( in miniat7re, and therefore reflects all the characteristics of a single social wholeF 0t is clear that these iss7es are not onl( political scientists 57t also the politicians themsel+es, as different models of representation and s7ggest different patterns of political 5eha+ior @or e4ample, sho7ld the elected politicians are strictl( g7ided 5( the political program and the positions e4pressed d7ring the election and appro+ed 5( the +oters, or their Co5 is to g7ide p75lic opinion and identif( the p75lic interestF 0t sho7ld 5e ta6en into acco7nt and the fact that within the same political s(stem can f7nction different principles of representation, it is 5elie+ed that no single model does not sol+e all the pro5lems The mission ma( 5e one of the following fo7r wa(s3 tr7steeship ! tr7steeship $ Delegation ! Delegation $ mandate ! the mandate $ proportional representation ! resem5lance $
Bodel trustees+i)
The Tr7stee is called a man who has ass7med formal responsi5ilit( for the safet( of the propert( or the state of affairs of another person 0n politics, a classic e4pression of this model can 5e considered as representati+e of Edm7nd %7r6eIs speech 7ttered 5( them to +oters in %ristol in 1"">3
<<& Re)resentation% ele'tions and 3oting 49< #;5 III & Politi'al intera'tion
G The +al7e and meaning of the election are organicall( lin6ed with the factors infl7encing +oting 5eha+ior 1mong the theories are the primar( +ote with the part( identification model, sociological model that stresses the role of gro7ps and the wider p75lic entitiesQ model of rational choice of the +oter on the 5asis of personal interest and the model of the dominant ideolog(, which ass7mes that the choice of electors is determined 5( the mechanisms of ideological manip7lation and control

R Can we sa( that the representation is a s75stit7te for democrac(F R Ehat are the conditions most f7ll( ens7re the principle of representati+e go+ernmentF R Bow does a long=term political trends contri57te to the electionF 1s the( pro+ide the +ia5ilit( of the regimeF R There is a direct lin6 5etween the principle of fair elections and a strong and sta5le go+ernmentF R Promote a more precise el7cidation of the election of p75lic interestF R 0s it possi5le to sa( that the +oting 5eha+ior of rationalF
#;7
C+a)ter <4& Parties and )arty syste2s
99
[riendship in politics alGost al@aCs occurs on the asis oE the general hatred " !lejis de Loc|ueville $e<oc6acy i' G<e6ica H 18K7 I
0n the foregro7nd of contemporar( politics 5elongs parties so prominent that pro5a5l( no one tho7ght a5o7t the L7estion of wh( the(, in fact, necessar( @ew are aware of the fact that, historicall(, the part( emerged recentl( 1s the political mechanisms for the conL7est of power 5( the res7lts of the election campaign, the( ha+e de+eloped onl( in the earl( )0) cent7r( 2ow, where+er (o7 loo6 = e+er(where the part(3 the( are not onl( there, where e+er(thing is s7ppressed political dictatorship or militar( r7le -o, the part( 5ecame the main instit7tional mechanism of modern politics *egardless of what the( reall( are = ?a great tool for democrac(? or ?so7rce of t(rann( and oppression? = the( are a critical lin6 5etween the state and ci+il societ(, 5etween go+ernment agencies and interest gro7ps %7t toda(, parties and part( s(stems are increasingl( 5eing critici;ed The( sa( that the( are not a5le to respond to emerging new trends in modern societies, and do not want to sol+e the man( serio7s pro5lems or pa( attention to them
TA=LE OF CONTENTS
Party #olitics LCpes oE gaGes [unctions parties fartC organiBations \ the internaldistri ution oE po@er he #arty syste+ {neFpartC sCsteGs L@oFpartC sCsteG SCsteG @ith one doGinant partC MultiFpartC sCsteG he decline of #arties $ Findings Issues for discussion
#;9 III& Politi'al intera'tion
'2309 312 318 '%! 322 323 326 328 329 ''! ''%
T+e 2ain @uestions

P Ehat is a political part(F Ehat t(pes of partiesF P Ehat are the main f7nctions of political partiesF P Bow are the games where the inside of them concentrated political powerF P Ehat are the part( s(stemF P 1s the nat7re of the part( s(stem affect the political process in generalF P Can (o7 tal6 a5o7t the decline of parties, whether this process irre+ersi5leF
C Party Politi's
Political parties we find in most co7ntries and in almost all political s(stems 0t ma( 5e a7thoritarian or democratic part(, the( ma( come to power thro7gh elections or re+ol7tions rel( on the left, right, centrist ideolog( or, finall(, do not ha+e an( ideolog(, 57t in one form or another, the( e4ist all the wa( from %ra;il %7r7ndi to and from 2orwa( to 2ew Nealand The e+ol7tion of the political parties and the formation of part( s(stems can 5e considered as a s(m5ol and a sign of political moderni;ation %( the end of the 1A50s, the part(=go+ernment carried o7t in a5o7t #0` of the co7ntries of the world %7t from the 5eginning of the 1A'0s there was something new = in de+eloping co7ntries
100
5egan to spread militar( regime on parties 5egan to sa( that the( split the societ( and are 7na5le to p7t an end to po+ert(, ethnic, racial and tri5al contradictions, as a ?fifth wheel in the cart? to them and 5egan to treat elite = economic and militar( The process of democrati;ation of the 1A#0=1AA0Is 5reathed new life into the part( The( re=emerged in 1sia, 1frica and /atin 1merica, to the e4tent that, as there was on the wea6ening of militar( r7le, or there was a complete collapse of militar( dictatorships in the former comm7nist states is replaced 5( a one=part( came to a m7ltipart( s(stem *ecall, howe+er, that the parties were formed, in general, long ago = in the )0) cent7r( The( emerged as an integral part of mass politics = politics in the era of representati+e go+ernment and the formation of electoral s(stems The so=called ?part(? or ?faction? that e4isted 5efore were nothing more than little gro7ps of li6e=minded politicians that too6 shape aro7nd a prominent fig7re or e+en a famil( The ro(al co7rts arose ?co7rt part(? aristocratic no5les and ad+isers, desperatel( str7ggling for infl7ence in the crown Therefore, when the end ):000 c Edm7nd %7r6e spo6e of the part( as ?a gro7p of people 7nited aro7nd some of the principle in which respect
<4& Parties and )arty syste2s #;:
other @aC " fartC not to e conEused @ith the groups oE interests and social GoveGents " [roG other social groups, parties diEEer in these Eour traits " Dn order , to declare a out theGselves I" social GoveGents " r P5(,** *.'3, &(%:(5..>, %9-5,>-534*' $5.>? U*(%=*? =(1: &%7*,*+'$=*9 -%&(%$%-:%$ 105($,-'))%:% 6)5+')*8 H9%,8 .57>' &5(,** .%:1, 2>,; V%0)%&(%27'.)>.*W, ,'. $5.>.$27*/58$; $ :(1&&5.* *),'('$%-I" ideologC "
cerned there is agreement 5etween them ?, he C7st was referring to s7ch 7nsta5le formation li6e the then Ehigs and Tories, 57t 5( no means are organi;ed and disciplined association, what we see at a later time Part( of the modern t(pe originated in the U - Ehen a+ersion to them 5( the ?fo7nding fathers?, created 5( the U - Constit7tion, the part( ?@ederalists? !later = the Ehigs, and from 1#'0 = *ep75licans$ d7ring the presidential elections in 1#00 has had a wide s7pport among the masses Man( conser+ati+e and li5eral parties 5egan their life as a fraction of legislati+e assem5l( and onl( later forced to appeal to the e+er=e4panding electorate t7rned into e4tra=parliamentar( str7ct7res with their local offices and local personalities -ocialist parties and part( association representing the interests of religio7s, ethnic and ling7istic comm7nities were formed within social mo+ements or interest gro7ps, operating o7tside parliament3 in the f7t7re, tr(ing to win their part of the electorate and to e4pand its infl7ence in politics, the( also t7rned into f7ll( de+eloped parliamentar( Part( %( the 5eginning of )) cent7r( parties and part( s(stems ha+e 5ecome essentiall( a mirror of social stratification and an( other compan( The res7lt has 5een a great +ariet( of t(pes and forms
Ty)es o! ga2es
1ll the +ariet( of parties can 5e s7mmari;ed in the following main categories3 the part( cadre and mass ! Cadre and mass parties $ part( representati+e !*epresentati+e$ and integrati+e t(pes ! *epresentati+e and 0ntegrati+eparties $ Part( constit7tional and re+ol7tionar( !costit7tional and re+ol7tionar( parties$ Part( of the /eft and the *ight !left=wing and right=wing parties$ Most often tal6 a5o7t the differences 5etween h7man and mass parties 1t one time, 7nder the ?cadre part(? 7nderstood ?the part( of the no5ilit(,? the leader of which there was no need to create an( mass organi;ation -7ch parties were formed on the 5asis of the parliamentar( factions, or ?clic6? at a time when the right to +ote onl( made his first steps Toda( ter=
#<; III & Politi'al intera'tion
101
DnitiallC, the concept oE "#arty" and "fraction" fartC in general , F other@ise itss soGething liNe A " [actions should distinguishcoGGon positions or ideological AfartC in the partC
min ?cadres? is most often 7sed !as was common in the Comm7nist Parties$ in respect of speciall( trained professional mem5ers of the part( from which the e4pected high le+el of political acti+ism and awareness 0n this sense, the h7man parties were the Comm7nist Part( of the -o+iet Union !CP-U$, the 2a;i Part( in 9erman( and @ascist Part( of 0tal(, of modern parties this t(pe is most f7ll( represented 5( the Comm7nist Part( of China !CPC$, and to some e4tent the 0ndian 2ational Congress 1 distincti+e feat7re of the h7man parties is their reliance on politicall( acti+e elite !7s7all( o5e(s almost militar( discipline$, which is gi+en to the role of ?the ideological +ang7ard of societ( ? 1ltho7gh the mem5ers of these parties were presented strictest ideological demands, often the( engage in p7re careerism and opport7nism @or the same mass part( the most important thing = the e4pansion of its mem5ership and the creation of a 5road electoral 5ase Ehile the e4pansion of s7ffrage made all the parties, incl7ding li5erals and conser+ati+es, to reflect on their attracti+eness in the e(es of societ(, the first mass parties were E7ropean -ocialists = the -ocial Democratic Part( and the %ritish /a5o7r Part(, from the +er( 5eginning to ma6e a 5et on attracting to its ran6s of wor6ersI representati+es classes The main feat7re of man( mass parties is the desire to fill their ran6s, not an ideological ?p7rit(? of the principles Ehile man( of these parties are organi;ed on a completel( democratic 5asis, at least formall(, from their mem5ers, with the e4ception of a small n7m5er of acti+ists, it normall( ta6es an acti+e part in the wor6, and onl( a general agreement with the principles and o5Cecti+es of the organi;ation %7t most of toda(Is games 5elong to the categor( that &ir6ha(mer .tto ! .tto &irchheimer , 1A''$$ is classified as ?omni+ores? and ?mismatched? T(picall(, these parties thoro7ghl( discharged from ?57rdensome? ideological 5aggage, in order to attract the ma4im7m n7m5er of s7pporters &ir6ha(mer mainl( meant the 9erman Christian Democratic Union !CDU$, 57t e+en more characteristic e4amples of ?mismatched? parties are 1merican *ep75licans and Democrats, as well as highl( de=ideologi;ed socialist parties = the 9erman -ocial=Democrats and the %ritish /a5o7r Part( 1ll of them are different from the classical t(pe of mass parties that rel( on the polic( o5Cecti+es and the 7nit( and do not attach m7ch importance grass roots composition, if onl( to sec7re the 5roadest possi5le social 5ase of the representati+es of different social classes and gro7ps in societ(
<4& Parties and )arty syste2s #<< <4& Parties and )arty syste2s #<#

linear political spectruG H cG " Eig " 12"1I illustrates the diEEerences in relation to the econoGC and
Fig& <4&< Linear )oliti'al s)e'tru2
i5 T,*., %0)5=%, $=(>-53,$8 2%7'' :712%=*' *0'%7%:*+'$=*' * <'))%$,)>' (5$9%/0')*8,=% ,%(>' .%/)% &('0$,5-*,; $7'0134*. %2(56%.\ Left Rights [reedoG fo@er E|ualitC nierarchC lrotherhood {rder Mights Mesponsi ilitC frogress Lradition
102
Lhe reEorGs Meaction DnternationalisG kationalisG Dn the EorG oE a horseshoe H cG " [ig " other ideological lines "
Fig& <4&4 T+e )oliti'al s)e'tru2 o! t+e "+orses+oe"
#<8 III & Politi'al intera'tion
[inallC , nans ECsencN H nans ECsencN , 1964I @as a proposed t@oFdiGensional political
Fig& <4&# A two.di2ensional )oliti'al s)e'tru2
The constit7tional part(, strictl( following the r7les of the political game, often portra(ed 5astions of democrac(3 if the compan( has s7ch parties, it is considered an indicator of its political health 0n the parties that monopoli;ed the right to political power, on the contrar(, the( see a tool of manip7lation and political control %e that as it ma(, one can identif( the following main f7nctions of parties3 representation esta5lishment and replenishment of the elite definition of the o5Cecti+es of national de+elopment interest artic7lation and aggregation sociali;ation and mo5ili;ation of citi;ens formation of the go+ernment
103
Re)resentation
1s long as parties are created to represent the interests of 5oth its mem5ers and +oters, their main f7nction is to represent Translated into the lang7age of s(stems theor(, the( can 5e said to ser+e as a de+ice ?inp7t? or ?inp7t? into the state s(stem thro7gh which aired here needs, concerns, aspirations and desires of societ( 0t is clear that this f7nction is 5est performed in an open and competiti+e s(stem where the will of the part(=
<4& Parties and )arty syste2s #<$ <4& Parties and )arty syste2s #4:
a@areness or coGGon danger , or coalition F itss unions , in @hich the parties agree not to underGine the positions oE each other in the elections , in order to mointlC t@o and Gore parties on the support oE a speciEic promect or prograG in et@een t@o and Gore parties , @hich is usuallC dictated C the need to create a GamoritC in the legislature position in the econoGC oE the countrC "
compromising the interests of the 57siness comm7nit( of the co7ntr( 0n m7lti=part( s(stems, so it is hard to imagine the ideological radicalism of the f7se and that was, for e4ample, the properties of the polic( Thatcher in 9reat %ritain 1A#0=1AA0=ies Criticism of m7lti=part( s(stems most often refers to the diffic7lties that ine+ita5l( occ7r d7ring the formation of coalitions 2egotiation and 5argaining, alwa(s following the election, as long as none of the parties is 7na5le to go+ern alone can last for wee6s or, in 0srael and 0tal(, e+en months 1n e+en more serio7s pro5lem is that coalition go+ernments are a5le to permanentl( mired in factional fighting, engaging not onl( the affairs of state, as the reconciliation of the coalition partners 0n this sense, the classic e4ample is 0tal(, where since 1A>5 the go+ernment held an a+erage of 10 months %7t it wo7ld 5e a mista6e to 5elie+e that the inherent insta5ilit( of 6nowingl( coalitions3 the stor( is L7ite sta5le coalition go+ernments in 9erman( and -weden shows that this is not the case 1s for the 0talian e4perience, it is perhaps not t(pical, arising not onl( from the d(namics of a m7lti=part(, 57t also on the political c7lt7re of the co7ntr( The last pro5lem is that the inherent m7lti=part( s(stem in practice moderation can t7rn aro7nd the 7ndi+ided domination of the political center, so that the s(stem is diffic7lt to offer societ( an( clear ideological alternati+e .n the one hand, itIs nat7ral for as long as coalition politics is characteri;ed 5( negotiations and search for common denominators, not ideological radicalism, on the other = there is a danger here that in order to forget a5o7t the power of the part( policies and principles The res7lt ma( 5e 7nd7l( infl7enced 5( the political center, where, as in 9erman(, a small centrist part(, in fact, is the onl( possi5le coalition partner parties to the larger = the conser+ati+e and socialist Perhaps, tho7gh, itIs all a5o7t the nat7re of the proportional electoral s(stem adopted here, which directl( reflect the res7lts of the election, there will alwa(s 5e to promote the creation of m7lti=part( and coalition go+ernments
C T+e de'line o! )arties>

0n his criticism at parties is nothing new with great s7spicion and distr7st to 5e treated from the start @or e4ample, Thomas Kefferson, li6e other ?fo7nding fathers? who wrote the 1merican Constit7tion, was an ardent pro=
##; III & Politi'al intera'tion
T+o2as Fe!!erson *<78#.<945,
104
Q.'(*=5)$=*? &%7*,*+'$=*? K*7%$%K * :%$105($,-'))>? 0'8,'7;, :75-)>? 5-,%( O'=75(5 <**c'65-*$*.%$,*" X%$,%8,'7;)>? -*(:*)$=*? &75),5,%(, :12'()5,%( S*(:*)** - 1779#1781 :%05 9,O/'KK'($%) $,57 &'(->. - *$,%(** XQ ^%$105($,-'))>. $'=(',5('. * 65)*.57 T,%, &%$, $ 1789&% 1794 :%0" u) 2>7 ,(',;*. &('6*0'),%. XQ - &'(*%0' 1801 &% 1809 :%0" ]56(52%,57 :75 -)>'&(*)<*&> 0'.%=(5,** 078 ,5=%:% 5:(5()%:% %24'$,-5, - =%,%(%. -75$,; 2> &(*)507'/5755(* $,%=(5,** * $%273057*$; 2> &(*)<*&> )'-.'U5,'7;$,-5 :%$105($,-5 - 0'75 %24'$,-5" _>7 &(*T, %. $,%(%))*=%. $%<*57;)>9 ('K%(., (5$U*(')*8 %24'0%$,1&)%:% %2(56%-5)*8, %,.')> (52$,-5 *&('%0%7')*8 %24'$,-'))%:% )'(5-')$,-5" Y.1 &(*)507'/*, 2%7;U%' =%7*+'$,-% (52%, * %2U*( )58&'('&*$=5"
opponents of parties and factions, seeing in them a so7rce of conflict and a threat to the internal cohesion of societ( 0nterestingl(, in more recent times, a +er( similar idea g7ided the single=part( s(stem3 it onl( has it ser+ed to eliminate the ri+al parties, not far from gone and the warlords, who hold the part( at all witho7t discrimination There were those li5eral thin6ers s7ch as Kohn -t7art Mill, who worried that the part(, as collecti+e 5odies, certainl( will s7ppress freedom of tho7ght, and all rights of the indi+id7al %7t not toda( sa( a5o7t it3 modern criticism parties sent from the fact that the( perform worse than their representati+e f7nctions and do not pro+ide a connection 5etween the state and societ( 15o7t the ?crisis of part( politics,? as e+idenced 5( red7ction in the si;e of the parties and the wea6ening of their p75lic s7pport @or e4ample, in the U& since the earl( 1A50s, when the n7m5er of the part( reached its pea6, the /a5o7r Part( lost a5o7t two=thirds of its mem5ers, and the Conser+ati+e = more than half There is a ?aging? of the parties, apparentl( irre+ersi5le3 for e4ample, the a+erage age of mem5ers of the Conser+ati+e Part( in 1AA# was '3 (ears 1 radical change in the attit7de of +oters towards the r7ling parties3 the case = a cr7shing defeat on the @rench -ocialists, and then in 1AA3 there were onl( "0 seats in the 2ational 1ssem5l( instead of the pre+io7s 2#2, and now the ?elimination? of Canadian conser+ati+es in the same (ear, when there were onl( 5ehind them two seats The fact that the parties lose their appeal in the e(es of societ(, e+idenced 5( the drop in +oter t7rno7t3 in the U& +oter t7rno7t in general elections has fallen from "1` !which had once 5een considered a low inde4$ to 5A` in 2001 1long with that delineated the phenomenon of so=called "anti%olitiki" that is, the spread of +ario7s political mo+ements and organi;ations, the onl( common feat7re is the reCection of the traditional centers of power and parties -ometimes these mo+ements are e4tremel( attracti+e to the p75lic = at least 5( the fact that the( are not ?corr7pted power ? 0n this sense, re+ealing those 1A` of the +ote, which as an independent candidate in the presidential election was in 1AA2 5illionaire *oss Perot, as well as an impressi+e s7ccess in the 1AA> mo+ement ?@or;a 0talia?, 5ased 0nformation magnate -il+io %er=
<4& Parties and )arty syste2s ##<
l7s6oni Part of the same process is the rise of new social mo+ements = mo+ements for peace, womenIs, and en+ironmental mo+ements E+en if s7ch mo+ements to spread their ideolog( and create some 6ind of part( organi;ations, as, for e4ample, ma6e ?green?, and th7s the( tend to present themsel+es as the ?anti.)arty ? )arty ! antipart( parties $ Ehat are the reasons for the decline of the partiesF M7ch e4plains what the( are !or appear in the e(es of societ($ oligarchic str7ct7res, a 6ind of 57rea7cratic machine that has a5sol7tel( nothing to offer to its ordinar( mem5ers, apart from +isiting rallies, meetings, committees, 5oring, and so on 0n contrast,
105
the new mo+es easil( find their s7pporters, especiall( among (o7ng people, 5eca7se there is no 57rea7crac( at all, e+er(one 6nows each other and are willing to wor6 e+er( da( The part(Is image s7ffers from their relations with the state and the professional politicians, ?their people in politics?, so +er( man( part( f7nctionaries are corr7pt power, am5ition and corr7ption = all that is insepara5le from the ?high=le+el positions ? Part(, in other words, is no longer percei+ed as a gro7p of people that came o7t ?of the people?3 in all their illegal 57siness and political affairs of ordinar( people do not see nothing 57t the eternal str7ggle for power The decline of parties ma( also 5e a s(mptom of the fact that the c7rrent societ(, in principle, 5ecome less managea5le The more games 5roadcast declare their a5ilit( to sol+e certain pro5lems, 57t getting power, not sol+e them, the more the( prod7ce deep disappointment in the comm7nit( The point, perhaps, simpl( 5eca7se the( are 7na5le to f7lfill their promises in a sit7ation where the real power is transferred to powerf7l interest gro7ps, and the econom( is 5ecoming increasingl( glo5al @inall(, the decline of parties ma( 5e associated with deep erosion of the social relations that once ca7sed them to life3 in an( case, the class relations in the era of post=@ordism are certainl( different, as a thing of the past and the old social ties Bis place on the political agenda now are +er( different aspirations, especiall( those associated with the phenomenon of postmaterialism 0f pre+io7sl( for the e4pression of p75lic interest needed large L7antities of the programs of principle, the sol7tions for iss7es related to n7clear energ(, poll7tion, en+ironment, gender eL7alit( and the rights of animals, reL7ire political entities entirel( different 6ind 2ew social mo+ements and therefore 5ecome increasingl( important lin6 5etween the state and societ(
coGproGises in parliaGent and a shiEt in Eocus to @orN in the coGGunitC "
Con'lusions
G 1 political part( we call an organi;ation created with the goal of winning state power, and ha+ing, as a r7le, a single ideolog( There are
##4 III & Politi'al intera'tion
h7man and mass parties, the part( representati+e and integrati+e t(pes, constit7tional and anti=s(stem, the left and right=wing parties G 0n the political part( s(stem, perform the f7nctions of representation, the formation of the political elite and the replenishment of the political 5od(, definitions of p75lic and go+ernmental p7rposes, e4pressing the interests of social gro7ps, political sociali;ation and mo5ili;ation of +oters, organi;ing the processes of go+ernment and the relationship 5etween the instit7tions of societ( G The organi;ation and str7ct7re of the part( is the most important factor in determining the distri57tion of power in societ( 0nner=Part( democrac( is pro+ided either 5( a wide dispersal of power within the part(, or its concentration in the hands of elected and politicall( acco7nta5le leaders .ligarchic tendencies in the part( can 5e 7nderstood either as the ine+ita5le prod7ct of modern organi;ational processes, or as a response to the need for 7nit( in the part( and strengthen their electoral positions G The part( s(stem = is a certain s(stem of relations 5etween the parties 0n the one=part( s(stem ?r7ling? part(, in fact, 5ecomes a permanent go+ernment 0n the two=part( s(stem power alternatel( mo+es from one ?5ig? part( to the other 0n s(stems with the dominant part( power more or less long time 6eeps one part( 0n m7lti=part( s(stems, no single part( has the capa5ilit( to manage alone, so here formed a coalition go+ernment G Part( s(stems in +ario7s wa(s affect the political process in general The( determine what that polic( choice, pro+ided that the +oter, what is the sta5ilit( of the go+ernment, what is the relationship 5etween the e4ec7ti+e and the legislat7re, what is the general nat7re of the political c7lt7re in the societ( G .n the crisis of parties indicate their decline, falling le+els of p75lic s7pport and distri57tion of ?anti= part(? gro7ps and mo+ements 0n societies to the fact that the c7rrent 5atch of ethicall( 7nso7nd = ?corr7pted power, their own am5itions and corr7ption?, and 5asicall( 7na5le to f7lfill their promises 0n addition, in toda(Is historical sit7ation the part( does not seem a5le to e4press those new social aspirations that are associated with the phenomena postmaterialism and postmodernism

R Eh( are all modern parties in +ar(ing degrees, ha+e to 5e ?disparate?F
106
R Can we sa( that the go+ernment in the c7rrent historical sit7ation can not do witho7t political partiesF R Bow to contri57te to the democratic part(F The e4tent to which the( contri57te to itF R Eh( do political parties pla( a 5ig role as leadersF R Ehat are the criteria to 5e C7dged on the part( s(stemsF R 1s the c7rrent parties to adapt themsel+es to the new historical sit7ation, ca7sed 5( the erosion of traditional classes and political tiesF
###
C+a)ter <#& Co22unity grou)s% interest grou)s and so'ial 2o3e2ents
Len people talNing create Gore noise , than ten thousand silent " kapoleon " LaCi<% )) cent7r( profo7ndl( changed the political relations3 dramaticall( increased the +al7e of +ario7s organi;ed gro7ps and so=called interest gro7ps 0n 1A50 = 1A'0Is, when political scientists ha+e e4perienced great enth7siasm for e4panding comm7nit( in+ol+ement in politics 5egan to sa( e+en that corporations, trade 7nions, farmersI organi;ations and similar associations o+er time displace parties and legislat7res as protagonists the political process Eorld of small political gro7ps f7rther e4panded when here came the so=called ?odnopro5lemn(e gro7ps?, the spea6ers each with a single theme = from cons7mer protection to protect the rights of animals and of eL7alit( 5etween women and men to protect the en+ironment These gro7ps were often 5ranches from the 5roader social mo+ements !womenIs mo+ement, the ci+il rights mo+ement, the ?green mo+ement?, etc $ and 5ro7ght with them into politics is the new st(les and models of all itIs e+en got a special name = ? the new polic( ? Meanwhile, there is still no complete theoretical clarit( as to what the p75lic nat7re of these gro7ps, what their political significance, as the( are changing the political process
TA=LE OF CONTENTS
3o++unity grou#s in #olicy LCpes oE groups fatterns oE participation oE groups in politics \ theorC Lhe participation oE groups in politics \ practice 4ocial +o*e+ents ke@ social GoveGents Findings Issues for discussion
##8 III& Politi'al intera'tion
''( 335 338 344 '1% 352 '11 '10
T+e 2ain @uestions

P Ehat is the interest gro7ps which form do the( ta6eF P Ehat are the 5asic theor( of the ?9ro7p Polic(?F P Bow do interest gro7ps sho7ld 5e considered from the point of +iew of democrac( and good go+ernance = positi+el( or negati+el(F P Bow do interest gro7ps spend their infl7ence in politicsF P Ehat determines the s7ccess and fail7re ?gro7p polic(?F
107
P Ehat e4plains the emergence of new social mo+ements and what their wider political significanceF
C T+e )u(li' )oli'y grou)

/i6e the political parties, interest gro7ps in modern societies form one of the most important lin6s that connect the state !go+ernment$ and citi;ens The( came into the world for man( of the same reasons that were formed at the time of the part( %eing the child of a new era of representati+e go+ernment, the( ha+e in order to represent the interests, attit7des and opinions more n7mero7s categories and sectors of the emerging post=ind7strial societ( %7t if the main goal of political parties = to win the election, for which the( need to mo5ili;e s7pport as man( s7pporters, interest gro7ps, in a certain sense, act in the opposite wa(, e4pressing the aspirations of narrower categories of societ( and therefore p7tting forward a clear, specific and clear o5Cecti+es 0t is diffic7lt to sa( when the first in the histor( of an( s7ch gro7p -ome of them are preceded 5( an era of representati+e go+ernment3 e4ample is the -ociet( for the 15olition of -la+er(, which arose in the U& in 1"#" to com5at the sla+e trade 1t the same 9reat %ritain in 1#3A there was ?/eag7e against the Corn /aws?3 5eca7se it was created specificall( in order to p7t press7re on the go+ernment, it is in her man( percei+e the protot(pe of later interest gro7ps 1fter his trip to the United -tates in the 1#30s, 1le4is de TocL7e+ille !see p 2">$ wrote that the local "asso'iations" ha+e 5ecome ?a powerf7l political tool ??<o7ng 0tal(?, fo7nded 5( the 0talian patriot 9i7seppe Ma;;ini !see p 23A$, s75seL7entl( ga+e rise to man( offices and similar=t(pe organi;ations in E7rope, and the -ociet( for EomenIs *ights, fo7nded in @rance in 1#'', has had the greatest impact on the mo+ement for womenIs s7ffrage in all de+eloped co7ntries of the then world %( the end of )0) cent7r( in most ind7striali;ed societies ha+e acted powerf7l agric7lt7ral and 57siness associations that folding=
ZCC=P?BP?J # 0%2(%-%7;)%' %2h'0*)')*' 730'?, *.'34*9 %24*' *),'('$>, .%,*-> *< '7* 0'8,'7;)%$,*"
<#& Co22unity grou)s% interest grou)s% so'ial 2o3e2ents% ##$ <#& Co22unity grou)s% interest grou)s% so'ial 2o3e2ents% #$$
gen7s 1A3A$ and &ate Millett ! &ate Millett , 5 1A3>$ 1nd while toda( it is a mo+ement in man( co7ntries reached +er( tangi5le res7lts, mainl( tho7gh it was not3 it is important that all of societ( has reali;ed the gender iss7e, and perhaps start to gi+e 7p some of their patriarchal preC7dices There has, therefore, a real, tho7gh not amena5le to an( meas7rements, a c7lt7ral shift -imilar res7lts achie+ed en+ironmental mo+ement 9ro7ps s7ch as ?9reenpeace?, ?@riends of the Earth?, ?Eorld Eildlife @7nd? in the end was forced to thin6 a5o7t en+ironmental iss7es and the go+ernment and the general p75lic3 their impact, therefore, goes far 5e(ond an( and all formal indicators s7ch as the n7m5er of s7pporters and the n7m5er of 5ranches -ince the earl( 1A"0s, the process Coined the so=called ?green? part( = another phenomenon of the Inew politicsI The infl7ence of ?green? e+ent7all( spread to the con+entional !?gra(?$ part(, man( of whom are aware of the 7rgenc( of en+ironmental pro5lems toda( declare their willingness to s75scri5e to the o5Cecti+es of ?green ? 0n contrast, the ?anti=capitalist? mo+ement, or rather, not internall( connected conglomerate of +ario7s gro7ps and coteries, e4cept that the com5ined opposition to glo5ali;ation, cons7merism and ideolog( of free trade, little s7ccess has not (et achie+ed The res7lt of their wor6 so far that one = it 5ecame increasingl( diffic7lt to hold international meetings at the highest le+el3 the same signs that go+ernments are willing to change their positions on iss7es of free trade and dereg7lation of economic acti+it( is not (et in sight
C Con'lusions
G P on(ati(a ?interest gro7p? and ?press7re gro7p? refers to organi;ed associations formed to ta6e
infl7ence polic( or indi+id7al actions of the go+ernment -7ch gro7ps can 5e s75di+ided into sectoral and general social3 the first defend the interests of !mainl( ph(sical$ of its mem5ers, the latter = shared +al7es, ideals and principles The gro7ps also are di+ided into internal !gro7ps=insiders$, which ha+e pri+ileged
108
access to go+ernment agencies and e4ternal gro7ps !=o7tsiders$, in which no s7ch access and who are therefore forced to appeal to the comm7nit( at large G 0n political science has de+eloped a n7m5er of approaches to the iss7e of comm7nit( in+ol+ement in politics Theories tending to the principles of pl7ralism, accent7ate an important role in the dispersal of gro7ps of political power and the democrati;ation of societ( -7pporters and critics of corporatism, pa(ing special attention to the fact that some gro7ps ha+e pri+ileged access to go+ernment agencies The theoreticians of the ?new right? indicate the negati+e aspects and conseL7ences of the acti+ities of interest gro7ps = e4cessi+e go+ernment inter+ention in the life of societ( and the decrease in the efficienc( of social prod7ction G <o7 can tal6 a5o7t the positi+e as well as negati+e impact on the gro7pIs political s(stem The positi+e aspect is manifested in the fact that gro7ps enhance the mechanisms of political representation, enrich the p75lic de5ate,
#$5 III & Politi'al intera'tion
e4pand p75lic participation in political life and to a certain e4tent with respect to e4ercise control of the go+ernment The downside here is the fact that their acti+ities can t7rn aro7nd the worsening political and social ineL7alities in the societ(, the wea6ening of democratic control mechanisms, greater closeness of the political process G P75lic associations hold their interests and infl7ence the political process thro7gh different channels = the state 57rea7crac(, the legislat7re, the co7rts, the media, parties, international instit7tions The le+el of infl7ence of gro7ps is in direct relation to the e4tent that fa+ors the political s(stem as a whole, what ?inp7ts? in the corridors of a gro7p, as power is distri57ted in societ( as a whole G P75lic associations ha+e at their disposal a wide range of tactics and policies, drawing on reso7rces s7ch as s(mpath( from the p75lic, the n7m5er of s7pporters, financial reso7rces, organi;ational capacit(, the a5ilit( of the gro7p in some wa( to ?p7nish? the go+ernment and its connection with political parties and a7thorities G The social mo+ement = a 5road association of people 7nited 5( a commitment to common goals, 57t not necessaril( organi;ed traditional formal relations -pecificit( of the new social mo+ements lies in their a5ilit( to attract a (o7ng, well=ed7cated and materiall( well=off strata of societ(, and in their post=materialist orientation to social life and a commitment to new forms and methods of political acti+it(, sometimes called the ?new politics?
R Eh( is sometimes diffic7lt to determine the differences 5etween the political parties and interest gro7psF R Ba+e the associations primar( means of artic7lation of social interests in modern societiesF R Eho has an interest corporatism is responsi5le to a greater e4tent = social gro7ps or the stateF R Bow do interest gro7ps infl7ence the democratic process = either positi+el( or negati+el(F R Eh( do some gro7ps of interest in a stronger position than othersF R The e4tent to which new social mo+ements define a process of p75lic polic(F
#$7
Part I1 & T+e 2e'+anis2s o! go3ernan'e

#$9
C+a)ter <8& Constitution % Law and Fudi'ial Syste2s
109
qovernGent @ithout the constitution F itss all the saGe that po@er @ithout la@ " LhoGas faine " FiAht% :*<a' H 1M(7 I
There was a time, as recentl( as 1A50=1A'0Is, when the st7d( of constit7tions and constit7tional pro5lems 5ecame decidedl( 7nfashiona5le thing and almost came to na7ght3 political scientists ha+e t7rned instead to what the( saw as a far more comple4 and interesting = to the political c7lt7re, distri57tion of economic and social power in societ(, etc 0t seemed then that the st7d( of the constit7tion = it is something so +er( +e4atio7s and 5oring3 in an( case, the( said, is m7ch more interesting to learn how the political s(stem wor6s in real life than she herself is in its own constit7tion %7t here came the 1A"0s, and constit7tional iss7es again at the center of attention of political scientists 0n man( de+eloped and de+eloping co7ntries ha+e adopted new constit7tions and political conflicts, where+er the( occ7r, often accompanied 5( reL7irements to implement in the co7ntr( C7st constit7tional reform This, of co7rse, led to a rethin6ing of the role and the legal and C7dicial s(stem there 1ltho7gh in theor( the co7rts and the C7dicial s(stem strictl( separated from politics, in practice, howe+er, in man( co7ntries the( ha+e 5ecome the 6e( political instit7tions ha+e 5ecome increasingl( infl7encing p75lic polic(
TA=LE OF CONTENTS
3onstitution Lhe classiEication oE constitutions Lhe o mectives oE the Zonstitution So in @hat is the value oE constitutions b Right Might , GoralitC and politics he Qudicial #ower !re to mudge political Eigures b MaNe a mudgess policC b Findings Issues for discussion
<8& Constitution% t+e law and t+e Dudi'ial syste2 #$:
'1. 360 366 370 '6' 373 '60 377 380 '-% '-'
T+e 2ain @uestions

P Ehat is the constit7tion and what are its formsF P Ehat are the aims and o5Cecti+es of the constit7tionF P To what e4tent does the Constit7tion act7all( affect political practiceF P Ehat is the relationship 5etween law and politicsF P Ehat is the political significance of the co7rtF P Can C7dges 5e o7t of politicsF Do the( ha+e to 5e o7t of politicsF
C Constitution
The +al7e of constit7tions traditionall( percei+ed in two positions @irst, it was ass7med that the( pro+ide acc7rate and concise description of the c7rrent s(stem of go+ernment, some +er( 5asic 7nderstanding of the 6e( instit7tions of societ( and how the( f7nction -econdl(, according to tradition, the( saw the cornerstone of li5eral democrac(, moreo+er, its defining characteristic Unfort7natel(, 5oth +iews are wrong <es, the p7rpose of the Constit7tion ma( well 5e the definition of certain framewor6 in which the go+ernment and political acti+it(, 57t the onl( pro5lem is that none of them are, strictl( spea6ing, this does not s7cceed <o7 can ta6e an( constit7tion and see3 thereIs something inacc7rate, distorted here, here released from sight @7rther, altho7gh the idea of constit7tionalism and in fact closel(
110
connected with li5eral +al7es and aspirations, and we 6now that the constit7tion can 5e L7ite 7ndemocratic and a7thoritarian, e+en3 in the case of comm7nist and de+eloping co7ntries, histor( is littered with e4amples of C7st a +er(, +er( illi5eral constit7tions Eh(, then, deal with the Constit7tionF Eh( is anal(sis of an( s(stem of go+ernment is 5est to start with a consideration of its f7ndamental lawF .nl( one answer3 5eca7se the constit7tion is a +er( general set of r7les that operates this political s(stem This r7le, which is to sa(, ?r7n the co7ntr( ? K7st as the state esta5lishes an orderl( go+ernment in societ( and the constit7tion 5rings sta5ilit(, predicta5ilit( and order in the actions of state instit7tions The idea that the go+ernment sho7ld o5e( some set of r7les, dates 5ac6 to +er( ancient times Bistoricall(, codes of this t(pe were 5ased on the idea of a higher di+ine power, which m7st 5e s75Cect to all the earth Eg(ptian pharaohs, for e4ample, recogni;ed the a7thorit( of ?C7stice?, the Chinese emperors = ?hea+en,? the 6ings of 0srael = the Mosaic law, and 0slamic caliphs=-haria law .ften, the ?higher? principles are em5odied in the common law3 for e4ample, the 1thenian constit7tion, has disting7ished 5etween what
#5; I1 & T+e 2e'+anis2s o! go3ernan'e #94 I1 & T+e 2e'+anis2s o! go3ernan'e
Co( Constit7tion and the Eestminster parliamentar( s(stem *esponding to growing p75lic criticism of the address of the a7tocratic leadership st(le that was characteristic of 0ndira 9andhi, the 0ndian -7preme Co7rt in 1A"5 to incriminate her a57ses d7ring the election and anno7nced her e4comm7nication from office for fi+e (ears 1ltho7gh the Co7rt then s7spended his decision, 0ndira 9andhi in a matter of da(s proclaimed martial law, ha+ing the opport7nit( to arrest h7ndreds of political opponents and to introd7ce strict censorship The f7ll Co7rt ret7rned to his Co5 onl( after the March 1A"" martial law was lifted, and since then, howe+er, he acted with e4treme ca7tion and ne+er come into direct confrontation with the e4isting at the moment the go+ernment The political aspect of the Co7rtIs m7ch less prono7nced where there is no codified constit7tion *eason one3 the 7nwritten constit7tion of the C7dge denied grindstone, a legal standard, which can 5e +erified, constit7tional or 7nconstit7tional or that political acts and go+ernmental decisions 0n the United &ingdom, with its principle of the so+ereignt( of parliament and the C7diciar( is s75Cect to Parliament To the ?glorio7s re+ol7tion? of 1'## %ritish C7dges had the opport7nit( to rep7diate the decision of the Parliament, for e4ample, when the( are in conflict with the common law, the re+ol7tion, howe+er, esta5lished the principle of the r7le of stat7tor( law !laws enacted 5( Parliament$ = the principle that in the f7t7re 5( 0ndeed the co7rts ha+e not 5een a5le to challenge Bowe+er, it sho7ld 5e remem5ered that the right to C7dicial re+iew laws can 5e applied in a more limited scale = to declare 7nconstit7tional the actions of +ario7s ministers 0n the U&, as often happened in the 1A#0=1AA0Is = a reflection of the growing political importance of the C7diciar( in the co7ntr( 0n 1A#>, for instance, the Bo7se of /ords 7pheld the Co7rt declared illegal the /ondon transport s(stem of s75sidies esta5lished 5( the Co7ncil in /ondon 0n 1AA5, a similar decision was ta6en against the then %ritish @oreign -ecretar( Do7glas B7rd ! Do7glas B7rd $ in connection with the illegal 7se of foreign aid f7nds for the constr7ction of a dam in Mala(sia, and in the actions of the %ritish Bome -ecretar( Michael Boward ! Michael Boward $ of this 6ind of sol7tions in the period 1AA2=1AA' were ta6en at least ten times This reflects 5oth the growing acti+it( of the spread of a new ?c7lt7re of h7man rights? in the C7diciar( U& and p75lic concern a5o7t the e4isting and potential a57se of power 5( the e4ec7ti+e 5ranch of the lac6 of relia5le chec6s and 5alances in the political s(stem of the co7ntr( The B7man *ights 1ct !1A##$, which entered into force in 2000, onl( strengthened this trend3 from now on all the cases that were sent 5efore or co7ld 5e sent to the E7ropean Co7rt of B7man *ights will 5e considered 5( the %ritish co7rts = with lower costs and faster
C Con'lusions
G The Constit7tion = a set of r7les that esta5lish responsi5ilities, competence and f7nctions of go+ernance instit7tions and defining the relationship 5etween the state and the indi+id7al Constit7tion differ depending on what their form and content, as far as the( are adapti+e to the changing political and historical=
<8& Constitution% t+e law and t+e Dudi'ial syste2 #9#
cal sit7ation and what 6ind of instit7tional go+ernance str7ct7re the( set G The Constit7tion la(s man( p7rposes3 the( define the limits of state so+ereignt(, esta5lish 7niform for the whole of societ( +al7es, ideals and goals, according to the instit7tions of go+ernment sta5ilit(, orderliness and predicta5ilit(, protect the indi+id7al from the state and legitimi;e the regime in the e(es of other states and their own societ(
111
G 0t is impossi5le to spea6 of an( direct lin6 5etween the content of the constit7tion and the political practice of the -tate The constit7tion is ?wor6ing? conditions ha+e specific reL7irements3 it m7st meet this political c7lt7re and political c7lt7re, on the other hand, carr( a fa+ora5le en+ironment for it, with the interests and +al7es of the maCorit( of societ(, partic7larl( the political elite, to maintain its +al7e for all and an( changes in the political sit7ation G 1m5ig7o7s is the L7estion of the proper relationship 5etween politics and law /i5eralism with his 7s7al concerns for ci+il li5erties and h7man rights law tends to limit the scope of the f7nction to maintain p75lic order Conser+ati+es ha+e foc7sed on the relationship 5etween law and social sta5ilit(, e+en calling to 5e made to increase the role of law in the preser+ation of p75lic morals G Department of /aw of the polic( is achie+ed thro7gh the implementation of the principle of the independence and impartialit( of the co7rt 0ndependence of the C7diciar(, howe+er, 5ecomes pro5lematic when the recr7itment and career ad+ancement of C7dges, dependent on the +ario7s political forces and instit7tions 1s for the impartialit( of the co7rt, and it is often called into L7estion, since the sociological str7ct7re of the C7diciar(, as a r7le, does not adeL7atel( reflect the social str7ct7re of societ( 0n Eestern pol(archies, for e4ample, a t(pical mem5er of the corporation = a white man, relati+el( rich, and 7s7all( in the elderl( G 1s the case of C7dges = to interpret the law, the( are ine+ita5l( in+ol+ed in politics The limits of their political infl7ence, howe+er, +ar( depending on how well and wor6ed o7t in detail the law as it eliminates the possi5ilit( of am5ig7o7s interpretations, whether codified constit7tion and how it resol+ed the L7estion of the C7diciar(

R 0s it possi5le to treat the Constit7tion as a ?g7ide on the political lifeF? R Ehat factors determined that the ?le+el of respect? with which those in power treat their constit7tionsF R 0s it possi5le to sa( that a codified constit7tion and 5ill of rights in+aria5l( t7rn into ?t(rann( of the C7diciar(F? R Ehat are the ca7ses and circ7mstances, if an(, to C7stif( 5rea6ing the lawF R Eh( is the right to 5e separated from politicsF R 1lwa(s whether the principle of independence of the Co7rt o5ser+ed in practiceF R 0s it important that the social composition of the co7rt reflected the social str7ct7re of societ(F
#98
C+a)ter <$& Legislati3e Asse2(ly
farliaGent F it does not less than the venue Gore or less idle people " galter lagehot " 4he +'Ali%h "o'%tit*tio' H 18HM I
/egislati+e 1ssem5l( !1ssem5l(, also called the parliaments or legislat7res$ too6 place in the o+erriding p75lic administration There is e+en a tradition to treat them with special re+erence, for it is in a sense a personIs political s(stem Th7s, in the written constit7tions the( paid the ?most honora5le? position, most often their description precedes the description of the e4ec7ti+e and legislati+e 5ranches of go+ernment *espect for parliament stems from the fact that its mem5ers = is not professional politicians, representing the societ( as a whole, and not specificall( learned e4perts or ci+il ser+ants 1ssem5l(, in addition, = is national political for7ms where p75lic polic( iss7es are disc7ssed and the most 57rning topic of the da( 0n most cases, the( ha+e 5een formall( gi+en a legislati+e f7nction, which is wh( the( ha+e the a5ilit( to determine the co7rse of p75lic polic(, or at least infl7ence it %7t in the )) cent7r( tal6ed
112
a5o7t the fact that the legislat7re loses its meaning3 it is e4pressed in the decline of parliaments <es, sa( some of them are still pla(ing an important role in the political process, 57t most of them ha+e long t7rned to the ?tal6ing shops?, onl( the stamp decisions made somewhere far 5e(ond the walls of parliament
TA=LE OF CONTENTS
he role of the legislati*e asse+bly farliaGentarC and presidential sCsteGs [unctions oE the legislative asseG lC he structure of the legislati*e asse+bly {ne chaG er or t@o b ZoGGittees he acti*ities of the legislati*e asse+bly MaNe a legislatures policC b Dn @hat also causes the decline oE asseG lies b Menaissance legislatures b Findings Issues for discussion
<$& Legislati3e Asse2(ly o! #9$
'-1 386 391 '.0 397 400 (2% 402 405 408 (2(2.
T+e 2ain @uestions

P Ehat is the legislati+e assem5l(F P EhatIs parliamentar( s(stem different from the presidentialF P Ehat are the main f7nctions of the legislati+e assem5l(F P Bow are the legislati+e assem5l(, as the( differ in their internal str7ct7reF P Ehat determines the political power of the ParliamentF P Eh( is the +al7e of the legislati+e assem5lies is red7cedF Ehether it is a serio7s matterF
C T+e Role o! Legislatures

0n the dictionar( of political science, can 5e said to loo6 at first on the n7m5er of terms for the political instit7tions of legislation = the Congress !U-1$, the 2ational 1ssem5l( !@rance$, the Bo7se of *epresentati+es !Kapan$, the Parliament !-ingapore$, the Congress of Dep7ties !-pain$ and so on 1ll this political scientists define as the legislati+e assem5lies, assem5lies, legislat7res or parliaments 1s a political term word 1ssem5l( !in general, it means ?assem5l(?$ is 7s7all( associated with the representation and representati+e go+ernment3 in @rench, it is +er( close to the concept ?people ? Therefore, sometimes the term refers onl( to the lower, elected 5( the whole of societ(, the Bo7se of the 5icameral parliament !s7ch as in Pa6istan and @rance, or to a single ward in the 7nicameral parliament !as in Eg(pt and T7r6e( $ 0n this 5oo6, we will 7se the word ")ssembly" as a s(non(m of parliament and legislat7res, that is applied to 5oth Bo7ses of Parliament Tal6 a5o7t all the a5o+e mentioned instit7tions as a means to L7alif( their legislat7res as legislati+e 5odies *ecall the three main 5ranches of go+ernment3 legislat7re, creating lawQ e4ec7ti+e a7thorities, executing the law, cond7cting it in lifeQ C7dicial a7thorities to inter%ret the law, appl(ing it to the case law The di+ision of go+ernment into legislati+e, e4ec7ti+e and C7dicial 5ranches of the theoretical 5asis of his doctrine of separation of powers is = the starting point of the anal(sis of the state since the time of MontesL7ie7 0t is, howe+er, sa( that this pict7re is far from e+er(thing is correct The fact that
113
the instit7tions formall( 6ualify as legal, rarel( ha+e a monopol( on lawma6ing To some e4tent this f7nction and ha+e e4ec7ti+e powers = thro7gh tools s7ch as the decrees and orders !e4ec7ti+e orders$, and all of them ha+e the opport7nit( to infl7ence the official legislati+e
#95 I1 & T+e 2e'+anis2s o! go3ernan'e
C+arles .Louis de Bontes@uieu Se?ondat *<59:.<77$,
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cesses, if not define it Moreo+er, legislation is not the onl( f7nction of the legislat7re, and interestingl(, this is not their main f7nction .f co7rse, most preferred the term ?parliament? !from the @rench %arler = to spea6$, which does not ha+e the limitations of what is in the ?1ssem5l(?, and that 7ncertaint(, which is t(pical for the ?legislat7re? The concept of ?Parliament? stresses another point that is present in all of these instit7tions3 no matter what amo7nt of legislati+e power the( ha+e and how the( carr( o7t their representati+e f7nctions, legislat7res are the first disc7ssion meeting = for7ms that disc7ss, at times +er( caref7ll( , the political iss7es
Parlia2entary and )residential syste2s

.ne of the 6e( aspects of an( political s(stem = this is the wa( it defines the relationship 5etween the 1ssem5l( and the 9o+ernment, that is, 5etween the legislati+e and e4ec7ti+e 5ranches -ometimes after all, so that the folded form of the ?1ssem5l(=9o+ernment?, 5ringing together the e4ec7ti+e and the legislat7re, and not ha+ing a single e4ec7ti+e 5od( -7ch a s(stem, for e4ample, for a while there was 7nder *o5espierre and the Kaco5ins d7ring the @rench *e+ol7tion and 7nder the infl7ence of radical= democratic philosoph( of *o7ssea7 0n other cases, s7ch as the orthodo4 comm7nist regimes, and the legislat7re and the go+ernment were the most 7nconditionall( s75Cect to the ?r7ling part( ? Bowe+er, the relationship 5etween the legislati+e and e4ec7ti+e political s(stems generall( fall into one of two categories = itIs either a parliamentar( or presidential s(stem of go+ernment Most li5eral states historicall( ta6en the form of a parliamentar( s(stem !see @ig 15 1$ -ometimes applied to them the concept of ?Eestminster s(stem? 5eca7se the( were created on the model of the %ritish Parliament The origins of Eestminster Parliament = the ?mother of parliaments? = date 5ac6 to the)000 cent7r(, when 6nights and 5o7rgeois 5ecome permanent characters of the ro(al co7rtQ
<$& Legislati3e Asse2(ly o! #97
114
<BF>BOEL@CABJ C?C@EOB m=CMVBFC@DELL=m= M[FBD>EL?J H$." (*$" 15"1I # T,% $*$,'.5, -=%,%(%? :%$105($,-'))%' 1&(5-7')*' %$14'$,-78',$8 +'('6 &5(75.'),, :0', ,5=*. %2(56%.,65=%)%05,'7;)58 * *$&%7)*,'7;)58 -75$,; V$7*-53,$8W 0(1: $ 0(1:%." x%(.57;)% T,* -',-*)'65-*$*.> 0(1: %, 0(1:5, - ('57;)%$,* /' &5(75.'), * *$&%7)*,'7;)58 -75$,; H&(5-*,'7;$,-%I,'$)'?U*. %2(56%. $-865)> .'/01 $%2%? # &%7)58 &(%,*-%&%7%/)%$,; &(*)<*&1 (560'7')*8-75$,'?" u$)%)>' +'(,> &5(75.'),$=%? $*$,'.> ,5=%->" r P(5-*,'7;$,-% K%(.*(1',$8 &% ('617;,5,5. ->2%(%- - 65=%)%05,'7;)%' $%2(5)*' $ 1+', %. =%7*+'$,-5 :%7%$%-, )52(5))>9 &5(,*8.*J %,0'7;)% *$&%7)*,'7;)58 -75$,; )' *62*(5',$8" r P(5-*,'7;$,-% =%.&7'=,1',$8 *6 $('0> +7')%- 65=%)%05,'7;)%:% $%2(5)*8, %2>+)% *67* 0'(%- ,%? &5(,** H,'9 &5(,*?I, =%,%(58, %275058 2%7;U*)$,-%. :%7%$%- - &5(75.'),',=%),(%7*(1' , ':%" the trust @ill lose " r P(5-*,'7;$,-% - 2%7;U*)$,-' $71+5'- *.'', &(5-% (5$&1$=5,; $%2(5)*'J &%.*.% &(%+': %,T,% %6)5+5',, +,% $,(%:% 1$,5)%-7'))>9 $(%=%- ->2%(%- - T,%? $*$,'.' )' $14'$,-1'," A}nrulCA president "
d7ring the )0: cent7r( there were two cham5ers = the Bo7se of Commons and the Bo7se of /ords3 the first was represented 5( the &nights and the 5o7rgeoisie, the second = the lords and clerg( The principle of parliamentar( s7premac( = the primac( of power o+er the power of Parliament crown = was
Fig& <$&<& T+e )arlia2entary syste2 o! go3ern2ent
#99 I1 & T+e 2e'+anis2s o! go3ernan'e <$& Legislati3e Asse2(ly o! #9:
%7t parliamentar( s(stems are not imm7ne from the wea6 and the go+ernment, as well as from political insta5ilit( in general -o 7s7all( happens when the part( s(stem is fragmented, and the electoral s(stem to a +er( large e4tent proportional @or e4ample, in the @o7rth *ep75lic of @rance for 12=odd (ears, was replaced 5( 25 go+ernments, and none of them co7ld not rel( on a sta5le maCorit( in the 2ational 1ssem5l(, where the comm7nists on the left and right 9a7llists were with the same degree of intransigence opposed to the regime of the co7ntr( The same pro5lem also chased after the -econd Eorld Ear, 0tal(, where a highl( polari;ed m7ltipart( s(stem t7rned that o+er the period 5etween 1A>5 and 2001 the co7ntr( was changed no less than 5A go+ernments This is not to sa( that the entire political s(stem in s7ch cases ?is stalling on
Fig& <$&4& Se)aration o! )owers 115
place ?and reL7ires a radical restr7ct7ring3 changes in the go+ernment as it is, for e4ample, is all the same in 0tal(, can 5e e4pressed in a simple reallocation of ministerial portfolios, and onl( occasionall( are the res7lt of national elections The main alternati+e to the parliamentar( s(stem is the presidential s(stem of go+ernment !see @ig 1' 1$ Presidential s(stems are 5ased on the strict o5ser+ance of the doctrine of separation of powers !see @ig 15 2$ This means that the legislat7res and go+ernments are formall( independent of each other and are elected separatel( Classic e4ample = the United -tates, where so=called ?fo7nding fathers? were partic7larl( an4io7s to pre+ent too strong e4ec7ti+e power, fearing its transformation into
3hecrs and balances F the sCsteG
#:; I1 & T+e 2e'+anis2s o! go3ernan'e 8;9 I1 & T+e 2e'+anis2s o! go3ernan'e
der( toda( prefer to comm7nicate with the p75lic more directl( thro7gh the media than indirectl( = thro7gh parliaments
Renaissan'e legislatures>
-ome might sa( that we ha+e painted a gloom( pict7re too .f co7rse, the ?decline assem5lies? = +er( emphatic e4pression3 perhaps it wo7ld 5e 5etter to tal6 a5o7t changing their roles in the political process <es, there is no do75t that parliaments ha+e lost their former significance, 57t 5e that as it ma(, the( ha+e some new ?mechanism of political comm7nication?, that we, in fact, we see that in the readiness with which the 1ssem5l( open their doors Co7rnalists and cameramen 1ll this wor6s on themsel+es parliaments, strengthening all the inherent f7nctions !<o7 C7st ha+e to remem5er that the media can ele+ate as assem5l( and trample it in the m7d $ 1ll o5+io7s tendenc( towards professionali;ation of parliaments @ollowing the e4ample of the U - Congress, man( assem5lies are gaining committees, e4panding their staff and pro+ide more options to each indi+id7al mem5er of parliament Moreo+er, in the U& and elsewhere 1ssem5l( 5ecome more independent, while the part(, on the contrar(, less disciplined internall( Toda(, more informed +oters and their representati+es in Parliament are waiting for more, on the other hand, the eL7all( well=ed7cated and well=trained mem5ers of parliament all the more rel7ctant read( to act on someone elseIs orders 9eneral 7nderstanding that the legitimac( and sta5ilit( of the political s(stem associated with the L7alities of its parliament, g7arantees one thing3 e+en if somewhere 1ssem5l( and 5ecomes wea6er necessaril( posl(shats(a +oices of protest a5o7t this 0n the end, the L7estion is3 find a proper 5alance 5etween the e4ec7ti+e and legislati+e 5ranches of go+ernment can not do witho7t a p7rel( reg7lator( reL7irements with respect to the fact that societ(, on the one hand, the need of political representation, and the other = in a strong go+ernment
C Con'lusions
G The term ?legislat7re?, ?1ssem5l(?, ?legislat7re? and ?parliament? are 7sed as s(non(ms The term ?1ssem5l(? !meeting$ s7ggests that the instit7tion, in a sense 5( the people who tr7sted onl( non=professional politicians, 57t not to go+ernment officials, the tas6 to represent themsel+es in the s(stem of go+ernance The term ?legislat7re? is not L7ite acc7rate, since the 1ssem5l( rarel( ha+e a monopol( on legislati+e power The term
116
?parliament? emphasi;es the point that the 1ssem5l( pro+ides a for7m for disc7ssion and a thoro7gh consideration of polic( iss7es G The parliamentar( s(stem = a s(stem in which go+ernance is reali;ed thro7gh Parliament3 Mem5er of Parliament formed a go+ernment, and it
<$& Legislati3e Asse2(ly o! 8;:
Parliament and the go+ernment is acco7nta5le The presidential s(stem is 5ased on a di+ision of powers 5etween the 1ssem5l( and the e4ec7ti+e instit7tions This creates a s(stem in which the two 5ranches of go+ernment together in a relationship of independence and interdependence G 1ssem5l( em5od( the relationship 5etween the go+ernment and societ( = a sort of comm7nication channel thro7gh which the compan( pro+ides s7pport to the go+ernment, and the go+ernment responds to the demands of societ( The main f7nctions of the 1ssem5l( = to pass laws to act as a representati+e 5od(, and to 5e a 6ind of co7nterweight to the controlling a7thorit( in regard to the go+ernment to carr( o7t the recr7itment of politicians and maintain the legitimac( of the political s(stem G 1ssem5l( 7s7all( consist of one or two cham5ers The ad+antage d+7hpalatnosti is that it strengthens the chec6s and 5alances in the political s(stem and carries the idea of a 5roader representation, which is especiall( important for federated s(stems 0ts disad+antage is that the political process it often slows down, if at all comes to a standstill 0n the legislati+e process is highl( important role 5elongs to the committees of Parliament3 the strong 1ssem5l( committees 7s7all( ha+e strong and wea6 = wea6 G 1ssem5l( rarel( ?ma6e politics?, the( are 7s7all( onl( affect the polic( or completel( controlled 5( the e4ec7ti+e The +ol7me of power that it has assem5l( is determined 5( se+eral factors3 the constit7tional powers of the 1ssem5l(, the degree of its political independence from the e4ec7ti+e 5ranch, the nat7re of the part( s(stem and the degree of internal monolithic assem5l( G The decline of assem5lies is a concern 5eca7se the( ha+e alwa(s 5een associated with the ideal of responsi5le and representati+e go+ernment 1ssem5l( of losing its original meaning d7e to the fact that the parties ha+e formed a strong internal discipline, increased the role of go+ernment, the e4ec7ti+e 5ranch more thoro7ghl( than Parliament, form7lates and implements policies and, finall(, there were a +ariet( of interest gro7ps and the modern media, the +al7e of which increases s(stematicall(

R The fact that most co7ntries in the world ha+e their own parliaments, incl7ding whether the efficienc( and democratic political s(stems of these co7ntriesF R Eh( is the separation of powers is considered as an important principle of li5eral democraciesF R Ehat are the 5est conditions for the emergence and operation of responsi5le go+ernmentF R 1lwa(s a 5icameral parliament 7nicameral 5etterF R Can (o7 tal6 a5o7t that in toda(Is highl( comple4 societies, parliaments m7st ine+ita5l( gi+e wa( to the a7thorit( of their go+ernmentsF R Do 0 ha+e to decline assem5lies mean that in a societ( wea6ened the relationship of political representationF
8<;
C+a)ter <5& EEe'uti3e
P(5-*,'73 )507'/*, 1+*,;$8, +,%2> 2>,; )' &(%$,% 275:%0','7'." kiccolo Machiavelli " Do#e6eiA' H 171K I
E4ec7ti+e power = it is a5sol7tel( necessar( attri57te of the state The political s(stem can f7nction witho7t a constit7tion, witho7t the legislat7re and the co7rts, e+en witho7t the parties, 57t
117
witho7t which the( do not e4ist, so it is witho7t a go+ernment, 5eca7se witho7t the state go+ernment did not de+elop its policies and, therefore, does not hold s7ch policies into practice *eso7rce of this 5ranch of go+ernment is so h7ge that, in fact, the entire political histor( of the last h7ndred (ears has so7ght to answer the L7estion of how to find her some restraint3 in some cases this was done thro7gh the constit7tion, in others = thro7gh the legislati+e assem5l( :er( man( people from the world of societ( politicians 6now onl( that the official representati+es of the e4ec7ti+e 5ranch, especiall( the heads of go+ernment = is the face of the political s(stem The go+ernment = a 6ind of political leader of the societ( = a role which in o7r time has 5ecome more noticea5le that the go+ernment will sho7lder the 57rden of tremendo7s responsi5ilit(, 5oth in domestic and in foreign polic(, and the media co+er politics not onl( as a person %7t at the same time de+eloping an opposite process3 hopes and e4pectations placed on the go+ernment, so h7ge that in a great man( political s(stems, leaders increasingl( diffic7lt to ?do 57siness? Then it t7rns o7t that the p75lic is disappointed in politics, and especiall( in politics
Content
he role of the eRecuti*e #ower gho is @ho in the sCsteG ejecutive po@er Lhe Eunctions oE the political ejecutiveF levelgovernGent Power in the eRecuti*e syste+ of state 7who go*erns $ fresidents friGe F Ministers Lhe Za inet oE Ministers he #olitical leadershi# Lheories oE eeadership StCles oE eeadership Findings Issues for discussion
<5& EEe'uti3e )ower 8<<
(!! 411 413 the (!0 417 422 427 (%. 430 433 ('0 ('6
T+e 2ain @uestions

P Ehat is the e4ec7ti+e 5ranch of go+ernmentF Eho 5elongs to itF P Ehat are the main f7nctions of go+ernmentF P EhatIs administration in a presidential s(stem is different from the go+ernment in a parliamentar( s(stemF P Ehat does the go+ernmentIs power so strongF P Bow to 7nderstand the phenomenon of modern political leadershipF P 0s it possi5le in toda(Is societ( to spea6 of a crisis of political leadershipF
C T+e role o! t+e eEe'uti3e
W+o -s w+o in t+e eEe'uti3e

The e4ec7ti+e 5ranch is a 5ranch of the state control s(stem, responsi5le for ?performance?, that is, the implementation of polic( 0n practice, howe+er, the scope of its responsi5ilit( is m7ch 5roader and more comple4 than this definition s7ggests 0s a comple4 str7ct7re and the e4ec7ti+e @irst, the e4ec7ti+e 5ranch is ?political? and ?57rea7cratic? 1 elements, that is, politicians and ci+il ser+ants, or, if greater, the scope of polic( and administration -econdl(, within the e4ec7ti+e 5ranch has its own di+ision in stat7s
118
and areas of responsi5ilit( Ehile the assem5l( wor6 on the principle of formal eL7alit( of parliament, the e4ec7ti+e, as a r7le, ?p(ramidal? and is organi;ed hierarchicall(3 there is, L7ite simpl(, there is alwa(s someone more, and some less ?important ? The most clear distinction 5etween the political and 57rea7cratic elements, at least in theor(, occ7r in parliamentar( s(stems with inherent special mechanisms of political recr7itment BereIs top political 7nit e4ec7ti+e !this is the prime minister and ca5inet ministers$ are politicians elected to parliament and parliament acco7nta5le3 their tas6 = to de+elop and implement policies in accordance with the political and ideological priorities of his part( Bowe+er, in a 5roader sense, ?officials of the e4ec7ti+e a7thorities? incl7de and ci+il ser+ants = professionals appointed 5( the go+ernment and implementing admin=
The ter1 :b+rea+cracy:8 :b+rea+cracy: fro1 the a+thor8 accor-in2 to the tra-ition of 9estern ,olitical science8 -oes not carry a ne2ative eval+ation ,oints: in a ne+tral sense8 an- they are 2iven in the translation ( Note. lane. )
1
8<4 I1 & T+e 2e'+anis2s o! go3ernan'e
S U*(%=%. &%)*.5)** ?C[=>L?@E>NLBJ D>BC@N # T,% -',-; :%$105($,-'))%? -75$,*,%,-' ,$,-'))58 65 V*$&%7)')*'W 65=%)%- * %24*9 )5&(5-7')*? :%$105($,-'))%? &%7*,*=*,&(*)*.5'.>9 65=%)%05,'7;)%? -75$,;3" u)5 %9-5,>-5', $%2%? <'7>? (80 $,(1=,1(, )5+*)58 %,:75-> :%$105($,5, (1=%-%0*,'7'? .*)*$,'($,- * -'0%.$,-, $*$,'.> :%$105($,-'))%? $71/2> *=%)+58 $*7%->.* $,(1=,1(5.*, ,5=*.*, =5= &%7*<*8 * 5(.*8" 54', %0)5=%, T,%, ,'(.*)1&%,('278',$8 - 2%7'' 16=%. $.>$7' 078 %2%6)5+')*8 2%7'' =%.&5=,)%? $,(1=,1(> 7*<,&(*)*.534*9 &%7*,*+'$=*' ('U' )*8 * %,-'+534*9 65 %24'' )5&(5-7')*' * =%%(0*)5<*3:%$105($,-'))%? &%7*,*=*" `,% 80(% ->$U*9 7*< :%$105($,-5 )56>-53, ,3-!-N*$&%7)*,'7;)%? -75$,;3 H&(*27*6*,'7;)>? $*)% )*. &%)8,*8 V0'?$,-134'' )5 05))>? .%.'),&(5-*,'7;$,-%W *7* V50.*)*$,(5<*8W, '$7* ('+; *0', % &('6*0'),$=*9 $*$,'.59I, %,7*+58 ':% %,3O! *$&%7)*,'7;)%? -75$,*, *7* :%$105( $,-'))%? $71/2>" S %,)%U')** ,'9 7*< * %(:5)%-,+,% -%&7%453, - $'2' ->$U'' 6-')% *$&%7)*,'7 ;)%? -75$,*, *)%:05 *$&%7;61',$8 ,'(.*) V80(%*$&%7)*,'7;)%? -75$,*W"
trati+noe e4ec7tion polic( in accordance with the principles of political ne7tralit( and lo(alt( to his ministers 0n some parliamentar( s(stems, s7ch as 17stralia, Canada, 0ndia and the United &ingdom, the distinction 5etween ?political? and ?57rea7cratic? elements o5sc7red 5( the fact that the top=le+el p75lic ser+ants are sometimes ma6es a +er( s75stantial contri57tion to the implementation of the polic(, and the remaining ci+il ser+ants are on essentiall( different categor( = it is politicall( 5iased indi+id7als onl( temporaril( in their posts 0n presidential s(stems, the latter phenomenon is more mar6ed3 in the U - , for e4ample, in the e4ec7ti+e 5ranch onl( politician elected to office, the President, is a mem5er of his administration = appointed officials and all senior and middle managers of p75lic ser+ice are politicall( engaged people occ7p(ing their posts as long as this administration is in power 0n comm7nist s(stems, s7ch as in China toda( !and formerl( in the U--*$, in general there are no f7ndamental differences in this respect can not 5e allocated, as the last word alwa(s 5elongs to all ?r7ling part(?3 the Chinese go+ernment emplo(ees em5od( 5oth the 57rea7cratic and political element, as The( are f7ll( committed to the ideolog( of the Comm7nist Part( of China and e+en, strictl( spea6ing, are its mem5ers M7ch easier to tal6 a5o7t the hierarchical le+els within the e4ec7ti+e 5ranch @irst, it is a nat7ral tendenc( = concentrated aro7nd one person 1s MontesL7ie7 wrote, ?this 5ranch of power, speed of e4ec7tion is alwa(s a concern, a 5etter managed than man( ? 2e+ertheless, we can tal6 a5o7t the two positions, altho7gh the( ma( ta6e and one person on the one hand, there is the head of state = a fig7re often s(m5olic and ha+ing a formal r7le on the other = the head of go+ernment, is a chief e4ec7ti+e of a -tate with a wide range of political responsi5ilit( Ehile U - presidents of *7ssia and @rance, in the lang7age of political Cargon, ?wear two hats?, ie com5ine the two categories presented a5o+e, in parliamentar( s(stems, these two posts are di+orced Bere, the main face of the e4ec7ti+e is the prime minister and head of state, 7s7all( 5elongs to a person standing on the part( and all sorts of other interests
<5& EEe'uti3e )ower 8<#
119

Head of 4tate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
%elow the main person in the e4ec7ti+e 5ranch are placed Ministers !or, in other traditions, secretaries$ responsi5le for indi+id7al policies %etween them, also set a hierarch( depending on the +al7e of their direction !7s7all( the most important fig7res considered the minister responsi5le for the econom(, and the Minister of @oreign 1ffairs$ and whether the( fall in the o!!i'e& 1s will 5e shown 5elow, the powers e4tend to the ca5inet wide range of tas6s = from a collecti+e polic( to coordinate its separate wa(s E+en lower le+el 5elongs to the mass of ci+il ser+ants and mem5ers of the administration !on this, see Chapter 1"$, which is more 57s( ser+icing polic( than its ela5oration @inall(, the hierarch( is closed sec7rit( ministries, s7ch as the police and the armed forces !see Chapter 1#$, and a networ6 of L7asi= 5odies, which are now called the ?J7ango? These str7ct7res are part of the e4ec7ti+e s(stem in the sense that the( contri57te to the implementation of go+ernment polic( in life, 57t their staff is often formall( independent of the go+ernment
T+e !un'tions o! t+e )oliti'al eEe'uti3e le3el

J7ite simpl(, the pro5lem is the political le+el e4ec7ti+e is ?to lead societ( forward?, to carr( o7t its political leadership This le+el of power can 5e represented as the ?commanding heights? of the state = its +er( core This role co+ers a +ariet( of areas, and mem5ers of the political e4ec7ti+e managers alwa(s ha+e to perform a n7m5er of f7nctions, sometimes sim7ltaneo7sl( The most important of these areas are3 d7ties of a ceremonial nat7re monitoring the implementation of policies political leadership, which it sees societ( management of the p75lic ser+ice decision=ma6ing in crisis sit7ations
and chaired C the senior oEEicer oE the ejecutive po@er , in diEEerent advisorC Eunctions "
8<8 I1 & T+e 2e'+anis2s o! go3ernan'e
Duties o! a 'ere2onial nature

The Beads of -tate and 9o+ernment, as well as, to a lesser e4tent, the ministers represent the -tate Personif(ing a state power, the( are, in fact, the whole co7ntr(, in their own wa( s(m5oli;ing its 7nit( This role is mainl( ceremonial and formal, e4tending to cases s7ch as p75lic meetings, +isits a5road, international conferences, the ratification of treaties and laws of the signing of the co7ntr( There is a political s(stem in which the same ceremonial d7ties are assigned to the ?7nr7l(? president or monarch, while others are 57s( e4ec7ti+e dail( affairs of state %7t this role, 0 m7st sa(, act7all( goes 5e(ond mere ceremonial, in fact, ha+ing more important, and this for two reasons @irst, it foc7ses the 7nit( of the co7ntr( = it is the highest point to which con+erge the relationship of political lo(alt( in the political s(stem3 it is, therefore, in its own wa( legitimi;es the regime -econdl(, it gi+es the highest echelons of e4ec7ti+e power pec7liar a7ra of ?national champions?, which enhances their electoral 5ase in the comm7nit(
120
Bonitoring o! t+e i2)le2entation o! t+e )oli'y

1 6e( tas6 of the political e4ec7ti+e le+el = to direct and control the political process, ie, societ( from the s(stem e4pects it to ?the r7les and ran ? 0t m7st 5e said that the importance of this role has increased dramaticall( in the )) cent7r( , when the go+ernment s(stematicall( e4panded its commitment @rom the s7preme e4ec7ti+e power of carriers primaril( e4pect to ha+e proceeded from the effecti+e economic and social programs that wo7ld f7ll( meet the needs of an increasingl( comple4 societies, and that the( ha+e sent m7ltiple e4ternal affairs of the co7ntr( in a world of increasing interdependence .ne conseL7ence of all this has 5een the e4pansion of legislati+e power and the e4ec7ti+e 5ranch of go+ernment, where it is, so to spea6, is clearl( encroaching on the traditional responsi5ilit( of the 1ssem5l( Toda(, the e4ec7ti+e is not onl( initiates the legislati+e programs and p7shes, con+iction or otherwise, the legislati+e process forward, in man( cases, she herself 5elongs to a +er( wide range of legislati+e f7nctions, which she sells thro7gh decrees, e4ec7ti+e orders and decrees and other legal doc7ments /egislati+e initiati+e comes from political parties and interest gro7ps 0ts +ital role in this process is pla(ed and the ci+il ser+ice, with its +ast information and anal(tical capa5ilities, so that sometimes the highest echelons of the e4ec7ti+e 5ranch can onl( determine the general direction of go+ernment polic(
T+e )oliti'al leaders+i)% w+i'+ it sees so'iety

.ne of the most important factors determining the nat7re and sta5ilit( of the regime as a whole, is the pop7larit( of senior e4ec7ti+e 1t the political le+el, on its a5ilit( to mo5ili;e p75lic s7pport for the pro=
<5& EEe'uti3e )ower 8<$ <5& EEe'uti3e )ower 8<7
@or each of these categories sho7ld ta6e into acco7nt three aspects of power3 formal or official! dimension = as their powers are defined in the constit7tion and are inscri5ed in that the instit7tional en+ironment in which the( operate informal dimension = personal L7alities, political s6ills and political e4perience, the impact on his part( and the media 9xternal dimensions = political, economic, diplomatic factors operating in the state and 5e(ond
Presidents
The President is the official head of state = a title in other political s(stems 5elonging to the monarch, or, sa(, the emperor Bere, howe+er, it is necessar( to point o7t the difference 5etween the so= called ?constit7tional? and ?e4ec7ti+e? presidents ?Constit7tional? President !e4amples are fo7nd in 0ndia, 0srael and 9erman($ is a fig7re t(pical of parliamentar( s(stems, and its powers are limited for the most part the d7ties of a ceremonial nat7re The e4ec7ti+e 5ranch, in this case 5elongs to the Prime Minister and 8 or Ca5inet 0n this section we will tal6 a5o7t the ?e4ec7ti+e? presidents = the fig7res, which com5ine the f7nctions of official !formal$ heads of state and the real e4ec7ti+e power The presidenc( is inherent in this t(pe of so=called presidential go+ernment s(stem !see @ig 1' 1$ in their differences from the parliamentar( s(stems of go+ernment !see @ig 15 1$
Fig& <5&<& Presidential !or2 o! go3ern2ent
121
The PresidentIs a7thorit( in these s(stems can 5e 5oth limited and 7nlimited character 0n the first case, his powers are limited 5( factors s7ch as the Constit7tion, or that democratic norms accepted in the societ(, part( ri+alr(, separation of powers, 57t the main thing = is 5alanced 5( the power of an elected legislat7re The most t(pical e4ample of this presidenc( are a United -tates, 57t there are
8<9 l1 & T+e 2e'+anis2s o! go3ernan'e 8#; I1 & T+e 2e'+anis2s o! go3ernan'e
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this world The parado4 of the sit7ation is the same3 leadership ne+er had s7ch a 5ig deal, as it is toda(, 57t it had not 5een more of a challengeO
T+eories o! Leaders+i)
.n the pro5lem of political leadership soars lot of L7estions 1s far as leadership is compati5le with the principles of freedom and democrac(F 0t inspires and moti+ates people and depri+es them of initiati+e and s7ppressesF Do we admire strong leaders or fear themF @or L7estions li6e these are, in fact, ha+e different ideas a5o7t the nat7re of political leadership Bere are fo7r theories that consider leadership as3 %ersonal L7alit( sociological phenomenon an organi#ational imperati+e
122
1 set of %olitical s6ills 0n the traditional 7nderstanding of leadership is a rare 57t nat7ral gift 1s 1ristotle said, ?People with a moment of 5irth destin( intended to ens7re that a single command, the other to o5e( ? Bere, in this tradition, it is a p7rel( personal L7alities of a leader, which we often see in those people that are a t(pe of ?chosen destin( ? 1n e4treme +ersion of this concept is a fascist idea of the ?@ahrer? = the s7preme leader !alwa(s a man$, who is onl( a5le to lead the masses to a higher p7rpose = an idea, something which goes 5ac6 to @riedrich 2iet;scheIs concept of the ?s7perman?, which rose a5o+e ?herd instinct? con+entional wisdom and moralit( achie+ed complete master( o+er himself 0n a more moderate form of this same tradition tal6s a5o7t charisma, 7nderstood as the power and a7thorit( of the indi+id7al Classic e4amples of charismatic leaders often ha+e elements in fig7res s7ch as Bitler, Cast=
<5& EEe'uti3e )ower 8#<
<::5 President Nelson Bandela and t+e Dalai La2a in Ca)e Town% Sout+ A!ri'a
ro, 2asser 1 and Thatcher, 57t (o7 can see something charismatic and in some moments of political 5eha+ior of the other leaders, for e4ample, in the famo7s ?fireside con+ersations,? @ran6lin D *oose+elt, in that capacit( at all to sta( in front of the cameras, which ha+e hardl( 2ot all contemporar( political leaders Unfort7natel(, m7ch less leaders li6e 2elson Mandela 2 and the Dalai /ama 3 , whose a7thorit( rests on their p7rel( moral L7alities Modern political science and political ps(cholog( L7ite often ta6es positions that are close to this approach, and are foc7sing mainl( on the personal L7alities of leaders .ne of the earliest research efforts in this direction was made 5( -igm7nd @re7d !1#5'=1A3A$ and Eilliam %7llitt in their highl( contro+ersial ps(chological portrait of U - President Eoodrow Eilson !@re7d and %7llitt, 1A'"$ 1nother e4ample = the pioneering wor6 of Barold /asswell, ?Ps(chopatholog( and Politics? ! Barold /asswell Psycho%athologyand Politics ! 1A30$, claiming that its acti+ities are dri+en 5( leaders of almost pathological internal conflicts that are rationali;ed onl( on the le+el of p75lic action 2ot long ago, a li+el( de5ate has ca7sed political leadership st7d(, 7nderta6en 5( Kames %ar5er ! Kames %ar5er , 1A##$ %ased on what he called the ?president=s6( nat7re?, %ar5er ga+e a 6ind of t(polog( of 1merican presidents for the following two parameters3 !1$ how ?acti+e? or ?passi+e? the( were in the performance of their d7ties !as far as the( earnestl( and +igoro7sl( their performed$ and !2$ how ?positi+e? or ?negati+e? the( act7all( 5elonged to his presidenc(, his political mission Eere identified fo7r t(pes3 acti+e=positi+e acti+e=negati+e passi+e=positi+e
123
passi+e=negati+e
Ga1al 5b-el 0asser (>/>)3>/&() 3 Presi-ent of ;2y,t (>/'*3>/&()8 once a reco2niBe- lea-er in the 5rab 4orl- ( Note. lane. ) 2 0elson =an-ela (b >/>)) 3 @o+th 5frican ,olitician an- civil ri2hts activist (fro1 >/*. to >//( 4as in ,rison)8 the ,resi-ent of the @o+th 5frican !e,+blic (>//<) ( Note. lane. ) 3 Gra-+ate face of Tibetan H+--hists8 to >/'/ 3 the s,irit+al an- te1,oral r+ler of Tibet ( Note. lane.)
1
8#4 I1 & T+e 2e'+anis2s o! go3ernan'e 8#5 I1 & T+e 2e'+anis2s o! go3ernan'e
-ociet( toda( has 5ecome so comple4, it is so great impact of the glo5al nat7re of the processes that politicians are simpl( getting harder and harder to ?do 57siness? The( seemed doomed to fail7re, the fact that the societ( the( will 5e disappointed The second pro5lem = the political leadership is 7ndermined 5eca7se of the p75lic conscience lea+e those a5sol7tel( clear and 7nderstanda5le presentation that were inherent in the ideologies of former times, ?to come 7p with the legend? and the stor( 5ehind her societ( toda( is far more comple4 than e+er 5efore The third pro5lem = the societ( is 5ecoming more di+erse and fragmented, leaders increasingl( diffic7lt to offer him s7ch a program that wo7ld 5e 5ased on a common c7lt7re and common +al7es @inall(, the fo7rth pro5lem = toda( there seems to 5e e+er( reason to tal6 a5o7t the deep gap 5etween IpoliticalI and Inon=politicalI world, 5eca7se toda(Is political leaders for the most part are the career politicians, according to their lifest(le, o7tloo6 and e+en the lang7age is +er(, +er( far the mass of ordinar( citi;ens of societ( .f co7rse, politicians are free to tal6 a5o7t the hopes and aspirations of ordinar( people who the( represent = C7st for ordinar( people, then it is alread( ?o7t there = far awa( ? This 5eing so, the societ( is growing alienation from traditional politics, and it 5egins to loo6 for leaders at all in other areas
C Con'lusions
G The e4ec7ti+e 5ranch of the go+ernment responsi5le for the ?e4ec7tion? of politics = for its implementation This 5ranch is di+ided into two parts = the ?political? and ?57rea7cratic?3 the first is the act7al ?acti+e go+ernment? or ?administration?, the second = the case of ci+il ser+ants 0t sho7ld 5e 7nderstood, howe+er, that the comple4ities of toda(Is political process, the 5o7ndar( 5etween these two parts to sometimes not eas( G The Chief E4ec7ti+e ser+es se+eral important f7nctions3 represent the -tate in the acti+ities of a ceremonial nat7re, pro+ides strategic g7idance to polic(=ma6ing processes, controls the apparat7s of p75lic ser+ice, ta6ing +ital decisions in sit7ations of critical nat7re G 0n presidential s(stems, the Chief E4ec7ti+e to the President, com5ining the powers of the head of state and head of go+ernment, 57t at the same s(stems he is opposed to the legislat7re, which has the constit7tional and political independence 0n parliamentar( s(stems, the prime minister has 5een operating in two dimensions3 one is associated with the Ca5inet, indi+id7al ministers and ministries in the other = with his own part( and the legislat7re, which in this case is the so7rce of his power G The power possessed 5( the Beads of -tate and 9o+ernment, has increased significantl( 7nder the infl7ence of factors s7ch as the tendenc( of the media to co+er predominantl( e4ternal and p7rel( personal aspect of the e+ent, and a similar mechanism in force in the electoral process, e4panding the practice of s7mmits and international +isits, and finall(, that moment that the increasingl( comple4 str7ct7res of e4ec7ti+e power e4perienced an increasing need for political and ideological leadership Bowe+er, the a7thorit( of Beads of -tate and 9o+ernment also has its 5alances,
<5& EEe'uti3e )ower 8#7
coming from the offices, parties, legislat7res, ci+il ser+ice apparat7s G Political scientists ha+e ta6en different approaches to the pro5lem of political leadership 0t is interpreted as the em5odiment of p7re indi+id7al talents = charisma, as a sociological phenomenon, where the leaders em5od( the spirit and meaning of certain social and historical processes as a response to the need for 7nit( in the organi;ation and management, and finall(, as a L7estion of political art, which is L7ite possi5le master G Political leaders are inherent in the different st(les of leadership -t(le of ?non=inter+ention? implies the delegation of responsi5ilit( down, res7lting in a positi+e spirit of cooperation and teamwor6Q st(le ?coordination? is accompanied 5( a constant search for 5alance 5etween the factions and the interests of the go+ernment, the st(le of ?radical reformer? +er( strongl( emphasi;es the strategic goals and o5Cecti+es of the societ(

R 0n what areas of the head are partic7larl( importantF
124
R 0n addition to the ?power to pers7ade,? what other powers 5elong to the head of the go+ernmentF R Eho has more power = the president or the prime ministerF R Ehat are the strengths and wea6nesses of the go+ernmentIs collecti+e des6F R Bow sho7ld relate to the strong leaders = with e4citement or apprehensionF R 0s the c7lt of the personalit( trait of all political s(stems = or C7st dictatorialF R 0t is tr7e to sa( that we ha+e the political leaders whom deser+eF
8#9
C+a)ter <7& Pu(li' ser3i'e
_3(%=(5,*8 # T,% :*:5),$=*? .'95)*6., &(*-%0*.>? - 0-*/')*' &*:.'8.*" nonore de lalBac " epiA6a<%
@or man( people, the word ?57rea7crac(? 1 certainl( immediatel( ca7se the idea of something impassa5le 57l6(, so7lless and ner+es and time=cons7ming with all sorts of empt( formalities 0n political science, howe+er, the term refers to the administrati+e machiner( of the state = that is, to ci+il ser+ants and lower=middle=and to some degree and higher, le+el managers, who ro7tinel( engaged in performing certain tas6s in the field of p75lic administration Bowe+er, if (o7 follow Ma4 Ee5er, a 57rea7crac( can 5e 7nderstood as nothing more than a partic7lar form of organi;ation of acti+ities related not onl( to the state, 57t also to societ( as a whole .7tside the de5ate, howe+er, one thing remains3 the growth of the state and e4pand areas of responsi5ilit(, the p75lic ser+ice has come to pla( an increasingl( important role in political life Toda(, no5od( tal6s a5o7t p75lic ser+ants as mere e4ec7tors, the( see a 6e( part of the political process, some e+en sa( that the( are in a sense, is charged *ith the affairs of the co7ntr( %ehind the facade of representati+e and acco7nta5le go+ernment societ(, it seems, and indeed is the realit( of ?57rea7cratic control? The organi;ation of 57rea7crac( and control o+er it therefore 5ecame the most
TA=LE OF CONTENTS
heory of bureaucracy lureaucracC as an adGinistrative Gachine lureaucracC as po@er lureaucracC as a selEFsustaining sCsteG he role of the bureaucracy Lhe Eunctions oE the ureaucracC Lhe organiBation oE the pu lic service he #ower of the bureaucracy 7 out of control $ (1' Sources oE po@er oE the ureaucracC no@ Cou can control the ureaucracC b Findings Issues for discussion
1
('. 440 441 443 ((1 445 448 453 456 461 (0%
The rea-er sho+l- kee, in 1in- that the a+thor is in the s,irit of the tra-ition of 9estern ,olitical science8 2oin2 fro1 9eber8 ,rocee-s fro1 the a1bivalent8 both ,ositive an- ne2ative8 of +n-erstan-in2 the b+rea+cracy #n the sa1e tra-ition8 this ter1 is al1ost e$+ivalent to the notion of :,+blic service: an-
125
:b+rea+cracy : #n this cha,ter8 these ter1s are translate- accor-in2 to the conte?t8 b+t 1ostly as they are +se- in the ori2inal ( Note. lane. )
<7& Pu(li' ser3i'e 8#:
that there is no pressing iss7e for politicians and for political scientists 1nd there was more of a political s(stem in which the pro5lem wo7ld ha+e 5een simple This chapter addresses the following 6e( iss7es
T+e 2ain @uestions

P Ehat is a 57rea7crac(F P Ehat are the 5asic theor( of 57rea7crac(F P Ehat are the f7nctions of the 57rea7crac(F P Bow are the 57rea7crac(F 1s the( sho7ld 5e organi;edF P Ehere is the power of 57rea7cracies, wh( this power has increased to s7ch an e4tentF P Bow can 0 control the 57rea7crac(F
C T+e t+eory o! (ureau'ra'y

15o7t the 57rea7crac( is not C7st arg7ing a5o7t her 5ro6en spears and raging passion 0n recent times it was mostl( ?5ad? passion3 the li5erals critici;ed the 57rea7crac( for the lac6 of transparenc( and acco7nta5ilit(, the -ocialists, especiall( Mar4ists call it th7nder and lightning as an instr7ment of class s75ordination to the ?new right? e4pose its corporate selfishness and inefficienc( %ehind all this lies the most perfect discordance regarding the nat7re of 57rea7crac( The term is 7sed in so man( conte4ts that gi+e it some one interpretation = an almost impossi5le tas6 1l5ro7 ! 1l5row , 1A"0$ identified at least se+en of modern concepts of 57rea7crac(3 57rea7crac( as a wa( of rational organi;ation of 57siness 57rea7crac( as a manifestation of organi;ational inefficienc( 57rea7crac( as the r7le of the 57rea7crac( 57rea7crac( as the administration of social acti+ities 57rea7crac( as the management on 5ehalf of senior politicians 57rea7crac( as an organi;ation 57rea7crac( as a modern societ( in general To a certain e4tent, this discordance is 5eca7se in +ario7s scientific disciplines 57rea7crac( alwa(s 7nderstood in different wa(s @or e4ample, in political science it initiall( interpreted literall( = as ?go+ernment office?, ie control 5( speciall( designated and officiall( a7thori;ed 5( the indi+id7al That is wh( Kohn -t7art Mill in ?Considerations on *epresentati+e 9o+ernment? !1#'1$, and contrasted the 57rea7crac( representati+e forms of go+ernment, that is, the management of forces and elected politicians acco7nta5le to the p75lic 0n sociolog(, in 57rea7crac(, 7nderstand the special t(pe of organi;ation = the s(stem is not so m7ch the p75lic as the administration3 in this sense, not onl( the 57rea7crac( inherent in a democratic and a7thoritarian states, 57t also 57siness corporations, la5or 7nions, political parties, etc @inall(, economists consider the 57rea7crac( as
88; I1 & T+e 2e'+anis2s o! go3ernan'e
special ?p75lic? organi;ation = an organi;ation that is f7nded 5( ta4pa(ersI mone(, do not 6now the ?discipline of profit? and does not respond to mar6et press7res To somehow 7nderstand all these +ersions, we consider here are three theories of 57rea7crac(3 57rea7crac( as an administrati+e machine 57rea7crac( as power 57rea7crac( as a self=de+eloping s(stem
=ureau'ra'y as an ad2inistrati3e 2a'+ine

The scientific st7d( of the phenomenon of 57rea7crac( initiall( was 7nder the infl7ence of Ma4 Ee5er Bighlighting the ?ideal t(pe? of 57rea7cratic r7le as a r7le of rational, Ee5er contrasted it to other
126
forms of go+ernment = the traditional and charismatic %7rea7cracies, in his opinion, has the following feat7res3 clearl( defined Co5 f7nctions 5ased on hand=written r7lesQ well=defined hierarch( in which the lower le+els are strictl( s75ordinated to the s7premeQ 1 clear 57siness with their s7pport and wor6 of a s(stem of archi+ingQ impersonal nat7re of the go+ernment official who is not coming from his personal L7alities, 57t from the ?place?Q rigidit( of r7les and reg7lations restricting the freedom of decision=ma6ingQ professional and 57siness criteria for career ad+ancement of emplo(ees !training, ed7cation, e4perience, and competence$ 1ccording to Ee5er, the defining feat7re of 57rea7crac( is its rationalit(3 it is the prod7ct of precise, predicta5le, and, most importantl(, effecti+e wa(s of organi;ing social acti+ities, and its de+elopment is irre+ersi5le, 5eca7se societ( itself ta6es its shape 1nd it is not C7st the res7lt of technical s7periorit( o+er other forms of 57rea7cratic control, the foc7s sho7ld 5e on a m7ch more profo7nd processes of economic, political and c7lt7ral plan The e+ol7tion of the 57rea7crac( has 5een associated with the e+ol7tion of capitalist economies, with the emergence of large=scale str7ct7res, 5etting on the efficienc( of la5or .n the other hand, the de+elopment of the modern state, the e4pansion of its inter+ention in the social and economic spheres ga+e rise to an increasingl( powerf7l go+ernment 57rea7crac( 1ccording to Ee5er, the f7rther growth of 57rea7crac( sp7rred on the democrati;ation of societ( in which the old concept = the traditions, the o5ligations and pri+ileges = ga+e wa( to free competition and meritocrac( Be 5elie+ed that the process of ?rationali;ation? leads to one thing3 all of societ( will come to similar forms of go+ernance = the idea that anticipated t+e do'trine o! 'on3ergen'e ! Con+ergenceTBE-0- $ /ater, with the de+elopment of the same idea made Kames %7rnham ! Kames %7rnham , 1A05=1A#"$ in his 5oo6 ?The Managerial *e+ol7tion?
n=A@F?LB A=LDEFmELP?? # ,'%(*8, $%:75$)% =%,%(%? &%7*,*=%FT=%)%.*+'$=%' (56-*,*'$%-('.'))%:% %24'$,-5 $ )'*62'/)%$,;3 -'0', = $,*(5)*3 (567*+*? .'/01 =5&*,57*$,*+'$=%? *$%<*57*$,*+'$=%? %24'$,-'))>.* $*$,'.5.*"
<7& Pu(li' ser3i'e 88< <7& Pu(li' ser3i'e 85<
shirila f7nction of the Pri+ate department and has repeatedl( called on the ad+ice of the research instit7tes of the conser+ati+e orientation, s7ch as the Centre for Polic( -t7dies 1dam -mith, and finall(, Ton( %lair has significantl( strengthened the Di+isionIs office and has consistentl( attracted to cooperation 5( instit7tions s7ch as the 0nstit7te for P75lic Polic( *esearch and Demos ! demos $ More widel( 7sed so=called Doffices to Ministers in @rance, 0tal(, 17stria and in the EU instit7tions3 the( are narrow gro7p of ad+isers !in @rance itIs a5o7t 15=20 people$ to help form7late sol7tions to monitor the wor6 of the ministr( and so on The most e4tensi+e de+elopment of the idea of ?6ontr5(7ro6ratii? recei+ed in the United -tates, em5odied here in the so=called E4ec7ti+e .ffice of the President ! E.P $ = E4ec7ti+e .ffice of the President The department was esta5lished 5( President *oose+elt after that, as the Committee %rownlow declared3 ?President needs help ? E.P is essentiall( a personal presidential administration There are a lot of departments, emplo(ing a5o7t 1,>00 people The main office is a department of the Ehite Bo7se, which incl7des the ne4t presidential ad+isers, .ffice of Management and %7dget, which helps to prepare the 57dget and legislati+e proposals, the Co7ncil for 2ational -ec7rit(, dealing with militar( and foreign polic( pro5lems, and the Co7ncil of Economic 1d+isers, which ad+ises the president on economic iss7es &ontr5(7ro6ratii sense is to somehow correct the im5alance 5etween the few non=professional politicians who hold their seats temporaril(, on the one hand, and the professional 57rea7crac(, operating on a permanent 5asis = on the other %7t all this is not witho7t flaws and 0n the case of E.P, for e4ample, there is d7plication of f7nctions of state agencies, which sometimes leads to the fierce ri+alr( 5etween the two3 an e4ample = a +er( tense relations 5etween the Co7ncil of 2ational -ec7rit( and the -tate Department
127
1nother pro5lem is that the str7ct7re 6ontr5(7ro6ratii ma( act7all( aggra+ate the pro5lem onl( political control, 57t not sol+e it 0t sho7ld 5e remem5ered that once, Colonel .li+er 2orth, a mem5er of the 2ational -ec7rit( Co7ncil, was in the midst of a scandal, ?0ran=con=Tr7esI so greatl( harm the *eagan administration in the 1AA0s @inall(, when a politician s7rro7nds himself with ?poc6et? ad+isers, the danger is that it will come off from the political realit(3 it is easier to sa(, he will spea6 onl( what he wants to hear E4amples of this are again the Eatergate affair and the ?0ran=Contra? when presidents !2i4on and *eagan, respecti+el($ essentiall( hostages of his ad+isers from the E.P, it is 5elie+ed, largel( 5eca7se the( do not tr7st the federal 57rea7crac( 57t in general it is not monitored her
C Con'lusions
G Bistoricall(, the term 57rea7crac( has se+eral meanings .riginall(, it meant ?go+ernment officials? as opposed to a s(stem where the e4ercise of power 5elongs to the elected politicians 0n the social sciences, it 7s7all( refers to the wa(
854 I1 & T+e 2e'+anis2s o! go3ernan'e
organi;ing social acti+ities Modern political scientists, howe+er, in 57rea7crac(, 7nderstand administrati+e machiner( of the state, and 5( 57rea7crats = 57rea7crats and ci+il ser+ants G There are three main theories of 57rea7crac( 1ccording to Ee5er, is rationall( organi;ed s(stem acti+it( = something t(pical of the societ( as a whole 0n another theor(, it is interpreted as the power of ha+ing a predominantl( conser+ati+e, e4pressing the interests of the class and located o7tside political control @inall(, the third theor( sees in it a self=s7fficient and self=de+eloping s(stem in which 57rea7crats p7rs7ing their own interests and th7s gi+es rise to ?5ig go+ernment ? G The main f7nction of the 57rea7crac( = to carr( o7t the decisions of the e4ec7ti+e and legislati+e laws Bowe+er, the ci+il ser+ice owned and important f7nctions s7ch as information and anal(tical ser+ices for the political leadership, the artic7lation of the p75lic interest, to maintain political sta5ilit( and contin7it(, especiall( with the change of go+ernment or administration G P75lic ser+ice s(stems traditionall( organi;ed along f7nctional lines, hence their di+ision into departments, agencies, departments, etc 0n this case, there are widel( +ar(ing degree of centrali;ation = decentrali;ation The c7rrent trend, howe+er, is the separation of polic(=ma6ing processes of the process of its implementation, as well as the introd7ction of a ci+il ser+ice management technologies from the pri+ate sector = 7p to pri+ati;ation G The Compan( has alwa(s 5een preocc7pied and concerned a5o7t the pro5lem of the 57rea7crac(3 this was seen and percei+es a direct threat to democrac( The main so7rces of 57rea7cratic power is its control o+er the flow of information, then the f7ndamental fact that ho7sing officials are not s75Cect to change depending on political choices and f7nctional at all times, and finall(, her professionalism and to a certain e4tent, e+en the role of ?g7ardians of the national interest ? G control o+er the 57rea7crac( will carr( o7t a n7m5er of wa(s *eporting mechanisms are 7sed 57rea7crac( to the political leaders, legislat7res, the C7diciar(, and in recent (ears has 5een increasingl( 7sed om57dsman More control carries the politici;ation of the ci+il ser+ice 0n recent fa+orites polic( moreo+er, to resort to ?6ontr5(7ro6ratiches6im? alternati+e, the so7rces of information and anal(sis ser+ices

R 0s it possi5le to sa( that the 57rea7crac( and in fact, ?r7ns the? co7ntr(F R 0s it possi5le to ma6e a clear distinction 5etween polic( de+elopment and information=anal(tical s7pportF R Can the go+ernment emplo(ees and in fact 5e politicall( ne7tral forceF R Can (o7 tal6 a5o7t the notorio7s inefficienc( of p75lic ser+iceF R 0f the p75lic ser+ice is politicall( engaged, then it most = pl7ses or min7sesF R Ehat are the most effecti+e mechanisms to control the power of the 57rea7crac(F
85#
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C+a)ter <9& T+e ar2y and t+e )oli'e
Lhe po@er gro@s out oE the arrel riEle " Mao edong " P6oble<% o; Qa6 a'& %t6ateAy H 1(K8 I 2o political s(stem does not e4ist solel( 5( the power of his political legitimac( and administrati+e efficienc( 1ll of them, to a greater or lesser degree, the most profo7nd of his fo7ndation are p7rel( coerci+e power, em5odied in the arm( and police This power, howe+er, can ha+e a +ariet( of feat7res and polic( challenges The arm( can 5e oriented to e4ternal goals, 57t also on the internal if it is 7sed to s7ppress ci+il 7nrest or s7pporting 7npop7lar go+ernments 0t can 5e a powerf7l interest gro7p, or form the 5asis of the militar( regime after the o+erthrow of the ci+ilian regime -imilarl(, as the police can maintain p75lic order and ci+il li5erties, and to 5e an instr7ment of political repression, in fact, the 5asis of a police state The potential power of these instit7tions is so h7ge, that the L7estion of how societ( can and sho7ld control them, ne+er left the political agenda
TA=LE OF CONTENTS
he ar+y and #olitics Lhe role oE the arGC Zontrol over arGC ghen the GilitarC seiBed po@er b Police and #olitics Lhe role oE the police folitical control and accounta ilitC Findings Issues for discussion
858 I1& Be'+anis2s o! state 'ontrol
(0( 466 473 476 (6479 483 (-1 (-0
T+e 2ain @uestions

P Ehat are the distincti+e feat7res of the arm( as a political instit7tionF P Bow and in what wa(s it is the arm( can get in+ol+ed in politicsF P Ehat are the wa(s of esta5lishing political control o+er the militar(F P Ehat is different from the ci+ilian police of the political policeF P Ehat are the mechanisms 7sed to ens7re political acco7nta5ilit( of the policeF
C Ar2y and Politi's

The origins of the armed forces of the modern t(pe date 5ac6 to the late Middle 1ges, when E7ropean powers 5egan to acL7ire reg7lar armies 0n the )0) cent7r( 1rm( into a p75lic instit7tion with a professional command of = 0nstit7te of sharpl( demarcated from the rest of societ( Then came the time of E7ropean colonialism, and this model arm( grad7all( spread thro7gho7t the world, 5ecoming an integral part of modern societ( The onl( e4ception to this r7le is toda( P7erto *ico, and then onl( 5eca7se the sec7rit( of the -tate concerned, the armed forces of the United -tates The 1rm( is a +er( special political instit7tion Bis originalit( = and some e+en sa( that the s7periorit( of the ci+il instit7tions = is determined 5( fo7r factors @irst, as a weapon of war, the 1rm( has
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an almost complete monopol( on weapons and the h7ge potential power of enforcement %eca7se it is a5le to maintain or o+erthrow an( regime on its attit7de to the regime depends on its e4istence -econd, the armed forces are highl( organi;ed and disciplined str7ct7re is adopted 5( a clear hierarch( and ingrained c7lt7re of e4ec7tion of orders 0n a sense, this is a logical limiting +ersion of the 57rea7crac( in the sense in which it was 7nderstood Ee5er 1ll this gi+es the arm( e4traordinar( organi;ational performance, while on the other hand, can 5ring here and the elements of conser+atism Third, the arm( completel( characteri;ed specific c7lt7re and set of +al7es3 that ?the spirit of the militar( profession?, with which people are willing to fight, 6ill and, if necessar(, to die .ften percei+ed as e4tremel( conser+ati+e force and deepl( a7thoritarian !5eca7se rooted in the traditions of her ins75ordination, d7t( and honor$, the arm(, howe+er, ma( well 5e committed and other political ideals = re+ol7tionar( socialism, as in China, or 0slamic f7ndamentalism, 5oth in 0ran @o7rth, the militar( is considered to 5e = and the( often percei+e themsel+es and so = force 5ehind ?a5o+e politics?3
<9& T+e ar2y and t+e )oli'e 85$
gar lies in the Eact , that it is introduced into groups i' the struggle , during @hichsolved the |uestion oE ho@ , @ho @ill elong to the state authoritC " state F the
it is ass7med that, as a g7arantor of sec7rit( and integrit( of the state the( ser+e national interests .n the one hand, it gi+es the arm(Is high p75lic profile = on the other, e4actl( for the same reasons it can detect a tendenc( to interfere in politics when her command is con+inced that the co7ntr(Is national interests are at sta6e Eith all of this it wo7ld 5e wrong to regard the arm( as a 7nified and coherent with the same for all societies political traits 0nside it can 5e +er( different contradictions 0s possi5le, for e4ample, a conflict of interest 5etween the senior officers who, as a r7le, is originall( from the elite media with conser+ati+e slant, and the rest of the officer corps, the mem5ers of which, letIs stri+e for promotion or are more open with regard to progressi+e or radical ideas 2ot e4cl7ded contradiction 5etween the officer corps as a whole, alwa(s ha+ing social and professional pri+ilege, with the enlistment composition and ci+ilian personnel = a contingent that 7s7all( recr7ited from the wor6ing and peasant families @inall(, different t(pes of troops can fight for prestige or reso7rces are alwa(s limited = and so on 7p to the contradictions of regional or ethnic character The nat7re of national armies alwa(s ca7sed 5( certain internal and e4ternal factors = their histor( and traditions, incl7ding the tradition of indi+id7al 7nits, the nat7re of the political s(stem in which the( e4ist, the political c7lt7re and +al7es of the regime Th7s, the political face of the PeopleIs /i5eration 1rm( of China, most definitel( reflects the role that it has pla(ed in the esta5lishment of the comm7nist regime in 1A>A, li6e the one the strict control that the part( is here The armed forces of 9erman( as e4plicitl( 5ear the imprint of the political wor6 that has 5een done here for the eradication of 2a;i s(mpathies and esta5lishment ideolog( of li5eral democrac( 0t sho7ld finall( 5e noted, howe+er, that to spea6 of the nat7re and character of the national armies in general is not eas(, 5eca7se the( can pla( a +er( different role in the political life of societ( The arm( ma( 5e3 a weapon of war g7arantee of political order and sta5ilit( a specific gro7p of interests alternati+e to ci+ilian r7le
T+e role o! t+e ar2y Eeapon of war

The main tas6 of the arm( = if needed to ma6e a weapon of war against other nations 0t is for this reason that the formation of standing armies has coincided with the de+elopment of states in the initial period of the histor( of the 2ew E7rope The f7ndamental point here, howe+er, is the fact that the armed forces m7st 5e read( to 5oth defensi+e and offensi+e p7rposes Ens7ring the defense of the co7ntr(
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against e4ternal aggression C7st made the arm( a constit7ent element of the state = not less o5ligator( than the police, the co7rt, or, sa(, a post office Bowe+er, with the defensi+e f7nction of the arm(, so, it wo7ld seem clear, their associated pro5lems, the sol7tion of which depends on the nat7re of the arm( and its strength .n the one hand, the armed forces m7st 5e strong eno7gh to resist the aggression, 57t e+en 5etter = o5+io7sl( a+oid its dangers on the principle of deterrence potential aggressor The pro5lem here is that this has alwa(s led to an arms race, in fact, to the wars as 57ilding defense capa5ilities neigh5oring states percei+ed as strengthening the capacit( of offensi+e and, therefore, ga+e rise to international tension That is how, for e4ample, the sit7ation was with the na+al arms race 5etween %ritain and imperial 9erman( 5efore Eorld Ear 0, which largel( has its ca7se %7t we sho7ld not lose sight of the fact that the arms race and ma( fa+or the 5alance of power in international relations and, therefore, red7ce the ris6 of war, as was the case d7ring the ?Cold Ear ? .n the other hand, if the arm( ta6es on a p7rel( defensi+e role, it dooms itself to long inacti+it( 1t this time, it needs to maintain high com5at readiness, which ma( ne+er 5e needed Moreo+er, the s7ccessf7l ?deterrence aggressor,? as it ma( seem, is threatened 5( the wea6ening of the arm( of financial s7pport from the comm7nit(, as s7ch, of co7rse, is alwa(s associated with the e4istence of an e4ternal threat 0n this regard, it sho7ld 5e noted that the end of the ?cold war? has 5ro7ght a +er( tangi5le ?peace di+idends? = switching the +ast p75lic reso7rces to peacef7l p7rposes, as in the former comm7nist co7ntries and the Eest 0n -wit;erland, with its historical tradition of ne7tralit( of the arm( in general red7ced to a p7rel( s(m5olic f7nction %7t the time will come and 5ro7ght with them a significant rethin6ing of the role of the armed forces = their wider 7se in h7manitarian inter+entions, as is the case in <7gosla+ia, and in the fight against terrorism, especiall( after the attac6s on 2ew <or6 and Eashington in -eptem5er 2001 Ehen the arm( is 7sed for offensi+e or e4pansionist aims, its role has 5ecome m7ch more important To wage war against other co7ntries, it is necessar( that the armed forces co7ld and wo7ld 5e an instr7ment of aggression, and that was ta6ing place in societ( is strong eno7gh to s7pport these goals @or e4pansionist states so t(pical high le+el of militar( spending, the in+ol+ement of the generals in the process of political decision=
<9& T+e ar2y and t+e )oli'e 857 <9& T+e ar2y and t+e )oli'e 89$
7s and its draw5ac6s3 red7ndanc( and interconnecti+it( of responsi5ilit( more than >0 tho7sand police, of co7rse, t7rns o7t that in s7ch a s(stem at all diffic7lt to tal6 a5o7t what else the 5alance 5etween the principle of police acco7nta5ilit( to the comm7nit( and its principle of political ne7tralit( 0n large 1merican cities li6e 2ew <or6 and /os 1ngeles, the police simpl( can not a+oid political press7re, e+en in matters of e+er(da( acti+ities3 Police commissioners are appointed 5( the ma(or for a specified period, and this time, nat7rall(, the( C7st want to e4tend the time 0n other states, an( decentrali;ation was a5andoned altogether @or e4ample, in Eest 9erman( and Kapan after 1A>5 as part of the general mo+ement towards democrati;ation was initiall( decentrali;ed police s(stem, 57t it soon 5ecame clear that this leads onl( to conf7sion and inefficienc( %( 1A50, Eest 9erman( went 5ac6 to the police organi;ation in the co7ntries, after which there were esta5lished and national agencies s7ch as the @ederal Criminal Police .ffice 0n Kapan, in 1A5>, all police forces were merged into a single national ser+ice reporting to the Commissioner on 2ational P75lic -afet(, 57t f7nctioning mainl( at the le+el of prefect7res %ritain has alwa(s 5een considered a classic e4ample of a decentrali;ed p75lic order, as a national police was ne+er here Eith the e4ception of /ondon Police, which is s75ordinated directl( to the Minister of the 0nterior, the police of the co7ntr( is organi;ed at the local le+el and in the person of the Chief Consta5le is responsi5le and acco7nta5le to the same local a7thorities %7t decentrali;ation is far from perfect here -tart with the fact that the competence of the Minister of 0nternal 1ffairs in practice goes far 5e(ond the Metropolitan Police, co+ering all iss7es of law enforcement in general Thro7gh all sorts of reg7lations, directi+es and circ7lars, as well as parliamentar( legislation, the Ministr( of 0nternal 1ffairs 6eeps 7nder constant re+iew managers will ta6e the national police 0n addition, the trend towards
131
centrali;ation is de+eloped thro7gh the introd7ction of national police affairs technologies, s7ch as the Comp7ter Center of the 2ational Police and the 2ational Center for storage Elements of f7rther centrali;ation 5ro7ght with them and the fact that since the 1AA0Is, the police ha+e 5ecome increasingl( rare practice elected to office @inall(, a +er( 5road range of iss7es at all ta6en o7t of the compan(Is control 0t is primaril( a5o7t the M0 5, competences which in 1AA' was e4panded to incl7de the collection of information on criminal cases and enforcement, as well as e+er(thing that is related to ?national sec7rit(?, with all s7rger( M0 5 are secret character, its 57dget is not s75Cect to parliamentar( scr7tin(, and it is the onl( one of %ritainIs sec7rit( ser+ices, which is gi+en the right to ?determine their own pro5lems ?Theoreticall( spea6ing, this means one thing3 M0 5 can do an(thing, an(one, an(time
C Con'lusions
G The 1rm( is a political instit7tion of some 6ind @rom other instit7tions of societ( armed forces are different in that almost ha+e a monopol( on weapons, ha+e enormo7s power of coercion internal
nall( a highl( disciplined and str7ct7red 5( le+el of s75ordination, ha+e a distincti+e c7lt7re and +al7es, and see themsel+es as 5earers of the national interest, which p7ts them at least in theor(, the ?a5o+e politics ? G The main tas6 of the armed forces = to 5e an instr7ment of war against other nations %7t the 1rm( is 5oth a powerf7l interest gro7p, infl7encing polic( in general, and on foreign and defense polic( in partic7lar 0n addition, it is 7sed as an additional means of maintaining internal order and sta5ilit(, especiall( in sit7ations where the ci+il ser+ice can not cope with this tas6 The arm( finall( spea6s the power to mo+e the ci+ilian go+ernment and esta5lish a dictatorship G Bistoricall(, there were two forms of control o+er the arm( /i5eral, or ?o5Cecti+e?, the model ass7mes that the arm( can and sho7ld 6eep o7t of politics thro7gh the mechanisms of ci+il control thro7gh its s75ordination to ci+ilian r7le and acco7nta5ilit( to him 0n the ?s75Cecti+e? model, or ?penetration model?, the arm( is tied to the ci+ilian leadership that ideologicall( s75ordinate its +al7es and o5Cecti+es of the r7ling elite G Militar( co7ps occ7r 7nder certain circ7mstances The most important of these factors3 the economic 5ac6wardness of the co7ntr( !alwa(s accompanied 5( a low le+el of s7pport for the c7rrent go+ernment$, loss of go+ernment instit7tions and the r7ling elite of their legitimac( in the e(es of societ(, the conflict of interests 5etween the militar( and ci+ilian leadership, and, finall(, the international circ7mstances that forced them to a militar( co7p or at a minim7m, to facilitate their sei;7re of power G The main tas6 of the police = to carr( o7t enforcement and maintain ci+il order 0n this case, it ma( 5e political in nat7re = in cases where it most ha+e some form of trend, when 7sed in relation to ci+il 7nrest or political differences or when it is an instr7ment of the police state, 5ecoming something of a pri+ate arm( in the ser+ice of political elite G 1n effecti+e control of the police reL7ires a 5alance 5etween the principle of its political acco7nta5ilit( and the principle of its politici;ation, which in t7rn depends on whether it is organi;ed on a centrali;ed or decentrali;ed 5asis Decentrali;ed police forces were independent from the central go+ernment and sho7ld 5e responsi+e to local needs Centrali;ation, howe+er, adeL7atel( meets the needs of the national management, and performance reL7irements

R 1s soon as all states ha+e as its 5asis the a7thorit( of a +iolent nat7re, wh( the militar( is so rarel( in+ol+ed in politicsF R Ehen the 7se of the arm( in domestic polic( co7ld 5e C7stifiedF 0f it can 5e considered C7stified R 0s it tr7e that the militar(=ind7strial comple4 is a threat to the democratic processF R 0s it possi5le to sa( that the arm( is e+er(where and alwa(s adhere to the ?right? or a+toritarists6ih political orientationsF R 1lwa(s the police politicF R Ehich is prefera5le = centrali;ed or decentrali;ed policeF
897
Part 1 & Politi's and t+e !un'tioning o! )oliti'al syste2s

899
132
C+a)ter <:& T+e )oliti'al )ro'ess and t+e !un'tioning o! t+e )oliti'al syste2
VR%8 &%7*,*=5 $%$,%*, - ,%., +,%2> )' *.',; )*=5=%? &%7*,*=*W" Lhe phrase oE ! rahaG eincoln , said C his secretarC H1861I
0n o7r e+er(da( life we all thin6 is not so m7ch a5o7t politics as s7ch, 57t a5o7t its separate wa(s, the political programs of the go+ernment and the li6e 1 0n this case, most of 7s ta6e the res7lts of the political process, not the process itself 0t was on his res7lts, we can 7nderstand how the state !go+ernment$ affects the societ( = whether it impro+es o7r li+es, or ma(5e worse %7t in the 1A'0=1A"0= ies in the direction of political science has de+eloped, engaged C7st a political process = how is formed or that the go+ernmentIs program, as it is enforced, how to ma6e it all the more effecti+e 0t is important, howe+er, is not onl( how polic( is made, 57t also what 6ind of pro5lems it sol+es, as e+er(thing that happens within the state, and then reflected on the societ( Bere we ha+e considered a p7rel( normati+e L7estions3 ?Ehat e4ists at the stateF?, ?Ehat is good and what is the plane
TA=LE OF CONTENTS
he #olitical #rocess Lheories oE decisionF GaNing Stage oE the political process he functioning of the #olitical syste+ 7 Lhe criterion oE sta ilitC Lhe criterion oE econoGic developGent Lhe criterion oE huGan rights Lhe criterion oE deGocracC Findings Issues for discussion
1
(-. 489 494 12% 502 504 506 126 1212.
The iss+e of this cha,ter once a2ain reveals a 1is1atch of ,olitical science ter1inolo2y in the ;n2lish an- !+ssian lan2+a2es #t -eals 4ith the fact that ;n2lish is calle- : Policy :8 3 the conce,t8 not si1,ly the: Politics : 5bility to translate : Policy :as: ,olitics :4e are only in ,hrases s+ch as: @cience an- Technolo2y Policy of the Govern1ent :or: e-+cation ,olicy :8 that is8 only 4hen talkin2 abo+t s,ecific ,olicy areas of state or 2overn1ent The ter1 : Policy :cha,ter 4as translate- by the conte?t8 b+t in 2eneral ter1s s+ch as: ,olicy -irection :8: ,olitical ,ro2ra1 :8 etc ( Note. lane. )
<:& T+e )oliti'al )ro'ess and t+e !un'tioning o! t+e )oliti'al syste2 89:
Ba(aIs political s(stemF ?,? Ehat is a good societ(F ? 0t is th7s a L7estion of fact on the 5asis of what criteria to assess the f7nctioning of political s(stems 0t is clear that the answers to these L7estions will depend on what political and ideological positions adheres to a partic7lar theorist %elow we present the different points of +iew on this matter This chapter addresses the following 6e( iss7es
T+e 2ain @uestions

P Ehat is the direction of the polic(F P Bow are political decisionsF Ehat theories e4isted and e4ist on thisF P Ehat are the main stages of the political processF P Ehat are the most ?desira5le? res7lts of the political processF
133
P 1s the point of +iew of these res7lts it is possi5le to e+al7ate the f7nctioning of the indi+id7al states and political s(stemsF
C T+e )oliti'al )ro'ess

The concept of ?political process? refers to the mechanisms 5( which ?ma6es? a p75lic !go+ernment, go+ernment$ polic( .n the de+elopment of polic( as a %rocess we are tal6ing in two senses @irst, there is the case connected seL7ence of actions or e+ents This chain 5egins with the 5irth of an idea and its original design, contin7es its disc7ssion, anal(sis and e+al7ation is completed and the adoption of formal decisions and their s75seL7ent implementation thro7gh certain pre=concei+ed actions -econd, de+eloping policies as we tal6 a5o7t the process in order to foc7s precisel( on the mechanisms of decision=ma6ing, a5stracting from their content 0n the first section of this chapter we will loo6 at how decisions are made, what are the different stages of the process
T+eories o! de'ision.2a?ing
Political decision or set of decisions or entire political program, of co7rse, is the main point of the political process Bowe+er, as it will seem strange to determine when and wh( it was decided that a decision is not alwa(s eas( for indi+id7als and gro7ps, 5oth small and large organi;ations, democratic and a7thoritarian go+ernments ma6e decisions in different wa(s There are se+eral theories of political decision=ma6ing, respecti+el( accenting in this process3 rationalit( Empirical start
8:; 1 & Politi's and t+e !un'tioning o! )oliti'al syste2s $;9 1 & Politi's and t+e !un'tioning o! )oliti'al syste2s
%7t in this case, the r7le in the interests of the people ma( well t7rn into a 6ind of enlightened despotism 1nother dilemma = the proper 5alance 5etween the indi+id7al and the comm7nit(3 how to ma6e stronger political position of a citi;en does not t7rn into a wea6ening of p75lic power, and +ice +ersa 0n all this lies a lot of pro5lems that, in practice, allow a +er(, +er( diffic7lt Moreo+er, as man( theorists, this is the pro5lem = the L7estion of the proper relationship 5etween the indi+id7al and societ( = in fact, is the central pro5lem of political theor(
C Con'lusions
G Ehen we tal6 a5o7t the de+elopment of polic(, we see this as a process .n the process in this case we are tal6ing in two senses @irst, the polic( is to de+elop an interconnected seL7ence of decisions and actions of the go+ernment = a n7m5er of steps that ha+e 5ro7ght the original intentions of politicians t7rn into res7lts -econdl(, the notion of ?de+elopment polic(? refers mainl( to the fact e4actl( how the go+ernment ma6es decisions, 57t not to the content of the decisions themsel+es G The sol7tion is a 6ind of act of choosing 5etween +ario7s options 0n this case, howe+er, the( are alwa(s infl7enced 5( the factors or otherwise Decision=ma6ing process so 7nderstand differentl( 0t can 5e 7nderstood in terms of rational 5eha+ior of people in ad+ance 6eeping in mind a partic7lar p7rpose and mo+ing toward that goal, and as a set of reactions to changing circ7mstances, it is possi5le to disting7ish the moments that reflect the infl7ence of the e4ternal organi;ational en+ironment, and he is finall( a5le to 5ear the print the +al7es and 5eliefs that are inherent to decision=ma6ers G 0n the political process can 5e di+ided into fo7r stages 0n the first stage = in the phase of initiation polic( = form7lated the original idea, pro+iding direction for f7rther de+elopment 1t the stage of form7lating general polic( ideas p7t forward earlier, t7rned into concrete and detailed installation program 1t the stage of implementation, all this somehow enforced 0n the last stage = the stage of polic( e+al7ation = carried o7t a critical anal(sis of the res7lts that can and sho7ld 5e the impro+ement of the political process in its s75seL7ent c(cles G 0n the end, the political process can 5e C7dged not onl( 7pon its impact on societ( .pinion that on the 5asis of what criteria it is 5est to do it, +ar( widel( Most often, the political s(stem is C7dged 5( how it s7pports sta5ilit( and order, promote higher standards of li+ing, ens7re ci+il rights and the e4pansion of democrac(
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R 0s it possi5le to sa( that people alwa(s ma6e decisions more rational wa(F R Ehat stage in the political process is the most important and wh(F R Ehat are the ethical and economic disc7ssions are going aro7nd the iss7e of social eL7alit(F R 0s it possi5le to sa( that ?the L7estion of h7man rights? o7tweighed ?the L7estion of the common good?F R 0s there a contradiction 5etween the principle of democrac( and the principle of freedom, can lead to the e4pansion of democrac( in c7stod( in the societ(F R 0s it possi5le to sa( that people are alwa(s the 5est C7dges in regard to their own interests and affairsF R Ehat is the political s(stem came closest to the ideal of a ?good societ(?F
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Politi'al Di'tionary o! Ter2s
An'ien R K gi2e !@rench$ = letters ?.ld order?, a term commonl( 7sed in relation to the a5sol7tist regime which preceded the @rench *e+ol7tion of 1"#A Detente !@rench$ = letters ?Detente?Q detente in relations 5etween the warring states /e2eins'+a!t !9erman$ = the comm7nit(, which is 5ased on nat7ral lapping relationships 5etween people /esells'+a!t !9erman$ = a comm7nit(, which is 5ased on the free, man, in some wa(s e+en contract7al relationship Laisse0 . !aire !@rench$ = letters ?/ea+e it as it is?, the principle of non=interference of the state in economic life No(lesse o(lige !@rench$ = letters ?2o5ilit( o5liges?, in a general sense = the responsi5ilit( for the fate of the less fort7nate and less fort7nate people 1ol?sgeist !9erman$ = letters ?The spirit of the people?, the most characteristic feat7res of the people, as e4pressed in its c7lt7re and lang7age Wel!are !English$ = letters ?Prosperit(, prosperit(?, as a political principle is associated with the concept of economic sec7rit( of the whole societ( on the 5asis of social sec7rit( and social s7pport = all that has 5een called ?the welfare state? A(solutis2 = the theor( or practice of ?a5sol7te? r7le, which has at its core the claim for an 7nlimited right to power Autar?y = the letters ?-elf=go+ernment?, in the traditional sense = economic self=s7fficienc(, achie+ed either 5( colonial e4pansion, either thro7gh self=imposed isolation from the world mar6et Aut+oritarianis2 = the doctrine of the r7le of the ?top? in which the go+ernment acts witho7t regard to p75lic opinion, as well as the practical application of this doctrine Ad2inistrati3e law = the 5ranch of law that defines the framewor6 within which the p75lic administration Ad2inistration = the implementation of a political or administrati+e co7rse, in a narrow sense = a general g7ide3 information management and financial control Asian 3alues = the +al7es, pres7ma5l( reflecting the histor(, c7lt7re and historical 5ac6gro7nd of the formation of 1sian societies, as e4amples of social harmon(, respect for a7thorit( and faith in famil( +al7es Altruis2 = concern for the welfare of others, which is 5ased on either ?enlightened self=interest? or the h7manistic ideal, the reali;ation that we are all connected to each other Anar'+is2 = ideological c7rrent, which is intended to destr7ction of the state and is characteri;ed 5( reCection of political power in all its manifestations, in the 5asis of anarchism = the 5o7ndless faith in the ideals of freedom and eL7alit( Anar'+y = literall( ?1narch(?, 7s7all( 7sed in a peCorati+e sense, as a s(m5ol of insta5ilit( or e+en chaos Jnder'lass = segments of the pop7lation are marginali;ed social and political life d7e to low material and c7lt7ral le+el Ano2ie = a crisis of +al7es and norms associated with the spread of the relationship of alienation, loneliness and meaninglessness of e4istence "Anti.)arty )arty" = a part( whose aim is to somehow 7ndermine the traditional part( s(stem, installation, e4pressed in the ref7sal to compromise in parliament and the shift to wor6 in the comm7nit( Anti)oliti?a = disappointment in official polic( in the traditional mechanisms of the political process, on the part of societ( is e4pressed in the 7nits to ?non=participation? in s7pport of
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parties opposed to the ?s(stem? and finall(, in e+er( 6ind of ?direct political action ? Anti.Se2itis2 = an e4pression of hostilit( towards Kews 1nti=-emitism can accept religio7s, economic or racist form
135
Ant+ro)o'entris2 = conception, according to which people with their interests and needs is the center of the 7ni+erse = a position opposite ecocentrism Asso'iation = a +ol7ntar( association of people with common interests, moti+es and goals of acti+ities Ato2is2 = the notion that societ( is composed of disparate indi+id7als, rel(ing onl( on themsel+es and do not owe an(thing to each other, internal fragmentation of societ( At+enian de2o'ra'y = a form of direct democrac( 5ased on management thro7gh p75lic meetings and the distri57tion of go+ernment posts 5ased on the drawing of lots or a s(stem of rotation T+e (alan'e o! )ower = a model of cooperation 5etween the states in which the opport7nities of m7t7al aggression and e4pansion are limited so radicall( that the( 5ecome ?+irt7all(? impossi5le and impractical =al?ani0ation = the state of the political str7ct7re in which it is a ?patchwor6 L7ilt?, torn apart 5( internal contradictions !meaning the political e4perience of the %al6ans$ T+e =ill o! Rig+ts = a constit7tional doc7ment that defines the rights and freedoms of the indi+id7al and, therefore, the legal limits of ci+il li5ert( =i)olarity = the tendenc( of the international s(stem to e+ol+e aro7nd two poles !the larger 5loc6s$, in a sense, implies a 5alance and sta5ilit( in the world =e+a3ioris2 = the direction in ps(cholog(, post7lating that sociological theor( sho7ld 5e 5ased solel( on the st7d( of 5eha+ior, gi+ing an o5ser+a5le and L7antifia5le data T+e di3ine rig+t = the doctrine on which the earthl( r7lers are chosen 5( 9od and therefore sho7ld enCo( and 7nlimited power, the theoretical 5asis of the a5sol7te monarch( "=ig /o3ern2ent" = a concept which is 7s7all( characteri;ed 5( the go+ernment, adhering to the principles of 5road inter+ention into p75lic life =ona)artis2 = a control s(stem, which implies a com5ination of personal leadership with conser+ati+e nationalism, according to Mar4ism, %onapartism reflects the relati+e freedom of the state from societ( T+e (ourgeoisie = the Mar4ist term for the r7ling class in capitalist societ(, the owners of the means of prod7ction =ourgeois ideology = Mar4ist term for the ideas and theories that, mas6ing the contradictions of capitalist societ(, ser+e the interests of the 5o7rgeoisie =ureau'ra'y = literall( ?9o+ernment officials?, the administrati+e machiner( of the state, or !increasingl($ = rational wa( of organi;ing mental la5or /ross do2esti' )rodu't */DP, = the total monetar( +al7e of the final prod7ct and ser+ices prod7ced in the econom( in one (ear Regionalis2 = centrif7gal processes in the 57rea7cratic str7ct7re, characteri;ed 5( the desire of go+ernment agencies to p7rs7e their own interests and resist political control as well as more general administrati+e discipline /reat )ower = the state holding the highest le+el in the hierarch( of the world, = the stat7s that is reflected in the capa5ilities of its impact on the less powerf7l states West2inster 2odel = state s(stem, 7nder which the e4ec7ti+e power comes from the parliament, and !in theor($ is acco7nta5le to him 1eto = the opport7nit( to formall( 5loc6 the adoption of a decision or an action 5( den(ing him recognition Aut+ority *t+e aut+ority, = the right to determine the 5eha+ior of people, which is 5ased on +ol7ntaril( accepted their o5ligation to compl( with certain reL7irements Power can 5e a traditional, rational=legal or come from the indi+id7al Power *!or'e, = the a5ilit( to infl7ence the 5eha+ior of others, 7s7all( with negati+e or positi+e sanctions against them
Politi'al Di'tionary o! Ter2s $<<

T+e rule o! law = the principle that the ?edit? ta5 at the law societ( m7st, in other words, the law sho7ld set the framewor6 5e(ond which the actions and 5eha+ior of people can not get o7t T+e 2ilitary.industrial 'o2)leE *BIC, = a concept means strong interactions 5etween the interests of the armed forces and militar( ind7stries, which has the 5asis of their common desire to achie+e an increase in militar( spending T+e 2ilitary regi2e = a political regime in which p75lic offices are engaged in accordance with the place of man in the militar( hierarch( War = the state of organi;ed warfare 5etween two or more -tates Per2issi3eness = the willingness to gi+e people 7nlimited freedom of moral choice, in+ol+es the denial of solid +al7es T+e +ege2ony = dominance of one element of the s(stem o+er all the others, from the point of +iew of Mar4ism, hegemon( means dominance in the spirit7al, ideological sphere /ender = a comple4 of social and c7lt7ral differences 5etween men and women T+e +ead o! state = the chief representati+e of the state, 7s7all( either the monarch or president, in some political s(stems, it ma( 5e a fig7re of p7rel( s(m5olic +al7e /lo(ali0ation = a comple4 s(stem of international relationships that t7rns that ha+e occ7rred in the same region and e+ents ta6en in the same region political decisions affect the people li+ing on the other side of the glo5e 6uali!ied 2aDority 3oting = +oting form7la, in which, for +ario7s 6inds of decisions reL7ire different n7m5er of +otes of the maCorit(, and the +oices of the participants ha+e a ?5alanced? character depending on the si;e of the state Pu(li' ad2inistration = an( mechanism for controlling the societ( that s7pports it esta5lished order that has the a5ilit( to de+elop collecti+e sol7tions and implement them State 'a)italis2 = a s(stem of state ownership, which d7plicates the capitalist class relations, concentrating economic power in the hands of the part(=state elite
136
T+e 'ou) = the armed sei;7re of state power, carried o7t illegal, ?7nconstit7tional? means and !in contrast to the re+ol7tion or 7prising$ 5( a small gro7p of people State so'ialis2 = a 6ind of socialism in which the state controls and directs the economic life of societ(, acting, in theor(, in the interests of the people T+e go3ern2ent = a political organi;ation with the so+ereign a7thorit( within a defined territor(, and characteri;ed 5( the monopol( of the ?instit7tionali;ed +iolence? "T+e state.wat'+2an" = the state with the minim7m o5ligations, mainl( to preser+e internal order and the protection of the pri+ate sector "Nanny state" = a state that has ta6en the e4tra wide social o5ligationsQ metaphor s7ggests that all sorts of social programs 7ltimatel( h7miliating for a man T+e Ci3il War = a state of armed conflict 5etween the politicall( organi;ed gro7ps *ithin a state = of str7ggle, d7ring which addressed the iss7e of who will hold state power Ci3i' 'ulture = a c7lt7re that com5ines the 5road participation of societ( in politics and go+ernment, 7p to their responsi5ilities, are tho7ght to 5e a necessar( condition for a sta5le democratic s(stem Ci3il li(erty = the pri+ate sphere of h7man life, wholl( owned 5( him, and not to the state, freedom from the state Ci3il so'iety = the sphere of a7tonomo7s gro7ps and associations, ?pri+ate? instit7tions, which are independent from the state Citi0ens+i) = 5elonging to a partic7lar state, the relationship 5etween the indi+id7al and the state = a relationship in which the( are 5o7nd 5( m7t7al rights and o5ligations Pressure grou) . see the interest grou)& An interest grou) !or )ressure grou), = an association of people whose goal is to infl7ence the policies or actions of indi+id7al go+ernments Hu2anitarian inter3ention = militar( inter+ention, not p7rs7ing militar( and h7manitarian p7rposes
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T+e (i'a2eral syste2 = the separation of the legislat7re into two eL7al cham5ers in the legislat7re, this instit7tion is designed to limit the actions of the go+ernment De3olution = the transfer of power to the local le+el, which is not !as opposed to federalism$ to the ?di+ision of so+ereignt( ? De.industriali0ation = the o+erall decline prod7ction 5ase of the econom(, reflected in the decline of hea+( ind7str( De2agogue = a politician win o+er the masses with promises, especiall( calc7lated to ca7se ele+ated to the enth7siasm of the crowd De2o'rati0ation = go to the path of the li5eral=democratic reforms, which is manifested, in partic7lar, to pro+ide citi;ens 5asic freedoms, the a5ilit( to ha+e a political choice, as well as in the e4pansion of p75lic participation De2o'rati' 'entralis2 = the /eninist principle of the part( organi;ation, 5ased at least in theor(, in conC7nction with the disc7ssion of freedom discipline of e4ec7tion De2o'ra'y = go+ernment of the people, democrac(, in practice, ta6e a +ariet( of forms, as a means of mass participation in political life and the f7nctioning of the go+ernment in the p75lic interest Deter2inis2 = the doctrine that peopleIs actions, their choice is rigidl( predetermined 5( e4ternal factors, in+ol+es the denial of free will T+e de2o'rati' de!i'it = lac6 of acco7nta5ilit( of e4ec7ti+e a7thorities legislat7res or the lac6 of opport7nities for p75lic participation in political life De'entrali0ation = e4pansion of local a7tonom( thro7gh the de+ol7tion of power from the center to the field Fingois2 = ps(cholog( of e4treme enth7siasm to cele5rate militar( +ictories and conL7ests T+e diale'ti' = the str7ggle of opposites, which is the res7lt of the transition to a higher stage of de+elopment Diale'ti'al 2aterialis2 = the philosoph( of Mar4ism, mar6ed 5( rigid determinism, at the state le+el was declared almost in the official philosoph( of orthodo4 comm7nist co7ntries T+e di'tators+i) = the e4ercise of power 5( 7ndemocratic methodsQ a5sol7te power with distincti+e elements of ar5itrariness T+e di'tators+i) o! t+e )roletariat = the Mar4ist term for the transitional period from the collapse of the capitalist s(stem to the final +ictor( of comm7nism Dis'ourse = speech interaction 5etween people, reasoning, con+ersation, comm7nication Ma( reflect the distri57tion of power 5etween people T+e do'trine o! 'on3ergen'e = the theor( that the political and economic de+elopment of modern societ( ine+ita5l( leads to 5l7rring the distinction 5etween capitalist and socialist social s(stems Euro'o22unis2 = a moderate form of comm7nism, 5ased on a s(nthesis of Mar4ism and the principles of li5eral democrac( Natural law = the moral s(stem on which rests, or sho7ld rest right, a set of principles and rights arising from the nat7re of man T+e natural state = a societ( in which there is no political power and the formal !legal$ restrictions on the freedom of the indi+id7al, the term is 7s7all( 7sed metaphoricall( Natural rig+ts = rights deri+ed from 9od, f7ndamental to all people and therefore inaliena5le
137
T+e legislature = the 5ranch of go+ernment, +ested with the e4cl7si+e right of law=ma6ing and responsi5le for passing laws in the manner prescri5ed 5( the Constit7tion T+e (ill = the law=proposal s75mitted in draft form to the law, and when the 5ill is accepted, it 5ecomes a law Idealis2 = a loo6 at the polic(, which is characteri;ed 5( attention to the ethics of international 5eha+ior and ideals, in philosophical terms idealism = the doctrine according to which the idea of ?more real? than the material world Ideal ty)e = spec7lati+e constr7ction, allowing to ma6e the most sense of the infinitel( comple4 phenomena of the world, to re+eal their e4tremel( common logical core
Politi'al Di'tionary o! Ter2s $<#

Ideology = a more or less coherent and internall( consistent set of ideas, which is the 5asis for organi;ed political action "T+e ele'toral di'tators+i)" = a sit7ation in which the onl( factor that imposes restrictions on e4ec7ti+e power, is the desire to win the ne4t election Isolationis2 = the state polic( of non=interference in international affairs, in partic7lar, the desire to a+oid political or militar( o5ligations in relation to other co7ntries I22o(ility = paral(sis of the political s(stem ca7sed 5( the lac6 of strong e4ec7ti+e power, which is d7e to the fragmentation of the legislat7re, and perhaps societ( as a whole I2)erialis2 = the polic( of the state to e4tend its a7thorit( 5e(ond its own territor(Q imperialism can also 5e an ideolog( that C7stifies militar( e4pansion I2)ea'+2ent = a special proced7re for the prosec7tion and dismissal of senior official on the gro7nds of ?improper performance of d7ties ? Indi3idualis2 = the principle asserting the primac( of the indi+id7al o+er the interests of an( social gro7p or team Industriali0ation = economic theor( or practice 5ased on the principles of large=scale factor( prod7ction and acc7m7lation of capital ?at an( cost? T+e initiati3e = a referend7m in which the compan( has the right to p7t forward legislati+e proposals T+e Institute o! t+e Pri2e Binister = a s(stem of go+ernment, which is characteri;ed 5( a high degree of concentration of e4ec7ti+e power in the hands of the Prime Minister and the secondar( role of collecti+e armchair go+ernment Inter3entionis2 *inter3ention, = the principle of p75lic polic(, orienting the go+ernment to greater participation in economic life, in practice, most often e4pressed in the e4pansion of reg7lator(, control, impact on the econom( "T+e Art o! news" = the presentation of information in s7ch a wa( as to ca7se the desired effect and a reactionQ ?sa+ings for the tr7th ? T+e eEe'uti3e (ran'+ = the 5ranch of go+ernment responsi5le for the e4ec7tion of the national legislation and implementation of national policies Histori'al 2aterialis2 = the Mar4ist concept that the econom( in general and the material conditions of social prod7ction, determine the legal s(stem, politics, c7lt7re and other aspects of societ( Ca(inet = a 5od( composed of senior ministers are reg7larl( collected and headed the highest official of the e4ec7ti+e 5ranch, in different political s(stems, office f7nctions range from the formation of polic( e4ec7tion to a p7rel( ad+isor( f7nctions T+e des? go3ern2ent = a s(stem of go+ernment in which the ca5inet is endowed with e4ec7ti+e powers, and all mem5ers of the Ca5inet decision=ma6ing are !in theor($ eL7al weight and are s75Cect to collecti+e responsi5ilit( Ca)italis2 = the s(stem of commodit( prod7ction, 5ased on the principles of the mar6et and pri+ate ownership of the means of prod7ction 6uango = red7ction from the English ?J7asi=a7tonomo7s non=go+ernmental organi;ation?3 an( entit( performing go+ernmental f7nctions and is not made 7p of elected politicians and ci+il ser+ants, and of the people in+ol+ed from the side Heynesianis2 = de+eloped 5( Kohn Ma(nard &e(nesIs theor( of the role of go+ernment in managing the econom( or the political co7rse 5ased on this doctrine and its p7rpose is to achie+e f7ll emplo(ment of methods of state reg7lation Class 'ons'iousness = a Mar4ist term referring to the awareness of the indi+id7al interests of the class to which it 5elongs, and a willingness to follow those interests, class conscio7sness is s(non(mo7s with ?class for itself ? Clientelis2 = the s(stem of relations in which go+ernment agencies are 5eginning to ser+e the interests of the ?c7stomer relationship gro7ps? whose acti+ities the( are s7pposed to reg7late T+e 'oalition = a temporar( alliance of political forces to which the( are p7shed or general awareness of danger or fail7re to achie+e the goals one 5( one T+e 'oalition go3ern2ent = the go+ernment, in which ministerial portfolios, and with them the power is distri57ted 5etween two or more parties
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Cau'us = 1 meeting of part( mem5ers, which are elected 5( the candidates in the elections, and perhaps disc7ss legislati+e proposals 5efore the official start of wor6 on them Colle'ti3i0ation = the a5olition of pri+ate propert(, in ret7rn for which the implanted p75lic or collecti+e ownership Colle'ti3is2 = the 5elief in people predisposed to collecti+e action, their a5ilit( to wor6 together to achie+e res7lts, not indi+id7al effortsQ collecti+ism s7ggests that social gro7ps = is the real political ed7cation Colle'ti3e se'urity = theoretical 5asis and practical application of the principle that aggression m7st 5e co7ntered 5( Coint efforts of se+eral states
138
Colle'ti3e res)onsi(ility = the 5asic principle of the go+ernmentIs des6, according to which all ministers are reL7ired to p75licl( s7pport the go+ernmentIs co7rse Colonialis2 = the theor( and 8 or practice of esta5lishing control o+er foreign territor( 5( a de+ice of settlements and economic s75ordination of the territor( Co22ittee = a small wor6ing gro7p, composed of mem5ers of a larger 5od( and endowed with special powers T+e 2uni'i)ality *'o22unity, = a small team, 5ased on the principles of Coint ownership of propert( and self= go+ernment, and sometimes spreading to the wa( of famil( and personal life Co22unis2 = the principle of collecti+e ownership, the notion of ?comm7nism? also incl7des political mo+ements and regimes 5ased on the teachings of Mar4 Co22unitarianis2 = the concept that a man shaped 5( the comm7nit( to which he 5elongs, in this sense, there are no people who do not owe an(thing to an(5od( Con3ention = a 5eha+ioral norm, non=legal constit7tional pro+ision Consensus = general agreement a5o7t certain f7ndamental principles, which to a certain e4tent allows a difference of opinion or disagreement on the details A 'onsensus )oliti's = a st(le of politics 5ased on the willingness of the parties to see6 a sol7tion 5( negotiation and coordination of positions, ideological positions o+erlap 5etween two or more parties !parties$ with respect to the main o5Cecti+es of political de+elopment Conser3atis2 = for ideological defining feat7res of which are adherence to tradition, the notion of d7t(, a7thorit( and propert( The spectr7m ranges from conser+ati+e +iews Tor( paternalism to the teachings of the ?new right? Constitutionalis2 = a concept that ass7mes that power in the state an(wa( defined 5( the Constit7tion Constitutional go3ern2ent = the go+ernment that f7nctions in s7ch legal and instit7tional framewor6 that not onl( limit his power, 57t also protect the freedom of the indi+id7al Constitutional law = the law go+erning the relationship 5etween the 5ranches of go+ernment, and 5etween the state and the indi+id7al T+e Constitution = the 5asic law of the state, a set of r7les that determine the powers, powers and f7nctions of the +ario7s instit7tions of a partic7lar s(stem of go+ernment, the relationship 5etween these instit7tions and 5etween the state and the indi+id7al Con!ederation = sla5otsentrali;o+ann( 7nion of states, all of whose mem5ers retain their independence, which, among other things, pro+ided the practice of 7nanimo7s decision=ma6ing T+e 'on!li't = the ri+alr( 5etween the warring parties, reflecting differences in their +iews, preferences, needs or interests Con!u'ianis2 = Conf7ci7s form7lated code of ethics, in which special emphasis was placed on piet( and lo(alt( in the relationship 5etween people and self=identit( T+e 'on'e)t o! eE'lusi3ity = the feat7res of a gi+en political s(stem, 7niL7e to her alone, which th7s limit the applica5ilit( to this s(stem of general categories Cor)oratis2 = the theor( and practice of ?incorporation? !ena5le$ the interests of different social gro7ps in the processes of go+ernance, can wear li5eral or a7thoritarian
Politi'al Di'tionary o! Ter2s $<$

Corru)tion = ?improper? performance of d7t(, a57se of office for pri+ate !7s7all( financial$ 5enefits Cos2o)olitanis2 = in the literal sense of confidence in the ?world state?, the desire to esta5lish peace and harmon( among nations "eno)+o(ia = fear of foreigners or hate them, ethnocentrism, acL7iring pathological forms T+e 'ult o! )ersonality = a tool of propaganda, which is the political leader of the heroic, sometimes e+en 9od=li6e light Culture = the mentalit( of people, their 5eliefs, their s(stem of s(m5ols and +al7es in a 5road sense, all that a person is not gi+en 5( heredit(, and 5( the acc7m7lation of 6nowledge Cultural nationalis2 = a form of nationalism, its primar( tas6 is considered the spirit7al re+i+al of the nation as a ci+ili;ation, 57t it has its inherent feat7res "Le!t" = all the mo+ements that 5roadl( shared commitment to the principles of li5ert(, eL7alit(, fraternit( and progress Legiti2a'y = literall( correctness, the L7alit( that gi+es a7thorities the a7thorit( in the e(es of societ(, ma6ing their decisions 5inding Leninis2 = theoretical contri57tion :0 /eninIs Mar4ist concept, in partic7lar, his thesis a5o7t the part( as the +ang7ard of the re+ol7tionar( mo+ement Li(erali0ation = the introd7ction of internal and e4ternal constraints of go+ernment a7thorit( and 8 or the mo+ement toward pri+ate enterprise and the mar6et Li(eralis2 = the ideological tradition fo7nded on a commitment to the principles of indi+id7alism, freedom, tolerance and harmon(Q li5eralism in its c7rrent form has a n7m5er of differences from the classical li5eralism Li(eral de2o'ra'y = a democratic form of go+ernment in which fo7nd a 5alance 5etween the principle of limited go+ernment and the principle of p75lic participation in politics, li5eral democrac( = it is a special t(pe of political regime Li(ertarianis2 = the 5elief in the need for f7ll e4pansion of the scope of indi+id7al freedoms, 7s7all( in+ol+es minimi;ing the scope of p75lic a7thorit( in societ(
139
Leaders+i) = the effect on a large mass of people, or the personal L7alities that ma6e a person enco7rages people to +ol7ntar( s75mission Personal res)onsi(ility . see Binisterial res)onsi(ility& Lo((y = interest gro7p infl7ence the political process Lo((ying = to infl7ence the mem5er !s$ of Parliament or to the polic( False 'ons'iousness = a Mar4ist term referring to misconceptions that pre+ent the oppressed classes to reali;e their sit7ation e4ploited BaDoritarianis2 = theoretical 5asis and practical application of the principle that preference is gi+en to the will of the maCorit(Q in+ol+es ignoring the positions of minorities and indi+id7als B'Donaldi0ation = stead( e4pansion process, in which the central place occ7pied 5( prod7cts, sales and mar6eting strategies related to the ind7str(, ?fast food? !fast food$ B'Cart+yis2 = the practice of a ?witch h7nt? and n7mero7s in+estigations indiscriminatel( in the media following the e4ample of the campaign that has 5een 7nleashed against the ?comm7nist? in 1A50 5( U - -enator Koseph McCarth( Ba'+ia3ellianis2 = sl( and d7plicito7s 5eha+ior, often ha+ing to pri+ate or political ad+ancement, the concept owes its name 2iccolo Machia+elli Ba'ro 2anage2ent = the entire set of management relations that e4ist in societ( in general management, which incl7des, in partic7lar, p75lic administration S2all *2ini2u2, state = the state whose f7nctions are limited to the maintenance of internal order and protection of propert(, the state as a night watchman T+e 2andate = instr7ction or mandate !order$ coming from higher=le+el a7thoritiesQ mandate can wear legislated stat7s or e4ist as a moral o5ligation Bani!esto = a doc7ment that is more or less thoro7ghl( planned policies or programs which part( won the election, intends to implement
$<5
Bar?eti0ation = spread thro7gho7t the econom( and societ( of mar6et relations 5ased on the commodit( e4change and material interest BarEis2 = a comprehensi+e theor( de+eloped 5( &arl Mar4 and has its 5ase of historical materialism, the idea of dialectical de+elopment and anal(sis of the class of the societ( Bass 2edia = p75lic instit7tions engaged in the prod7ction and distri57tion of all 6inds of information and co+er the widest possi5le a7dience Bass so'iety = a societ( which is inherent in the atomism dis7nit( 5etween the people, the lac6 of c7lt7ral and political roots, the concept that points to the negati+e tendencies of modern ci+ili;ation Baterialis2 = the doctrine that ma6es the emphasis on material h7man needs and their satisfaction, in a philosophical sense = the 5elief that onl( matter is real, or that at the heart of the historical process 5ased on economic factors Berito'ra'y = literall( meaning ?r7le of the worth(?, the principle that the distri57tion of wealth in societ( and the management s(stem m7st 5e 5ased on the merits of the person Ber'antilis2 = a school of economic tho7ght, emphasi;es the role of the state in reg7lating world trade and domestic economic de+elopment mainl( thro7gh the acti+e protection Lo'al de2o'ra'y = the principle em5odies the idea of local a7tonom( as well as the ideal of comm7nit( participation in the political process Betaideologiya = the ideolog( of the highest order, the 5asis for disc7ssions on more specific ideological iss7es International law = the s(stem of laws, r7les and reg7lations 5inding on the part of -tates, there5( defining their relationship Bilitaris2 = the achie+ement of the o5Cecti+es 5( militar( means, the distri57tion of militar( ideals and +al7es within ci+il societ( Binisterial !or )ersonal, res)onsi(ility = doctrine that all acts of his s75ordinates, incl7ding for wrong, the minister responsi5le Bodel = a theoretical representation of the empirical data, accenting the most significant relationships and interactions, there5( contri57ting to the 7nderstanding of the pro5lem Bonar'+y = the state s(stem in which the f7nction of head of state is hereditar( or d(nastic s7ccession Bonetaris2 = the theor( that the ca7se of inflation is a monetar( iss7e, ?Too m7ch mone( for too few goods ? Bonetary )oli'y = state control o+er the n7m5er and +al7e of mone(, carried o7t mainl( thro7gh the mechanism of interest rates Bulti)olarity = the s(stem of international relations, which has two or more centers of power, 7s7all( changea5le and de+oid of an( relia5le 5alance Bulti.le3el go3ernan'e = a comple4 political process that com5ines s75=-tate, state and s7pranational le+els, and the acti+ities of go+ernmental and non=go+ernmental actors Bulti)lier = a mechanism 5( which changes in aggregate demand increase national income to the e4tent of its circ7lation in the econom( Nadnatsionali02 = the a5ilit( of transnational instit7tions or instit7tions with glo5al C7risdiction to dictate their will to nation=states
140
Po)ular so3ereignty = the principle that there is no a7thorit( higher than the will of the people !the 5asis of the classical 7nderstanding of democrac($ S'ien'e = the area of acti+it( and 6nowledge, the aim of which is to e4plain the phenomena 5ased on o5ser+ation, e4periment and logical thin6ing Nationalis2 = the ideolog(, according to which the 5asis of the political str7ct7re of the state sho7ld ta6e the nation, in practice, nationalism can ta6e man( forms National So'ialis2 *Na0is2, = 5ecame widespread in the form of fascism of BitlerIs 9erman(, the defining feat7res of which were totalitarian terror that de+eloped into genocide of the Kews, anti=-emitism and racism e4pansionist nat7re T+e Nation = historical comm7nit( of people connected 5( a single c7lt7ral heritage and aware of itself as a nat7rall( pre+ailing political comm7nit(
Politi'al Di'tionary o! Ter2s $<7

T+e nation.state = an independent political comm7nit( 5o7nd together 5( strong ties of common citi;enship and nationalit(, the principle of ?one nation = one state ? Negati3e !reedo2 = non=interference from the o7tside, the a5sence of e4ternal constraints of the indi+id7al, and sometimes negati+e freedom is interpreted as ?freedom from something ? Negati3e rig+ts = rights that defines the scope of 7nrestricted freedom of man = an area in which the state is certainl( not to intr7de Neutrality = non=interference in the relationship of the opposing sides, the fail7re to ta6e a partic7lar position Neoideali02 = concept of international relations, emphasi;ing the ?practical? +al7e of moralit(, especiall( the principles of respect for h7man rights and independence of -tates Neo'olonialis2 = control o+er foreign territor(, carried o7t with the help of economic !and sometimes c7lt7ral$ domination rather than direct political presence Neo.'onser3atis2 = the newest +ersion of social conser+atism, which foc7ses on the need to ret7rn to power as the a7thorit( and traditional +al7es Neo'or)oratis2 = a trend o5ser+ed in the western pol(archies 0ts main feat7re = the granting of a gro7p of persons ha+ing common interests, the pri+ileged and legal access to polic( ma6ing Neoli(eralis2 = the modern +ersion of the classical political econom(, the foc7s of which a mar6et indi+id7alism and the doctrine of ?small state? Neo.BarEis2 = moderni;ed +ersion of Mar4ism, which negates the principle of determinism, the primac( of economics o+er other areas of life and the special role of the proletariat Neo)lyurali02 = the ?st(le? of theoretical reasoning, to reCect the classical pl7ralism, 57t at the same time recogni;ing the shortcomings of the mar6et s(stem and the e4cessi+e infl7ence of pri+ate 57siness Neo.realis2 = the +iew on international relations, s75stantiall( correct model of power politics, emphasi;ing the point of str7ct7ral constraints in the international s(stem, ie pointing to the factors and circ7mstances that o5Cecti+el( limit the freedom of action for the participants of the international s(stem Neo!un'tionalis2 = a +ariant of f7nctionalism coming from the fact that regional integration in one area creates the desire for f7rther integration T+e new )u(li' 2anage2ent = in+ol+ement of the pri+ate sector management techniL7es in the acti+ities of the go+ernment or the pri+ate sector to transfer some f7nctions of go+ernment New De2o'ra'y = political regimes, which ha+e not (et completed the process of democratic consolidation "New Le!t" = an ideological mo+ement, so7ght to re+i+e the socialist tho7ght on the 5asis of a radical criticism of ad+anced ind7strial societ(, pro+ing the need for decentrali;ation, participator( democrac( and personal freedom "New Rig+t" = ideological trend of conser+atism, which is 5ased on the s(nthesis of the ideas of mar6et indi+id7alism and social a7thoritarianism No2en'lature = the s(stem of replacement of senior positions at which all the important positions are appointed 5( candidates endorsed 5( the part( T+e ratio = prescription of certain +al7es and norms of 5eha+ior, what Isho7ld 5eI as opposed to Iwhat isI T+e general will = the tr7e interests of the collecti+e, a s(non(m for the ?common good?, will all complied with the pro+iso that each person acts selflessl( So'ial 2o3e2ent = a special form of collecti+e 5eha+ior, co+ering people with similar 5eliefs and, as a r7le, s7ggesting a low le+el of organi;ation T+e So'ial Contra't = a +ol7ntar( agreement 5etween the people on the 5asis of which the organi;ed societ( or the state, t(picall( the concept is 7sed as a p7rel( theoretical constr7ct Pu(li' interest = common or collecti+e interests of the comm7nit(, that is something that has 5eneficial to societ( as a whole So'ial 'lass = a gro7p of people occ7p(ing the societ( eL7al social and economic stat7s, 5ased on the class s(stem ma( lie economic ineL7alit( or professional stat7s Co22unity *'ounty, = a team that has eno7gh strong internal cohesion, the 5onds of comradeship, lo(alt( and d7t(
$<9
Custo2ary law = law 5ased on c7stom and precedent, laws that are generall( 6nown to all, and 5eca7se ?common? to all O(De'ti3e = e4isting o7tside the mind and independent of it, +isi5le or palpa5le, free of s75Cecti+e feelings or +al7es
141
Li2ited go3ern2ent = the go+ernment that f7nctions in certain strict limits 7s7all( imposed 5( the law or the constit7tion of instit7tional chec6s and 5alances A single.)ole = the s(stem of international relations, which is dominated 5( -tate=largest ?s7perpower ? Oligar'+y = a mode in which political power is +ested in a small gro7p of indi+id7als T+e o2(uds2an = a go+ernment official whose Co5 is to protect the rights of citi;ens and to address cases of administrati+e +iolations and irreg7larities Organi'is2 = the 5elief that societ( f7nctions as an organism, a li+ing 5eing, in which the whole is more than the s7m of its parts A res)onsi(le go3ern2ent = a go+ernment answera5le to the elected legislat7re, and thro7gh it = the whole of societ( Res)onsi(ility = reasona5le or correct from the point of +iew of ethics 5eha+ior, acco7nta5ilit( of some higher power "O)en /o3ern2ent" = the principle of the free circ7lation of information 5etween p75lic a7thorities, on the one hand, and the representati+e instit7tions, the media and societ( as a whole = on the other hand, is 5asicall( 7sing the notion that ?societ( has a right to 6now ? Re3iew = a process that allows the electorate to hold acco7nta5le elected politicians, whose actions it considers 7nsatisfactor(, and remo+e them Alienation = a condition or process of transforming h7man acti+ities and its res7lts into an independent force, dominating him Pannatsionali02 = e4treme e4pressions of nationalism, in which e+er(thing is s75ordinated to the tas6 to 7nite the people or a few people thro7gh the e4pansion or appro+al of the deepest political solidarit( !the prefi4 ?pan? means ?7ni+ersal, e+er(one?$ Paradig2 = a s(stem of interrelated +al7es, theories and ass7mptions, within which the search for new 6nowledge Parlia2ent = a for7m for de5ate and disc7ssion, the /egislati+e 1ssem5l( Parlia2entary de2o'ra'y = a form of democrac(, s7ggesting an indirect lin6 5etween the go+ernment and citi;ens thro7gh a cons7ltati+e assem5l( elected 5( the people, and emphasi;es the importance of political de5ate T+e )arlia2entary syste2 o! go3ern2ent = a s(stem in which the management is carried o7t thro7gh parliament, where th7s the legislati+e and e4ec7ti+e power ?merge? with each other Parlia2entary so3ereignty = an a5sol7te and 7nlimited power of Parliament to ma6e, amend or repeal an( laws of his own +olition T+e )arty de2o'ra'y = the principle of eL7al distri57tion of power among the mem5ers of the part(Q concentration of power in the hands of the elected mem5ers T+e )arty syste2 = a relati+el( sta5le networ6 of relationships 5etween the political parties, which depends on the n7m5er, si;e and their ideological orientation Party go3ern2ent = a s(stem in which one part( is a5le to form a go+ernment and implement its political program Paternalis2 = the political co7rse, which is 5ased on ta6ing care of those who can not help themsel+es, as !in theor($ in the relationship 5etween father and son Patriar'+y = the letters ?The r7le of the father?, male dominance and female s75ordination in societ( as a whole Patriotis2 = the letters ?/o+e of co7ntr(?, the feeling e4perienced 5( a person in relation to his co7ntr(, the ps(chological attachment to it Pa'i!is2 = a f7ndamental reCection of war and all forms of +iolence Pri2ary ele'tions = inner=election to nominate candidates for the 7pcoming ?official? election "O3erstret'+" = a sit7ation in which the imperial e4pansion and foreign militar( commitments the co7ntr( ?torn? from the real growth of the econom( and, therefore, appropriate to its limits
Politi'al Di'tionary o! Ter2s $<:

Redistri(ution = red7cing material ineL7alit( in a societ( means of progressi+e ta4ation and the +ario7s social sec7rit( schemes and social assistance Re3ise laws = the principle that the C7diciar( has the right to ?re+ise? and perhaps e+en to in+alidate laws, ordinances, and other 5ranches of go+ernment action Restru'turing = slogan and concept related to an attempt to li5erali;e and democrati;e the -o+iet political s(stem in the former socialist relations "T+e )ea? union" = a gro7p of people recogni;ed 5( the 9o+ernment as representing the 5asic, common 57siness interests or wor6 Written 'onstitution = a single doc7ment, which is the f7ndamental law of the state, a set of r7les, written and 7nwritten, which sets o7t the responsi5ilities, powers and f7nctions of the +ario7s instit7tions of a s(stem of go+ernment Planning = a s(stem of economic organi;ation, which concentrates on the rational allocation of reso7rces in accordance with clearl( defined goals, decision=ma6ing and can 5e indicati+e Ple(is'itary de2o'ra'y = a form of democrac(, s7ggesting a direct lin6 5etween the go+ernment and citi;ens thro7gh a ple5iscite !or referend7m$ Pluralis2 = a commitment to the ideals of di+ersit( and pl7ralit( of opinion, the concept of eL7al distri57tion of political power A''ounta(ility = the o5ligation to answer for their actions and willingness to pro+ide the res7lts of their wor6 for re+iew and assessment of the instit7tions that are higher in the hierarch( of a7thorit(
142
Positi3is2 = a theor( according to which the social sciences, incl7ding all forms of philosophical 6nowledge sho7ld naistro;ha(shim wa( to stic6 methods of the nat7ral sciences Positi3e !reedo2 = the freedom of the indi+id7al, his self=reali;ation or self=impro+ement, positi+e li5ert( is sometimes interpreted as freedom ?for something ? Positi3e law = a s(stem of laws to 5e e4ec7ted regardless of their moral content Positi3e rig+ts = rights that in+ol+e a n7m5er of specific demands on the state, in partic7lar the reL7irement to p7t societ(Is reso7rces to address those and other socio=economic o5Cecti+es and s7pport of +ario7s social gro7ps Jse!ulness = the +al7e of something in 7seQ satisfaction deri+ed from material cons7mption Polyar'+y = literall( ?The r7le of the man(?Q sem5lance of democrac(, 5ased on the powers that 5e acco7nta5le to societ( thro7gh the mechanism of reg7lar and competiti+e elections Poli'y = the cit(=state, in the classic tradition = The 5est form of social organi;ation Poli'y = the process 5( which people create, maintain and enrich their own dorm r7les Power )oliti's = an approach to politics 5ased on the ass7mption that the desire for power is inherent in the nat7re of man, and sometimes the term is 7sed descripti+el( = in a ne7tral sense Politi'al 'ulture = ?ps(chological matri4? that defines peopleIs attit7des toward political o5Cects and e4pressed their 5eliefs, +al7es and s(m5ols Politi'al s'ien'e = the st7d( of p75lic administration and politics, in a narrow sense = the 7se of empirical theor( and research methods in the anal(sis of political iss7es Politi'al )arty = a gro7p of people, speciall( organi;ed for the p7rpose of the arri+al of the a7thorities or o5tain representation in go+ernment 5odies, all part( mem5ers 7s7all( share common political positions T+e )oliti'al syste2 = the s(stem of relations 5( which the state responds to these or other e4pos7re to the p75lic !in s(stems theor( is called the ?inp7t? or ?inp7t? into the s(stem$ the rele+ant decisions, political programs and policies !?e4it?$ Politi'al so'iali0ation = the process 5( which people acL7ire and de+elop political 5eliefs and +al7es, which are then passed to the ne4t generation Politi'al )+iloso)+y = a s(stematic anal(sis of reg7lator( and methodological aspects of the st7d( of politics
$4;
Politi'al )luralis2 = the presence of m7ltiple political +al7es, ideologies and mo+ements, especiall( characteristic of the m7lti=part( s(stems Politi'al e@uality = the eL7al distri57tion of political power and infl7ence within the comm7nit(, as reflected in the principle of ?one person = one +ote, e+er( +ote is eL7i+alent ? Politi'al 'o22it2ent = d7ties of the citi;en to the state, 7pon which the law of the state in the e4ercise of power Politi'al networ?s = more or less holistic ed7cation relating the political actors who share similar political positions and 5eliefs Poured = a societ(, 57ilding 7pon the dispensing power of a political nat7re, according to 1ristotle, the r7le of the man(, for all Poli'e state = a political regime in which each and e+er( trampled ci+il li5erties o+er the police there is no law, it acts as the arm( of the r7ling elite Se2i.de2o'ra'y = the political regime, which com5ines democratic and a7thoritarian tendencies Se2i.)residential syste2 = a s(stem of go+ernment in which no elected president presides in the go+ernment, the go+ernment is formed 5( the /egislat7re and responsi5le to it Po)ulis2 = the idea that ?instincts? and ?desire? of the people are the main thing, than (o7 need to g7ide polic(Q mo+ement, appealing to these ?instincts? and ?desires ? Pro'edure = sta5le and predicta5le forms of social 5eha+ior and social relations that are rele+ant, in partic7lar, to personal and p75lic safet( Post.industrial so'iety = a societ( has o+ercome the traditional dependence on material prod7ction and is 5ased on the prod7ction of information and 6nowledge, ?information societ(? Post2aterialis2 = a theor( according to which the growth of material well=5eing economic iss7es gi+e wa( to iss7es of ?L7alit( of life? Post2odernis2 = intelligentl( for reCecting the idea of a5sol7te and 7ni+ersal tr7th and doing the emphasis on comm7nication, disc7ssion and democrac( Post.Fordis2 = the changes that ha+e ta6en place in modern societ( d7e to the fail7re of the methods of mass prod7ction factor( Rig+ts = ha+e their 5asis in law or moralit( opport7nit( to do something a certain wa( or 7se one or another attit7de to (o7rselfQ ci+il rights do not coincide with 7ni+ersal rights Hu2an rig+ts = rights that 5elong to man ?5irthright? = in other words, the 5asic and 7ni+ersal rights T+e go3ern2ent 'risis = a sit7ation of paral(sis of power ca7sed 5( the ri+alr( 5etween the state instit7tions or state attempts to meet the conflicting demands of societ( Rig+t = a comple4 of p75lic and 5inding r7les that appl( to all the political comm7nit( T+e rig+t o! nations to sel!.deter2ination = the principle that a nation is a comm7nit( of so+ereign, self= determination in this case incl7des 5oth national independence and democratic r7le "Rig+t.wing" = all the mo+ements that 5roadl( share a commitment to the principles of a7thorit(, order, hierarch( and d7t(
143
T+e ruling 'lass = the Mar4ist term 7sed to descri5e a class that s75C7gates the other classes of societ( as a whole, 7sing its monopol( of the means of prod7ction Prag2atis2 = theoretical 5asis or practical application of the teachings for which the main principle is good and which is foc7sed on the practical circ7mstances and o5Cecti+esQ implies reCection of a5stract ideas of order Re)resentati3e de2o'ra'y = a limited and indirect form of democrac(, which is 5ased on the election of those who will r7le on 5ehalf of the people Re)resentation = the ratio in which the indi+id7al or gro7p of indi+id7als acting on 5ehalf of and on 5ehalf of the 5roader categor( of people, representation in the following wa(s3 tr7steeship, delegation and proportional representation PreDudi'e = s(mpathies and preC7dices !often 7nconscio7s$ that affect peopleIs C7dgment and distort the real state of affairs
Politi'al Di'tionary o! Ter2s $4<

T+e )resident = the official head of state, ?e4ec7ti+e president? are also the heads of go+ernment T+e )residential syste2 o! go3ern2ent = a s(stem of go+ernment, in which the e4ec7ti+e power is concentrated in the hands of the president, whose position politicall( and constit7tionall( separated from the legislati+e 5ranch T+e Pri2e Binister = Bead of 9o+ernment, whose power comes from the maCorit( part( or coalition of parties in parliament Pri3ati0ation = the transfer of state propert( from the state to the pri+ate sector, allowing the state to red7ce its area of responsi5ilit( T+e )rin'i)le o! "one nation" = the principle of the arsenal of the conser+ati+e reformism, form7lated on the 5asis of the doctrine of social responsi5ilit( and its p7rpose is to a+oid social ineL7alit( T+e )rin'i)le o! intergo3ern2entalis2 = an( form of cooperation 5etween the states as so+ereign entities "T+e natural aristo'ra'y" = the idea that talent and position in societ( are determined 5( innate L7alities of man and the( can not de+elop self=impro+ement Progress = the mo+ement to higher le+els of de+elopment, the progressi+e mo+ement of h7manit( on the 5asis of the acc7m7lation of 6nowledge and e4perience T+e )roletariat = the Mar4ist term for a class that e4ists 5( selling their la5or, strictl( spea6ing, the proletariat is not s(non(mo7s with the wor6ing class Pro)aganda = targeted dissemination of information in order to form the right opinion and ma( pro+o6e some political actionsQ comm7nication in manip7lati+e p7rposes Pro)ortional re)resentation = the principle that the part( in the parliament or legislat7re m7st 5e s75mitted directl( proportional to the electorate Prote'tionis2 = the polic( of restricting imports thro7gh L7otas and tariffs imposed and s7pported 5( the state in order to protect domestic prod7cers Dire't de2o'ra'y = p75lic self=go+ernment 5ased on direct and ongoing participation of citi;ens in go+ernance Dire't a'tion = political action, 7nderta6ing o7tside the constit7tional and legal framewor6, in practice, can ta6e man( forms = from passi+e resistance to terrorist attac6s E@uality = a relationship rather similarit( similarit( than identit(, 7s7all( spea6 of eL7alit( of rights, opport7nities or res7lts Ra'e = a comm7nit( of people, different from the other gro7ps on the ph(siological and genetic traits Ra'ial t+eory *ra'is2, = an( concept that the concl7sions of a political or social nat7re comes from the fact that h7manit( is di+ided into 5iologicall( distinct race, racism can 5e 7nderstood 5( a +er( negati+e attit7de, 7ntil the hatred towards people of a different race Radi'alis2 = 5elief in the need of radical changes designed to 5rea6 down the f7ndamentals of the s(stem, not C7st its s7rface feat7res Radi'al de2o'ra'y = a form of democrac( that enco7rages decentrali;ation, the political participation of the comm7nit( and the ma4im7m dispersal of political power Radi'al !e2inis2 = for a feminism, 5elie+es the di+ision 5( se4 the most politicall( significant of all the di+isions in the societ( and trace the roots of the split in the famil( str7ct7re Se)aration o! )owers = the doctrine according to which the performance of each of the three f7nctions of go+ernment !the adoption of laws, their enforcement and C7dicial proceedings$ sho7ld 5e engaged in different and independent of each other 5ranches of go+ernment !legislati+e, e4ec7ti+e, and C7dicial$ Rationalis2 = philosophical direction, post7lating 6nowa5ilit(, ?reasona5leness? of the world and recogni;ing the 5asis of 6nowledge and 7nderstanding of h7man 5eha+ior Realis2 = a loo6 at the polic(, which is characteri;ed 5( an emphasis on the factors of power Re3isionis2 = re+ision of the original ideas, the term implies the reCection of the old principles and 5eliefs
$44
T+e Re3olution = social re+ol7tion, mass action e6strapra+o+ogo nat7re, aimed at f7ndamental changes in the political s(stem itself, rather than the simple s75stit7tion of one of the r7ling elite to another Bode = a s(non(m for ?s(stem of go+ernment?Q political s(stem T+e reser3e ar2y o! la(or = a certain n7m5er of hands (o7 can witho7t too m7ch tro75le to throw o7t on the mar6et in times of economic stagnation, at the ?arm(? there is no social safet( net, and it does not ha+e significant mar6et positions
144
Re)ression = s(stematicall( p7niti+e meas7res against societ( ta6es man( forms = from intimidation to o7tright +iolence Re)u(li'anis2 = the principle that power comes onl( from societ(, theoretical and practical denial of the principles of the monarch( or the hereditar( power T+e re!erendu2 = +oting, in which +oters are 7s7all( spea6s to an iss7e of p75lic polic(, referend7ms ma( 5e ad+isor( and non=5inding R+etori' = the art of 7sing words to pers7ade people or infl7ence them, and sometimes the term ?rhetoric? is 7sed in relation to those statements that are ?C7st sha6e the air? witho7t offering an(thing s75stanti+e Bar?et = a s(stem of commodit( e4change, which are the forces of s7ppl( and demand and which is reg7lated 5( the price mechanism Bar?et so'ialis2 = an economic s(stem which is 5ased on operating in a competiti+e mar6et self=managed cooperati+e enterprises Su)er)ower = a co7ntr( possessing n7clear capa5ilities and 7ltra=powerf7l glo5al infl7ence in the world s7perpower in the hierarch( of states is higher than a great power Freedo2 = the a5ilit( to thin6 and act on their own +olition, freedom is 7nderstood as non=interference from the o7tside !negati+e freedom$ or as a self=identit( !positi+e freedom$ Free trade = a s(stem of trade relations in which the state wai+e tariffs and other forms of protectionism T+e !ree 2ar?et = the principle of 7nhampered mar6et competition, free from go+ernment interference C+e'?s and (alan'es = the s(stem of relations 5etween the instit7tions of go+ernment is the res7lt of the di+ision of power 5etween them in s7ch a wa( that none of them co7ld dominate the rest Se'ularis2 = conception, according to which the ch7rch sho7ld not get in+ol+ed in the ?m7ndane? things, most often e4pressed in the separation of ch7rch and state Se)aratis2 = the desire to separate from the political whole in order to create their own independent state Lionis2 = in the )0) cent7r( = the mo+ement of Kews to ret7rn to their homeland and the esta5lishment of a Kewish state, toda( = the protection of the interests of the -tate Deli(erati3e de2o'ra'y = democratic go+ernance, emphasis, disc7ssions and de5ates, which helps to identif( the interests of societ( Consent = appro+al or a7thori;ation, in politics 7s7all( refers to the recognition of h7man so+ereignt( o+er itself and its right to go+ern societ( Con'iliation de2o'ra'y = democrac(, f7nctioning on the 5asis of power=sharing and close cooperation 5etween the parties or political gro7ps "Co+a(itation" = one of the possi5le models of semi=s(stems, in which the president is wor6ing with the go+ernment and the legislat7re controlled 5( the opposition part( or parties Coo)eration = a Coint acti+it(, the achie+ement of o5Cecti+es thro7gh collecti+e efforts So'ial de2o'ra'y = the moderate, reformist c7rrent in socialism, acting more for the 5alance 5etween the mar6et and the state, rather than the destr7ction of the capitalist s(stem So'ialis2 = for ideological defining feat7res of which are committed to the ideals of cooperation, eL7alit(, and p75lic propert( The spectr7m e4tends from the socialist mo+ements of comm7nism to social democrac( So'ial Dusti'e = the distri57tion of wealth that has moral C7stificationQ close !in the opinion of man( people, too close$ to the idea of eL7alit(
Politi'al Di'tionary o! Ter2s $4#

So'ial 'a)ital = a set of c7lt7ral and moral factors that 7nderlie social cohesion, political sta5ilit( and economic prosperit( So'ial 2ar?et = the economic s(stem, the following mar6et principles and, at the same time s7pport a comprehensi+e social sec7rit(, aimed at preser+ing the integrit( of societ( Status = the place of man in an( hierarch( that characteri;es his role, rights and responsi5ilities in relation to other mem5ers of the same hierarch( Su(sidiarity = the transfer of power from a higher to a lower le+el of go+ernment, the principle that decisions sho7ld 5e ta6en at the lowest possi5le le+el Su(De'ti3e = e4isting in the mind, something connected with the feelings, +al7es and 5eliefs of the indi+id7al or the res7ltant of them So3ereignty = a5sol7te and 7nlimited power, can 5e 7nderstood 7nder the so+ereignt( or s7preme legislati+e or 7nlimited political power of the state T+e Dudi'iary = a part of the s(stem of go+ernment that is responsi5le for sol+ing the pro5lems of a legal nat7re and pra+otol6o+anie Fudi'ial inde)enden'e = the constit7tional principle that declares the need for a strict separation of the C7diciar( from the other 5ranches of go+ernment, the practical application of the principle of separation of powers Fudi'ial a'ti3is2 = the desire of C7dges ar5itrate conflicts of a p7rel( political nat7re, not limited to their traditional responsi5ilities pra+otol6o+ani(a S'ientis2 = philosophical position according to which the scientific method sho7ld 5e adopted as the onl( relia5le so7rce of 6nowledge and as s7ch sho7ld 5e applied in all fields of 6nowledge
145
T+eo'ra'y = literall( ?Power of 9od?, the principle of the primac( of the spirit7al o+er the temporal power, the Ch7rch o+er the state T+eory = a s(stematic e4planation of the empirical data, represented, in contrast to the h(pothesis, as certain 6nowledge Pu(li' '+oi'e t+eory = the theor(, the central tenet of which is that in politics people alwa(s 5eha+e as rationall( thin6ing 5eings, acting mainl( for reasons of personal gain Rational '+oi'e t+eory = an approach to politics 5ased on the ass7mption that people are moti+ated 5( rational principles and act onl( in their own interests, ?economic? theor( of politics Syste2s t+eory = a theor( in which the political s(stem is seen as a self=reg7lating mechanism that has its ?inp7t? !the reL7irements of the societ(, the social s7pport s(stem$ and ?o7tp7t? !certain policies ?$, and the go+ernment is regarded as a s75s(stem that translates signals from the ?entrance? to the res7lts of ?e4it? Toryis2 = ideological tendenc( within conser+atism, which is characteri;ed 5( a special re+erence for tradition, social hierarch(, the principles of d7t( and the philosoph( of ?organic? de+elopment of societ( Totalitarianis2 = a form of political regime, ass7ming f7ll !total$ control of the state o+er the life of societ(, often accompanied 5( a comprehensi+e ideological manip7lation, open terror and +iolence, the complete destr7ction of ci+il societ( Totalitarian De2o'ra'y = an a5sol7te dictatorship 7nder the g7ise of democrac(, is 7s7all( 5ased on the desire leader to pro+e that he has a monopol( on political wisdom Total nationalis2 = a ;ealo7s, sometimes h(sterical, nationalist enth7siasm in which the identit( of the person is completel( dissol+ed in a nationwide 57siness Tradition = all transmitted or 5orrowed from the past, from generation to generation = well=esta5lished c7stoms, instit7tions, social and political s(stems, +al7es and 5eliefs, etc Tri(alis2 = gro7p 5eha+ior, characteri;ed 5( internal isolation and e4cl7si+it(, 7s7all( accompanied 5( hostilit( to other gro7ps T+at'+eris2 = the ideolog( com5ining the ideals of the free mar6et, 57t strong go+ernment p7t forward 5( Margaret Thatcher, in fact, the %ritish +ersion of the political philosoph( of the ?new right?
$48
T+ree.way relations+i) = the relationship 5etween go+ernment, 57siness and la5or to ens7re the m7ltilateral process of m7t7al cons7ltation, often for this p7rpose there are special organs Jtilitarianis2 = an ethical doctrine that pleas7re or happiness is ?good? and that s7ffering and 7nhappiness = ?e+il?, and, therefore, the main p7rpose of the societ( is the principle of ?the greatest happiness for the greatest n7m5er of people ? Jto)ianis2 = the st(le of philosophi;ing, which denies the e4isting social order, and contrasted it with the image of a perfect f7t7re Jto)ia = literall( ?2owhere? or ?good land?, an ideal or perfect societ( Fas'is2 = ideological trend, characteri;ed 5( anti=rationalism, adherence to the ideals of the str7ggle, charismatic leadership, elitism and nationalism in its most radical form Federalis2 = the spatial distri57tion of power in the state, 5ased on the di+ision of so+ereignt( 5etween the central and peripheral instit7tions Fe2inis2 = an ideological mo+ement, seeing as its primar( o5Cecti+e, the role of women in societ( and, in most cases, the eL7alit( of the se4es T+e )+iloso)+y o! ")arty 2a'+ine" = a wa( of doing politics, in which the part( ?5osses? control the mass organi;ation, resorting to patronage and the distri57tion of 5enefits Fis'al )oli'y = go+ernment policies on ta4ation and p75lic spending, aimed at increasing aggregate demand T+e !is'al 'risis o! t+e wel!are state = the crisis in the financial s(stem of the state, occ7rs when the growth of social e4pendit7res coincide with economic stagnation and the conseL7ent red7ction in ta4 re+en7es Fa'tionalis2 = the spread of factions or factional str7ggle, often recei+ing the most fierce Fa'tion = part of a larger association, most of all = a political part(, fractions are formed on the 5asis of common positions or ideological inclinations Funda2entalis2 = wa( of thin6ing, s7ggesting the e4istence of certain ?deep and definiti+e tr7ths? that can not 5e L7estioned Fun'tionalis2 = the theor( that the go+ernment sho7ld first and foremost a response to the practical needs of societ( ass7mes a consistent regional integration in selected areas and at a rate that wo7ld 5e determined 5( the states = participants of the integration process C+aris2a = the power or a7thorit( emanating from the personal L7alities of leadership, the a5ilit( to gi+e rise to feelings of lo(alt( and de+otion = 7ntil the complete emotional dependence "Cold War" = a period of ri+alr( 5etween the Eest led 5( the U - and Eest, led 5( the -o+iet Union, which lasted from 1A>5 7ntil the collapse of the socialist s(stem in the (ears 1A#A=1AAA1 C+ristian De2o'ra'y = ideological trend in E7ropean conser+atism, characteri;ed 5( adherence to the principles of the social mar6et and limited go+ernment inter+ention Funta = literall( Co7ncilQ cliL7e !7s7all( militar($, which came to power in a re+ol7tion or a co7p Censors+i) = control o+er the press, other media or means of e4pression, s7ppression of free speech 1alue = is a moral principle, directing people to a certain standard of 5eha+ior Centrali0ation = concentration of political !state$ go+ernment at the national le+el
146
S+aria = 0slamic law, 5ased on 5elief of M7slims, on di+ine re+elation and ta6en from the &oran, the Badith !teachings of M7hammad$ and other so7rces C+au3inis2 = an irrational 5elief in the s7periorit( or greatness of the comm7nit( to which he 5elongs Egalitarianis2 = theor( or practice, which are 5ased on the p7rs7it of eL7alit(, the 5elief that eL7alit( is a 5asic political principle
Politi'al Di'tionary o! Ter2s $4$

En3iron2entalis2 = the ideolog(, which is 5ased on the idea that man is part of nat7re, and the en+ironment is a5o+e h7man needs E'ology = the science that st7dies the relationship 5etween li+ing organisms and their en+ironment 0n the center of attention = the s(stem of relationships that s7pport all life on earth, the inner nat7re of the relationship T+e e'ono2i' 2odel o! t+e "Tigers" = a model of a rapidl( de+eloping e4port=oriented econom(, t(pical for Kapan and -o7th &orea, -ingapore and Taiwan E'ono2i' li(eralis2 = the notion that the mar6et is self=reg7lating mechanism capa5le 5( itself sol+e all the pro5lems, to pro+ide eL7al opport7nities and economic well=5eing for all E'ono2i' 2an = one designed to e4plain the nat7re of h7man models, which emphasi;es the egoistic desire of the indi+id7al to meet their needs, is at the same time that the indi+id7al attaches special importance to the concept of ?good ? E'o'entris2 = the theor( that assigns to maintain the ecological 5alance of higher h7man needs EE)ansionis2 = a polic( of militar( aggression to e4pand the territorial gains, a phenomenon closel( associated with imperialism Ele'toral College = the mechanism of indirect elections, a gro7p of electors, which is responsi5le for the appointment of candidates for p75lic office or part( Elite = a minorit(, legall( or witho7t concentrated in their hands the power, wealth or pri+ilege Elitis2 = the principle that power sho7ld 5e in the elite !the minorit($, or the practical application of this principle E2)iri'is2 = the doctrine that e4perience is the onl( wa( to 6nowledge, and, therefore, all h(potheses and theories m7st 5e tested e4perimentall( and 5( e4perimentation E2)iri'al = 5ased on o5ser+ation and e4periments, so7rces of empirical 6nowledge are the feelings and e4periences En3ayeron2entali02 = the idea of the protection and conser+ation of nat7re for the 5enefit of man6ind, this is the difference en+a(eronmentali;ma of en+ironmentalism Erosion relations "'lass . t+e )arty" = the wea6ening of the lin6s 5etween social class and the part( that he had traditionall( s7pported Erosion )arties = the phenomenon of a sharp red7ction in the n7m5er of s7pporters of a political part(, falling le+el of solidarit( with her Statis2 = the 5elief that go+ernment inter+ention is the 5est wa( to sol+e political pro5lems and to stim7late social and economic de+elopment Et+ni' 'leansing = the forced relocation or destr7ction of the ?alien? peoples, is often 7sed instead of the more dramatic of the term ?genocide ? Et+ni' nationalis2 = nationalism emanating from a sense of 5elonging to an ethnic gro7p and the desire to maintain this identit( Et+ni'ity = man 5elongs to a certain comm7nit(, c7lt7ral gro7p or place of residence, a comple4 concept that has a c7lt7ral rather than racial, s75te4t Et+no'entris2 = the propert( of conscio7sness to e+al7ate the actions and intentions of other gro7ps and peoples in the light of the +al7es and traditions of their own c7lt7re T+e 'ore o! t+e eEe'uti3e (ran'+ = the networ6 of people and instit7tions that pla( a 6e( role in de+eloping and coordinating p75lic polic(, ?the center ?
Translated books
1ndrew Be(wood
POLITICAL SCIENCE
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Series "Foreign tutorial"

UDC 321 01 !0"5 #$ %%& '' 0(a"3 )35

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Ele'troni' Ta(le o! Contents

Pay attention Politi'al !igures Part I& Politi'al t+eory

Politics as the art of go+ernance

Politics as a p75lic process

Politics as compromise and consens7s Politics as power

H /earning Polic( 1pproaches to the st7d( of politics

Co7ld 5e a scientific st7d( of politicsF The concepts, models and theories

H Concl7sions H Disc7ssion J7estions

Chapter 2 9o+ernment s(stems and modes

Eh( classif( the political s(stemF

T(polog( of ?three worlds?

H Profiles of the modern world

2 9o+ernment s(stems and modes >1

The East 1sian regimes

Militar( regimes H Concl7sions 0ss7es for disc7ssion

Chapter 3 Political ideologies

H Conser+atism The elements of conser+atism Paternalistic conser+atism

H -ocialism Elements of -ocialism Mar4ism

The third wa( H .ther ideological tradition of @ascism

H End of 0deolog(F & Concl7sions & Disc7ssion J7estions

Chapter > Democrac(

Bow sho7ld control the peopleF

Bow far sho7ld e4tend the power of the peopleF

Classical democrac( The protecti+e democrac( Democrac( De+elopment

H Democrac( in practice3 the point of +iew Pl7ralist approach

H Theories of the -tate Pl7ralistic state

The capitalist state

-tate le+iathan The patriarchal state

H *ole of the -tate -mall !minim7m$ state

The state of de+elopment -ocial=democratic states The collecti+i;ed state

H Concl7sions H Disc7ssion J7estions

Part II& Nation and /lo(ali0ation

The nation as a c7lt7ral comm7nit(

The nation as a political comm7nit( H T(pes of nationalism /i5eral nationalism

H Ehat is the f7t7re of the nation=stateF H Concl7sions H Disc7ssion J7estions

Chapter " Eorld politics

The world order of ))0 cent7r(

H The d(namics of glo5ali;ation @actors and trends of glo5ali;ation

9lo5ali;ation3 Concepts and De5ates

The E7ropean Union

H Towards a world go+ernmentF

H Concl7sions H Disc7ssion J7estions

Chapter # Domestic polic(

@ederated s(stem Eh( are formed federationF

Ethnic and local politics The re+i+al of ethnic politics

/ocal politicsF H Concl7sions H Disc7ssion J7estions

Part III& Politi'al intera'tion

Eorld +ersion of capitalism Entreprene7rial capitalism

Managed or 7nmanaged capitalismF

The +arieties of socialism

Does the econom( of the ?third wa(?F

H -ocial str7ct7re and its categories

The rise and decline of class politics

Pa7l H Concl7sions H Disc7ssion J7estions

Chapter 10 Political c7lt7re, comm7nication and legitimac(

Ci+ic c7lt7re or ideological hegemon(F

The media and political comm7nication

The degradation of social capitalF

H The legitimac( and political sta5ilit(

The legitimation of power

0-%2 0=333=A"131=0 !English$ 0-%2 5=23#=00#1>=" !7ssian$ 1genc( C0P -/