Radio Emition of Normal Galaxies

Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 1992.
30: 575-11
Copyright 1992 by Annual Reviews Inc. All rights reserved
V^11L 11hh1L tVL
LV^1 L^1^711h
J. J. Condon
National Radio Astronomy Observatory, 520 Edgemont Road,
Charlottesville, Virginia 22903-2475
KEY WORDS: cosmic rays, free-free emission, infrared radiation, star formation,
synchrotron radiation
1. INTRODUCTION
If the radio energy source in a galaxy is not a supermassive black hole or
related nuclear "monster," then that galaxy is called "normal" in this
review, regardless of its optical morphology. Nearly all of the radio emis
sion from normal galaxies is synchrotron radiation from relativistic elec
trons and free-free emission from H II regions. Thermal reradiation of
starlight by dust quickly overwhelms these components above v 200
GHz (A 1 . 5 mm), defning a practical upper bound to the frequencies of
"radio" observations. Typical relative intensities of synchrotron radiation,
free-free emission, and dust reradiation are shown in the radio/far-infrared
(FIR) spectrum of M82 (Figure 1 ). The radio continuum from a normal
galaxy is clearly just a tracer, accounting for < 1 0-4 of its bolometric
luminosity.
Only stars more massive than M 8M 0 produce the Type II and Type
Ib supernovae whose remnants (SNRs) are thought to accelerate most of
the relativistic electrons in normal galaxies (see Section 4. 3), and these
massive stars ionize the H II regions as well. Such massive stars live
;3 Z 1 07 yr, and the relativistic electrons probably have lifetimes ; 1 08
yr. Radio observations are therefore probes of very recent star-formation
activity in normal galaxies, and they are especially valuable for three
reasons: (a) The radio emission from normal galaxies is not overwhelmed
by stellar populations older than about 1 08 yr. (b) Radio maps can be
made with subarcsecond position accuracy and resolution, unambiguously
575
0066-4146/92/091 5-0575$02.00
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Quick links to online content
Further
ANNUAL
REVIEWS
576 CONDON
1000
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1 111111 I I 1 "111'
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e
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1 "1111
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1IIIId I II t+! I 1 1111 11 1;"'1
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1000 10
'
Figure 1 The observed radio/FIR spectrum ofM82 (Klein et a1 1 988, Carlstrom & Kronberg
1 991 ) is the sum (solid line) of synchrotron (dot-dash line), free-free (dashed line), and dust
(dotted line) components. The H II regions in this bright starburst galaxy start to become
opaque below V I GHz, reducing both the free-free and synchrotron fux densities. The
free-free component is largest only in the poorly observed frequency range 30--200 GHz.
Thermal reradiation from T 45 K dust with opacity proportional to V`swamps the radio
emission at higher frequencies. Lower abscissa: frequency (GHz). Upper abscissa: wavelength
(cm). Ordinate: fux density (Jy).
identifying the most luminous star-forming regions within galaxies and
resolving even the most compact ones. (c) Only at radio and FIR wave
lengths are the most intense "starbursts" transparent, so that observed
fux densities are accurately proportional to intrinsic luminosities.
On the other hand, existing radio data alone are poor constraints for
quantitative models of star formation. The free-free emission emerges
directly from H II regions containing the ionizing stars and its intensity is
proportional to the production rate of Lyman continuum photons, but
isolating the free-free component and measuring its fux density is difcult
observationally because the fat-spectrum (0 + 0.1, where the spectral
index is defined by S e v
-
a
, S being the fux density and v the frequency)
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RADIO EMISSION FROM NORMAL GALAXIES 577
free-free emission is usually weaker than the steep-spectrum (a +0. 8)
synchrotron emission below V 30 GHz (Figure 1). Most of the easily
observed synchrotron radiation in a typical galaxy arises from fairly old
(107 yr) relativistic electrons that have propagated significant distances
( l kpc) from their short-lived (1 05 yr) and now defunct parent SNRs.
Consequently the original sources of the relativistic electrons have dis
appeared, and their detailed spatial distribution has been smoothed beyond
recognition. Finally, the steps between star formation and synchrotron
emission (supernova explosion, acceleration of relativistic electrons in the
SNR, propagation of cosmic rays throughout the galaxy, energy loss, and
escape) are poorly understood, impeding quantitative interpretation of the
observed synchrotron spectra and brightness distributions.
Fortunately, the remarkably tight and ubiquitous correlation found
between the global FIR and (predominantly nonthermal) radio lumin
osities of normal galaxies (see Figure 8 later) is emerging as an almost
miraculous constraint for models relating radio emission to massive star
formation. Except perhaps for galaxies with very low star-formation rates,
the FIR luminosity appears to be a good measure of the bolometric
luminosity produced by fairly massive (M 5M 0) young stars. The
FIR/radio correlation suggests that a one-parameter model specifying
the FIR and radio luminosities in terms of the recent star-formation
rate can describe most normal galaxies. Secondary parameters appar
ently do not vary significantly from galaxy to galaxy or are irrelevant.
For example, the magnetic energy densities in galaxies obeying the FIR/
radio correlation span four orders of magnitude, so the total synchrotron
energy produced per SNR must be almost independent of magnetic feld
strength.
This review emphasizes those aspects of radio emission and recent star
formation that appear to be shared by most normal galaxies and their
application to a simple model consistent with, if not uniquely required by,
the data. The range of source properties found in the population of normal
galaxies is outlined in Section 2. The characteristics of free-free emission
and synchrotron radiation that are needed to interpret observations of
normal galaxies are outlined in Sections 3 and 4. Frequently used equations
are presented in astronomically convenient units, and their consequences
for real observations are stressed. The textbooks by Pacholczyk ( 1 970)
and Longair (1 981 ) are recommended for broader coverage of these topics.
Section is devoted to the FIR/radio correlation. Population-synthesis
models relating the FIR/radio emission to recent star formation are
covered in Section 6. Section 7 summarizes the current situation and future
hopes for understanding the radio emission from normal galaxies.
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578 CONDON
2. THE POPULATION OF NORMAL GALAXIES
Radio sources exist in nearly all normal spiral and dwarf irregular galaxies,
in many peculiar or interacting systems, and even in a small number
of E/SO galaxies with ongoing star formation (Dressel 1988; Wrobel &
Heeschen 1988, 1 991). Unbiased samples of these sources reveal the types
of sources to be found; the range of luminosities, sizes, brightnesses,
morphologies, spectra, etc. that they span; and their simil arities and difer
ences. Normal galaxies range in power from L: 101 8h-2 W Hz- 1 to
L 1 023h- 2 W Hz- 1 at V ~ 1 .49 GHz, whereh Ho/(l OO km S-
I
Mpc-
I
).
The total brightness of the fainter extended sources in normal galaxies is
not much larger than the rms brightness fluctuation produced by discrete
background sources, so confusion is a serious observational problem. All
spiral and irregular galaxies brighter than the BT = 1 2 limit for 1 00%
completeness of the Revised Shapley-Ames Catalog (Sandage & Tammann
1981) and north of b = -450 have been mapped at 1 .49 GHz by the VLA
with 0 0:9 FWHM resolution; most were detected (Condon 1987). Since
the FIR and radio luminosities of normal galaxies are tightly correlated,
fux-limited samples of normal galaxies selected at FIR and radio wave
lengths are nearly identical. The largest and most complete is the lRS
Revised Bright Galaxy Sample (Soifer et al 1 989) of 31 3 extragalactic
sources stronger than S 5. 24 Jy at A 60 flm. Multiconfguration VLA
maps at 1 .49 GHz (Condon et a1 1 990) detected all but one, and 8.44 GHz
maps with 0':25 FWHM resolution (Condon et a11991 c) resolved most of
the sources not already resolved at 1 .49 GHz. Large samples of radio
sources in normal galaxies have also been generated by position-coinci
dence identifications of sources found in general radio surveys with optically
selected UGC (Nilson 1973) galaxies (Condon & Broderick 1 988, Condon
et al 1 99 1 b). Radio sources powered by monsters in active galactic nuclei
(AGNs) can be excluded on the basis of radi o morphology, FIR spectral
index a(25 flm, 60 flm) < 1 . 5 (de Grijp et al 1985, 1 987), and FIR/radio
fux density ratio (Condon & Broderick 1 988). Direct radio identifi cations
of faint FIR-selected galaxies (Condon & Broderick 1 986, 1 991 ) also yield
complete, but small, samples of radio sources in normal galaxies. The FIR
and radio-selected samples of "normal" galaxies favor luminous starbursts
and contain a l arge proportion of disturbed, peculiar, and interacting
systems.
Figure 2 illustrates the range of radio sizes and morphologies seen in
normal galaxies. The faintest dwarf irregulars have radio luminosities
comparable with the Galactic SNR Cassiopeia A and little or no detectable
emission extending beyond known H II regions and SNRs. Their radio
morphologies are lumpy and irregular (see IC 10 in Figure 2), and their
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- -\.-.
NGC 1144
o
NGC 6946
M 82 IC 6941 NGC 3690

Figure 2 Contour maps (Condon 1 987, Condon ct al 1 990) illustrating the range of source
morphologies, sizes, and luminosities found in normal galaxies. The bars are 2h- kpc long.
The logarithmic contours are separated by 2 '` in brightness, and the 1 .49 GHz brightness
temperatures Tb of the lowest contours are 0.25 K (IC 10, NGC 891 , NGC 6946), 0.5 K
(M82), 8 K (NGC 1 144), and 1 28 K (IC 694+ NGC 3690).
radio spectra are often relatively flat (Klein & Grave 1986). The thick
radio disk/halo of the edge-on galaxy NGC 891 and the fairly smooth
radio disk with bright spiral arms of the face-on galaxy NGC 6946 are
typical of the larger spiral galaxies. The central radio sources in normal
galaxies like NGC 6946 are brighter but usually much less luminous than
the disk sources, and it is no longer thought that they are significant
sources of disk cosmic rays. Luminous radio sources with complex mor
phologies may be found in colliding galaxies (e.g. NGC 1 144). There is a
tendency for fairly compact (diameter D I kpc) central starbursts to
dominate at higher radio luminosities, as in M82. The most luminous radio
sources in normal galaxies are frequently quite compact, D 200 pc
(Condon et al 1 991 c), and confined to the nuclei of strongly interacting
(Condon et a1 1 982, Hummel et al 1 990) systems (e.g. IC 694+NGC 3690).
Hybrid N-body/gasdynamics simulations show that a prograde collision
involving a disk galaxy can drive about half of the disk gas ( 10 10M 0)
within 200 pc of the nucleus (Hernquist 1989, Barnes & Hernquist 1 991),
where the gas density becomes quite high before a powerful starburst is
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580 CONDON
triggered (Kennicutt 1 989). The resulting massive stars and their SNRs
then produce intense radio emission.
The 1 .49 GHz local luminosity function of normal galaxies (Condon
1 989) specifies the diferential number of normal galaxies per Mpc3 per
magnitude (factor of 1 04) of 1 .49 GHz luminosity (Figure 3). The FIR/
radio correlation (see Figure 8 later) ensures that the FIR and radio
luminosity functions have the same form. The dashed line in Figure 3 i s
the A = 60 pm luminosity function (Saunders et al 1 990) directly trans
formed to 1 .49 GHz assuming only <log (S6/lm/Sl,4
9
GHz) = 2.24 from
Figure 8. If the radio sources in normal galaxies evolve on cosmological
time scales (implying higher star-formation rates in the past), they may
account for the inflection in the normalized radio source counts below
S 1 mJy at 1 .49 GHz (Condon 1 989) and a signifcant fraction of the
discrete source background (Condon 1 989). The A 60 .r faint source
counts are consistent with the radio counts and evolution of normal
galaxies (Lonsdale et al 1 990).
0
-1
-i+P--
,.
,
m
I
0
P
-2
::
-
l
tl

-3
S
-
"Q.
l
-
.:
L.
O
L
.
-5
-6
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
log[h2L (W Hz-1)]
Figure 3 The 1.49 GHz local luminosity function of normal spiral and irregular galaxies
(data points and solid line) is indistinguishable from their A = 60 Jm luminosity function
scaled to 1 .49 GHz if (log (S6"m/SI.49 GH, = 2.24 (dashed line). Abscissa: log luminosity
h2 L r Hz-
I
). Ordinate: low density h- P (mag
-
Mpc
-
).
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3. FREE-FREE EMISSION AND ABSORPTION
The thermal (free-free) radio luminosity of a normal galaxy indicates the
total photoionization rate and hence the current number of the most
massive short-lived stars. At low radio frequencies, free-free absorption
afects both the thermal and synchrotron sources in normal galaxies,
determining their radio spectra and limiting their maximum brightness
temperatures to Tb l O
S
K at GHz frequencies.
3.1 Basic Equations
The free-free absorption coefcient K of an H II region is well approximated
by
K

n
- 2
0
1
pc
-
I
3. 3
'
1 0-
7
cm
3 104
C
K GHz
'
1 .
where ne is the electron density, Te the electron temperature, and V the
radio frequency expressed in the units indicated. The opacity r = [Kdl
integrated along the line of sight is often written in terms of the emission
measure EM = [n;dl (cm-6 pc). The free-free emission coefcient is
I = BvK, with Bv 2kTev2jc2 at radio frequencies. At sufciently high
frequencies such that r I , the thermal spectral luminosity L
T
of an H II
region photo ionized by hot stars is proportional to the production rate
Nuv of Lyman continuum photons and varies only weakly with Te (Rubin
1 968). The value of N
u
v can be estimated from
N

T
.
Y

L
s
_
u
;
6. 3 1 0
52
1 04
e
K GHz

1 020 W
T
Hz- 1

2.
The inequality allows for possible absorption of Lyman continuum pho
tons by dust. Values for the unknown Te range from 5 ? 103 K to 1 04 K
in our galaxy (Downes et al 1 980) and are thought to be comparable in
other normal galaxies. The thermal luminosity of our galaxy is
LT 2. 5
'
1020 W Hz- 1 near v = I GHz (Berkhuijsen 1 984). The thermal
luminosity LT = 4nd2ST of M82 at distance d ~ 3.2 Mpc based on the
thermal fux density ST 0. 7 Jy at 1 GHz (Figure 1 ) is LT 1 02
W Hz
-
I ,
indicating Nuv 6 I Os3 S-I .
The thermal fux density ST may be compared with other measures of
Nuv such as the (extinction corrected) Hf line fux F(Hf). If
N(He+)jN(H+) 0. 08, then (Caplan & Deharveng 1 986)
F(Hf)
( T
e
)
- 0
0
S
2
(
ST
0.28 -
.
1 O- 1 2 erg cm
-
2 s- 1
J
04
K.
GHz mJy
3.
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582 CONDON
The ratios of other frequently observed optical and near-infrared recom
bination line fuxes to F(Hf) are
F(Ha) . Te
F(Hf)
2. 86
1 04 K
F(Bnx) Te
F(Hf) =
0.079
1 04 K
F(Bry) Te
F(Hf)
= 0.028
104 K
.
4a.
4b.
4c.
These approximations, based on the tables of Hummer & Storey ( 1 987),
are good to I % for 102 cm- 3 < M_ < 1 0
cm-3 and 5 ? 103 K < Te < 10
K. The fux F(Bnx) 2 ? 10- 1 1 erg cm
S-I of M82 (Willner et al 1977)

is consistent with the observed thermal fux density, based on Equations
3 and 4b.
The merits of radio continuum and optical/infrared recombination lines
for detecting H II regi ons, measuring extinction, and deriving Nuv were
compared by Kennicutt & Pogge ( 1 990). Radi o observations are generally
best for extremely luminous H II regions or compact starbursts with high
dust extinction even at near-infrared wavelengths. However, care must be
taken to avoid contamination by non thermal emission in giant H II regions
(Condon & Yin 1990, Viallefond 1 991 ).
3.2 Isolating the Thermal Emission
In principle, the relatively fat-spectrum (0 : 0. 1 ) thermal radio emission
should be distinguishable from the steeper-spectrum (0 0.8) nonthermal
emission via total flux densities or maps obtained at two or more frequencies.
In practice, most normal galaxies are not bright enough to be detected at
frequencies much higher than V 10 GHz (. 3 em), so the observed
thermal fractions ST/S, where S is the total fux density, are small and
most measured ST are uncertain by a factor of two. Other indicators
available for large samples of galaxies (e.g. HO and FIR fuxes) suggest
that the rms scatter in ST/ S from galaxy to galaxy is not more than a factor
of two (Kennicutt 1983b), except possibly for dwarf galaxies. Thus the
average <ST/ S) ratio obtained from these samples is likely a better estimate
of individual ST/ S than the poorly observed values for many normal
galaxies.
Klein & Emerson (198 1 ) first succeeded in measuring good 10.7-GHz
integrated fux densities for a small sample of nearby spiral galaxies with
the Efelsberg 100-m telescope. The steepest power-law fit to fux densities
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measured at several l ower frequencies was extrapolated to 10.7 GHz and
subtracted from the observed fux density of each galaxy to remove the
dominant nonthermal contribution, thereby determining ST. They detected
no significant evidence for spectral fattening due to a thermal component
emerging at 1 0. 7 GHz and set upper limits ST/S; 0.4 to the thermal
fractions at 10.7 GHz. Likewise, Gioia et al (1982) did not fnd flattening
at 10.7 GHz in a larger sample of normal spiral galaxies with known 408
MHz and 4.9 GHz fux densities. They assumed a nonthermal spectral
index I = 0. 8, subtracted the non thermal component to obtain ST, and
also concluded ST/ S ; 0.4 at 10.7 GHz for most galaxies. Israel & van der
Hulst ( 1 983) claimed a marginal statistical detection, <ST/S" 0. 3) at
10.7 GHz, in a large sample of galaxies observed with the OVRO 130-ft
telescope.
If integrated fux densities at only three or four frequencies are used to
fit the (unknown) nonthermal spectral index and the thermal fraction
simultaneously, the resulting nonthermal spectral index and thermal frac
tion are strongly correlated. Consequently the actual errors in these quan
tities may be much larger than the formal uncertainties estimated by X2
tests. The (non thermally dominated) l ow-frequency spectral indices of
most spiral galaxies actually fall within a fairly narrow range: <I) = 0.74,
?
S
0. 1 2 in the Gioia et al ( 1 982) sample, and <0) = 0.75, (
a
0. 1 0
(Condon 1983). Individual values of ST/S derived from fts implying non
thermal spectral indices outside the range 0.6 ; ; 1. 0 (cf Duric et al
1988, Skillman & Klein 1988, Klein et al 1991) may be afected by this
correlation.
The thermal fraction is controversial even in the brightest and best
observed normal galaxies such as M82 (Figure 1) because the nonthermal
component may not have a straight spectrum. By assuming a straight
non thermal spectrum for M82, Klein et al ( 1 988) calculated a thermal fux
density ST = 0. 1 5 Jy at v = 32 GHz and deduced an ionization rate of only
Nuv' 2 1 05 3 S-I. Using practically the same data but assuming that the
non thermal spectrum steepens at high frequencies, Carlstrom & Kronberg
(1991) obtained ST = 0. 5 Jy at v = 92 GHz and estimated Nuv " 9
1 05 3 s- . The difculty of distinguishing nonthermal spectral bends from
diferent thermal fractions is illustrated by the calculated spectra in Figure
6 shown later (see Section 4. 1 ). In the case of M82, Nuv can be estimated
independently from the H531 radio recombination-line fux. This high
frequency (43 GHz) line is dominated by spontaneous emission and is
unafected by dust extinction. It indicates Nuv 1054 s- (Puxley et al
1989), in better agreement with a bent non thermal spectrum and large
thermal fraction at 92 GHz. The prototypical ultraluminous FIR galaxy
Arp 220 may be similar. A power-law extrapolation of its l ow-frequency
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584 CONDON
nonthermal spectrum yields ST/S < 0. 3 at v = 1 1 0 GHz, leading Scoville
et al (1991) to favor a monster in an AGN as the energy source rather
than a starburst whose initial mass function (IMF) would have to be
truncated above 25M 0 to produce the low observed Nuv/LF
IR
ratio. How
ever, a normal IMF starburst would be consistent with the data if the high
frequency nonthermal spectrum of Arp 220 steepens and the thermal fux
is a factor of two larger.
The distribution of the ratio S / F(Ux) provides an independent constraint
on the average thermal fraction of normal disk galaxies. Kennicutt ( 1 983b)
found a strong correlation between S1.4G
Hz
and F(Ha) even though the
total fux densities are completely dominated by non thermal emission at
1 .4 GHz. The observed average <SL4GHz/F(Ha corrected for extinction
indicates that normal disk galaxies have an average thermal fraction
<ST/ S) 0. 1 at v = 1 .4 GHz, and the scatter about this average is approxi
mately a factor of two. The FIR/radio correlation can also be used to
estimate the average thermal fraction for normal galaxies (Condon & Yin
1 990). Discrete Galactic IRAS sources coincide with thermal radio sources
in luminous H II regions, not supernova remnants or other non thermal
radio sources (Haslam & Osborne 1987). The average FIR/radio fux
density ratio of these thermal radio sources is about a factor of ten higher
than the average FIR/radio ratio of normal galaxies at v 1.4 GHz,
suggesting a fairly good upper limit <ST/S) ; 0. 1 at v = 1 .4 GHz. Thus,
at frequencies sufciently high to make the free-free opacity r small, the
approximation (Condon & Yin 1990)
S
S
T
1
+ 1 0
GHz
'
5.
where a 0.8 is a typical nonthermal spectral index, probably yields a
better estimate of the global thermal fraction than do existing radio spectra
for most galaxies.
Spatial isolation of the brightest H II regions in radio maps is easier to
achieve than global spectral separation of the thermal and non thermal
components. The radio emission from H II regions is much clumpier than
the rather smooth synchrotron disk and spiral arms, so their derived
distribution is fairly insensitive to the assumed non thermal spectral index
of the subtracted smooth background (Klein et al 1 982). The Efelsberg
1 00-m telescope has been used to separate the thermal and nonthermal
components in maps of M33 (Buczilowski 1 988), M81 (Beck et al 1985),
M1 01 (Grive et aI 1990), and NGC 6946 (Klein et aI 1 982). Multifrequency
single-dish maps of the Large Magellanic Cloud (Klein et al 1989) show
the relatively large contribution from H II regions typical of dwarf irregular
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galaxies. Most of the moderately compact (D ;:20 pc) radio sources seen
in high-resolution maps of nearby spiral disks are H II regions; see the
maps of M31 (Braun 1990), M51 (van der Hulst et al 1988), and NGC
4736 (Duric & Dittmar 1988).
Scaled arrays of the VLA can map the brightest sources in normal
galaxies with similar (u, v)-plane coverage and high resolution at three
frequencies-1. 5, 5, and 15 GHz. Fits for the non thermal spectral index
and the thermal flux density at each resolution element in the map yield
separate maps of the thermal emission, the non thermal emission, and the
non thermal spectral index. Duric et al (1986) mapped NGC 3310 in this
way with 4':5 FWHM resolution. They deduced a thermal fraction
ST/ S 0. 1 at v = 1.5 GHz and obtained an impressive correlation of
the thermal radio brightness and He brightness distributions. The large
reported spectral-index gradient (from e 0.3 near the center to e 1. 5
at the edge) of the smoother nonthermal disk is more sensitive to errors
introduced by limited (u, v) coverage, primary-beam corrections, etc. The
total flux density integrated over any large-scale interferometer map is
actually zero, and every source is surrounded by a negative bowl that
depresses the bowl -shaped positive emission from a disk. The negative
bowl is wide and shallow if short baselines are present, and it may be
largely removed by the CLEAN deconvolution algorithm (Cornwel l &
Braun 1989). Even so, observers can miss a lot of extended flux without
realizing it, as Hummel & Grave (1990) have pointed out in their paper
containing excellent multifrequency maps of IC 342 made with the 100-m
telescope and the VLA. Other spectral maps combining single-dish and
interferometer data include those of M5 l (Til anus et al 1988) and M83
(Sukumar et a1 l 987).
3.3 Integrated Radio Spectra and Brightness
Temperatures
If the thermal and nonthermal radio sources in a normal galaxy are
coextensive, the total radio emissivity is everywhere proportional to the
free-free absorption coefcient . The radio brightness-temperature spec
trum of any such galaxy then follows from Equation 5; it is approximately
_
Tb T
e
[l-exp ( -T)] 1 + 10
GHz
'
6.
where is the average free-free optical depth along the line of sight and
Te 104 K is the electron temperature. A set of curves outlining the
possible radio spectra of normal galaxies is shown in Figure 4. Inhomo
geneities in real sources will produce spectral peaks somewhat broader
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586 CONDON
1000
100
10
~
"
0
M
L

L
0.1
'

g
0.01
U
0.001
0.0001
10-6
0.rJ01 0.01 0.1 1
U (GHz)
10
100
Figure 4 Radio brightness spectra (continuous curves) of normal galaxies containing mixed
thermalfnonthermal sources. Successive curves correspond to increasing the frequency V, at
which the free-free optical depth is 1 = I: V, = 0.003, 0.01 , 0.03, 0. 1 , 0. 3, I, and 3 GHz.
Dotted lines of constant brightness temperature Tb (K) are also shown. The brightness
temperatures of normal galaxies do not exceed Tb -1 0' K at frequencies above v -I GHz.
Abscissa: frequency (GHz). Ordinate: brightness (mJy arcsec
-
2
).
than those plotted. In the limit [1 -exp ( -r)] " I Equation 6 predicts that
the maximum brightness temperatures of normal galaxies are Tb ; 1 05 K
for V ;: 1 GHz, as indicated by the upper-left envelope of the spectra in
Figure 4. The spectrum of our galaxy at high latitudes turns over due
to free-free absorption (r 1 ) near V 0.003 GHz, and the observed
brightness spectrum (Cane 1 979) lies just above the lowest curve in Figure
4. The median face-on disk surface brightness of nearby spiral galaxies is
<Tb) ~ 0. 750.25 K at V 1 .4 GHz (Hummel 1 981 ) , so the brightness
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spectra of most normal galaxies fall between the two lowest curves (cor
responding to r 1 between V ~ 0.003 and 0. 01 GHz) in Figure 4. Brighter
radio sources have higher turnover frequencies. For example, the central
component in the starburst galaxy M82 has a brightness sin 30 mly
arcsec-2 at V 1 GHz, the frequency at which r 1 . The integrated
spectrum ofM82 (Figure I) fattens but does not actually turn over below I
GHz because this source is quite inhomogeneous and synchrotron emission
from the surrounding halo (Seaquist & Odegard 1 991 ) does not sufer
signifcant free-free absorption.
The low-frequency spectra of many normal spiral galaxies with only
moderate surface brightness (Israel & Mahoney 1 990), including our own
(Sironi 1974, Webster 1 974), appear to fatten slightly in the range 0. 1 -1
GHz, much higher than the V ; 0. 01 GHz predicted by Equation 6 if
Te 1 04 K. Israel & Mahoney ( 1 990) found that the diference between
fux densities extrapolated from higher frequencies and their measured
57. 5 MHz flux densities are greatest for highly inclined disks, so they
proposed free-free absorption by very cool (Te < 1 000 K) ionized gas
flling a fairly large fraction of the radio emitting volume to explain their
low-frequency spectra. Hummel ( l 991 a) reanalyzed the radio spectra, con
frming a spectral break with median <o> 0. 25 but questioning its
inclination dependence. His interpretation is that there is little absorption
at low frequencies, but the high-frequency non thermal spectra steepen
owing to the efects of propagation (convection or energy-dependent
difusion) on the relativistic electrons. However, Webster (1 970) showed
that the spectral steepening from this process is too gradual to explain the
fairly sharp bend in the high-latitude spectrum of our own galaxy. Thus the
low-frequency spectral break in typical spiral galaxies is still not completely
understood.
The brightest known radio sources in galaxies claimed to be "normal"
are the compact starburst nuclei of ultraluminous lR
S
sources. They
have 8. 44 GHz brightness temperatures approaching 104 K and show
spectral fattening above 1 .49 GHz (Condon et a1 1 991 c, Sopp & Alexander
1 991 ). For example, the strong compact source in Ie 694 has a fat (o 0. 3)
spectrum above 1 .49 GHz, leading Gehrz et al ( 1 983) to conclude that it
was synchrotron self-absorbed and hence much too bright (implied
Tb> 1 01 0 K) to be a starburst. However an 8. 44 GHz VLA map made
with 0':25 resolution (Figure 5) shows that this source is extended and its
peak brightness temperature is only Tb 104 K. Therefore a fat spectrum
even at GHz frequencies is not sufcient to prove that a radio source is
powered by an AGN. Flat-spectrum sources produced by monsters in
Seyfert galaxies, classical radio galaxies, quasars, etc generally are synchro
tron self-absorbed. Thus high-resolution maps capable of separating
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588 CONDON
5
8
50'20
"
o
0
L
1
9
"
(
c
0
18"
0
c
u
1
7
"
O
0
Ie 694
|
ll
h
25
m
444 442
Right Ascension
44
0
(1950.0)
Figure 5 The nucleus of Ie 694 is typical of the brightest and most compact sources found
in "normal" galaxies. Its 8.44 GHz brightness temperature is only 1 04 K, so its relatively
fat radio spectrum indicates free-free absorption by thermal electrons with temperature
T, 1 04 K, not synchrotron self-absorption by relativistic electrons with kinetic temperature
T, 3 m,c2/k 1 0'
0
K. The logarithmic contours are separated by factors of 2
'/2
in brightness,
and the lowest contour is 0. 1 mly beam-
I
28 K.
sources with Tb: 1 05 K from those with Tb > 1 01 0 K (cf Norris et al
1 990) should be able to distinguish between flat-spectrum starbursts and
monsters. But it is not enough to show that Tb 1 03 K at high frequencies
(v 1 5 GHz) to reject starbursts (cf Carral et al 1 990, Chapman et al
1 990); starburst galaxies much brighter than M82 do exist.
4. SYNCHROTRON RADIATION
Synchrotron radiation from ultrarelativistic (E mec2) electrons domi
nates the radio emission from most normal galaxies at frequencies below
v 30 GHz. Calculations of particle lifetimes, energy densities, etc are
more meaningful for the radio sources in normal galaxies than for sources
in classical radio galaxies and quasars because (a) they may be compared
with direct observations of cosmic rays in our galaxy and (b) equipartition
between field and particle energy densities probably holds in normal
galaxies (see Section 4.2). On the other hand, radio spectral signatures of
cosmic-ray energy loss and transport processes are elusive, and tracing the
cosmic rays to their sources is still difcult.
4.1 Basic Equations
Electrons with energy E moving at pitch angle f in a magnetic field of
strength B emit most of their energy near the critical frequency
\
_
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For a typical spiral disk feld strength B 5 f1G, synchrotron emission in
the 1 00: 1 frequency range of 0. 1 -1 0 GHz is generated by electrons in the
1 0 : 1 energy range 1 -1 0 GeV. The synchrotron power emitted by each
electron is
dE/dt
1 8
Bsin(
2E
2
-
GeVs1
3. 80 x 1 0
GeV '
8.
For isotropically distributed electron velocities, such as observed near the
Sun, <sin2( ~ 2/3. The synchrotron lifetime
E/ldE/dtl is
9
Bsin(
3/ 2V_
1 / 2
1 06 ? 1 0
- -
yr ' fG GHz
'
9.
which is about 1 08 yr at V_ 1 . 5 GHz for B ~ 5 f1G. Inverse-Compton
losses have the same energy dependence, and the ratio of synchrotron to
. inverse-Compton losses is equal to the ratio of magnetic energy density
Ur B2/(8n) ( Ur 1 O 1 2 erg cm 3 in the Galaxy) to radiation energy
density Ur

The components of Ur include the T 2. 7(1
+
z) K cosmic
microwave background [Ur aT
4
4 x 1 O 1 3(1
+
Z)
4
erg cm3] and radi
ation from stars ( Ur 1 O 12 cm 3 in the Galaxy). The confinement time
of cosmic rays in the solar neighborhood deduced from lOBe decay is
2 ? 1 07 yr (Garcia-Munoz et aI 1 977) or more (DogieI 1 990), so synchro
tron and inverse-Compton losses may be signifcant at GHz frequencies.
The radiation energy-density in compact (diameter D 200 pc) ultra
luminous [log (LFIR/ Lo) 1 1 . 5, where Lo = 3. 83 x 1 026 W starbursts is
so large ( Ur 3 x 1 O 8 erg cm 3) that the inverse-Compton l ifetime of
relativistic electrons emitting at V 1 0 GHz is only about 1 04 yr (Condon
et aI 1 991 c).
An ensemble of relativistic electrons can be described by the number
density N(E)dE of electrons with energies between E and E
+
dE. If
N(E) ~ NoEY and the electrons have an isotropic velocity distribution,
their synchrotron emission coefcient is
1 0.
where [ is the angle between the magnetic feld and the l ine of sight to the
observer. The synchrotron radiation from an electron of energy E is
confined to a beam of width f.e mec2 / E 1 radian parallel to the elec
tron velocity. An observer sees radiation exclusively from those electrons
whose velocity vectors nearly cross his line-of-sight, so [ ( and only the
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590 CONDON
component of the magnetic field projected onto the sky plane contributes
to the observed radiation. Thus Equation l O indicates that the observed
brightness of a source depends on the direction of any ordered field com
ponent, even though the electrons are moving i sotropically. For example,
if the z-component of the magnetic feld is significant in the halos of disk
galaxies, synchrotron halos will appear brightest in edge-on systems and
will be faintest in face-on systems (e.g. observations of our galaxy in
directions near its pole).
Synchrotron self-absorption is only important for sources with bright
ness temperatures Tb > mec2/k ' 1 010 K, values apparently never attained
by normal galaxies. The spectral index of the nonthermal emission from
a normal galaxy i s therefore a = (y -1 )/2. Usually a ' 0.8 at GHz fre
quencies, implying y ' 2. 6 at GeV energies.
Mathewson et al (1 972) stressed that the synchrotron emi ssivity is quite
sensitive to changes in the magnetic field strength (i.e. I o BIH) and hence
to compression of the emi tting volume containing both field and particles
(I o x2+a for a compression factor x). They ascribed bright ridges of
synchrotron radiation coinciding with the dust lanes on the inner edges of
spiral arms in M51 to compression of the interstellar medium (both par
ticles and fields) by spiral arm shocks. Later maps made with higher
resolution show that the nonthermal arm shapes are not consistent with
simple compression (Tilanus et al 1 988): The non thermal intensi ty gra
dients are steeper on the outside edge than on the inside edge, and the
intensity peaks just inside the dust lanes. The gas containing the relativi stic
electrons does not appear to be shocked, possibly because its sound speed
is the Alfven speed, VA = B/(4np) 1 / 2 ' 1 00 km S-I in the hot ionized
interstellar medium. In both M51 (Til anus & Allen 1 989) and M81 (Kauf
man et al 1 989) the non thermal arms are centered on the ridge of young
stars and H II regions, not on the H I velocity shock front. Thus star
formation is more important than compression for producing radio spiral
arms in normal galaxies.
If the production rate of relativistic electrons is q(E) and the total
electron energy loss rate <(E) depends on energy alone, then the equi
librium distribution of relativistic electrons is N(E) <-I q(E)dE. The
three terms in the approximation <(E) -(-1E -eE2 correspond to
ionization losses, relativistic bremsstrahlung plus adiabatic losses,
and synchrotron plus inverse-Compton radiation, respectively. For
q(E) oE-Yo, the equilibrium distribution of relativistic electrons i s
1 1 .
Because the ionization and bremsstrahlung loss rates have diferent energy
dependences, bremsstrahlung losses exceed ionization losses at energies
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above the characteristic energy 0. 3 GeV (for i nterstellar matter con
sisting primarily of hydrogen). The correspondi ng critical frequency in 5-
10 JlG felds is
\
_ 10 MHz, so i onization losses in normal galaxies can
usually be neglected. Relativistic bremsstrahlung losses in the disk of our
galaxy are probably not severe si nce the cosmic-ray mean free path is
5 g cm-2 (Garcia-Munoz et al 1 977)-an order of magnitude smaller
than the 50 g cm - 2 radiation length in the interstellar medium.
The combined synchrotron plus i nverse-Compton losses exceed the rela
tivistic bremsstrahlung plus adiabatic losses at energies E> Ig, and the
cri tical frequency (Equation 7) corresponding to I/ is called the
"break" frequency \_. With the approximation that relativistic electrons
radiate only at their critical frequencies, Equation I I yields for the non
thermal spectrum
@
?
B
SN o
1 + (
\
/
\
_t
o
1 2.
where _ = (Yo- I )/2 and Lo 1 /2 is the asymptotic change in spectral
i ndex. The spectral steepening from _ to _+ Lo is avidly sought
by observers because \_ might fall in the observable GHz frequency range.
However, Equation 1 2 shows that this "break" is really only a very gradual
bend, largely because V_ ' 2 transforms a small energy range into a large
frequency range. It is so gradual, unfortunately, that it is unobservable with
the accuracy and frequency coverage of existi ng fux-density measurements
of normal galaxies. This point is illustrated by the two model spectra i n
Figure 6. Werner ( 1 988) describes the related difculty of distinguishing
changes in _ from changes in \_ in the spectrum ofNGC 4631 . Nonethe
less, a spectral steepening consistent with Lo 0. 5 with Z i n the disk/halo
spectra of the edge-on galaxies NGC 891 and NGC 4631 has been reported
(HummeI1 991 b).
4.2 Magnetic Fields
Estimates of the magnetic feld strength B are usually derived from the
assumption of minimum total energy (Up + Ur) V, where Up is the
relativistic particle energy density, Ur is the magnetic energy density, and
V is the source volume (Burbidge 1 956). The total energy for a given
synchrotron lumi nosity is minimized when Ur 3Up/4. This is very close
to energy equipartition ( Ur Up) and also to pressure equality (P
m = Pp)
si nce Pm Ur and Pp Up/3 for ultrarelativistic particles. The calculated
minimum-energy feld B
min
depends weakly on the source geometry, the
non thermal spectral i ndex and the frequency range contai ning synchro
tron radiation, usually taken to be 0.01 -1 00 GHz. It also depends on the
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592 CONDON
1 0
0.1
I I II "I
0.1
I I 1 IIIII
I
I I I IIIII
I
I I lilt ! I I 11111. 1
1 0
V (GHz)
I I I 11111
I III I I
100
Figure 6 The continuous curve is the spectrum of a galaxy with Yo = 2. 2, spectral bend
O = 1 /2 centered on Vb = 5 GHz, and thermal/nonthermal fux ratio ST/SN = 0. 1 at V = I
GHz. The broken curve corresponds to a power-law non thermal spectrum with 0 = 0.71
plus a weaker thermal contribution ST/SN = 0.05 at v = I GHz. The spectral bend caused by
synchrotron and inverse-Compton losses is too gradual for these spectra to be distinguished
observationally. Abscissa: frequency (GHz). Ordinate: relative fux density (arbitrary units).
relativistic proton/electron abundance ratio .which b . 40 in our
galaxy (Webber 1 991 ). For a disk with r 0. 75
Bm
iO

5
11/14
_
1
IlG 41 K GHz kpc

1 3.
where .= S_C2/(2kV
Q) is the observed nonthermal Rayleigh-Jeans

brightness temperature at frequency V and
1
is the depth of the source along
the li ne-of-sight. Equivalently, .is the face-on brightness temperature and
1
2 kpc (cf Beuermann et al 1 985, Hummel 1 990) is a typical radio disk
thickness. The median face-on brightness temperature of spiral galaxies is
. 1 K at V 1 . 5 GHz, so most spiral disks are characterized by feld
strengths in the range 5-1 0 IG (Sofue et al 1 986, Hummel et al 1 988a).
The minimum-energy feld in the central region ofM82 (SN

lO Jy at V 1
GHz from a 30" ? 1 0" region perhaps 0. 5 kpc thick) is Bmio lOO IlG, and
the feld strengths in the brightest compact sources associated wi th normal
galaxies approach 1 000 IlG (Condon et al 1 99 Ic). Note that the only real
observable in Equation l 3 is .(the thickness is simply i nferred from the
transverse dimensions of the source), so the calculated values of Bm
ill
are
little more than measures of synchrotron surface brightness. Yet there are
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good reasons to believe that the actual magnetic field strengths in the disks
of normal galaxies are close to ., Should .., occur,
..
...
would become large, the cosmic rays would

i nflate a bubble and be expelled from the disk (Parker 1 965); the magnetic
feld is a very sensitive pressure regulator for relativistic particles. The
fields and particles are confned to the plane only by the weight of the
i nterstellar medium (Parker 1 966), so ..,
is also unlikely.
The large-scale magnetic feld structures of spiral galaxies can be
obtained from multi frequency polarizati on maps (see Krause 1 990 and
Beck 1 991 for recent reviews). The i ntrinsic degree of li near polarization
for optically thin synchrotron radiation from a power-law distribution of
relativistic electrons i n a vacuum is n (3y + 3)/(3y + 7). The observed
degree is reduced by Faraday depolarization and by variations in the
magnetic feld orientation within the beam (Segalovitz et al 1 976). Disk
magnetic fields are generally more uniform in areas of l ow star formation
(the outer disk and i nterarm regions) and more turbulent where the star
formation rate is high (spiral arms with large H II regi ons or molecular
clouds, and near the nucleus) (Krause et al 1 989a, Sukumar & Allen 1 989,
Neininger et al 1 991 ). The intrinsic position angle of E is perpendicular
to the projection of B onto the sky. The observed position angle must be
corrected for Faraday rotation, which is afProximatelY proportional to A
multiplied by the rotation measure RM = ...where .is the magnetic
field component parallel to the li ne-of-sight. High-resolution maps made
at two or more short (A ; 20 cm) wavelengths show that large-scale disk
magnetic felds of spiral galaxies normally run almost parallel to the spiral
arms. The feld li nes may spiral i nward or outward, and this 1 80 ambiguity
can be resolved in slightly incli ned galaxies because the sign of the RM
changes with the sign of the .projection. Axisymmetric disk felds (always
pointing either i nward or outward) cause the RM sign to change once every
1 80 of galaxy azimuth; RM sign changes every 90 i ndicate bisymmetric
fields alternating in direction. Axisymmetric felds have been observed in
M31 (Beck 1 982, Beck et al 1 989) and IC 342 (Krause et al 1 989b),
bisymmetric fi elds in M51 (Horellou et al 1 990) and M8 1 (Krause et al
1 989a). However, the large-scale feld structure does not always ft any
simple axisymmetric or bisymmetric dynamo model (Harnett et al 1 989).
The unexpectedly high RM and strong Faraday depolarization found in
the southwest quadrant of the NGC 6946 disk suggest a large vertical
component to the disk feld-a galactic "coronal hole" (Beck 1 99 1). Sys
tematic variations of RM across the disk of M83 also reveal a significant
vertical field that complicates the determination of its large-scale disk field
structure (Neininger et a1 1 991 ). Magnetic feld structure above and below
the disk can be measured by multifrequency polarization maps of edge-on
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594 CONDON
spiral galaxies. The dominant field direction of NGC 891 appears to be
parallel to the disk (Allen & Sukumar 1 991 ), but the feld lines in the
extended radio halo of NGC 4631 (Hummel et al 1 991 a) point radially
outward.
4.3 Cosmic-Ray Sources and Transport
If the cosmic rays in our galaxy have a total energy 1 055 erg and an
average age 2 ? 1 07 yr, their sources must accelerate cosmic rays at an
average power l evel 2 x 1 040 erg s-'. Type II and Type Ib supernova
remnants of short-lived M ;; 8M (Kennicutt 1 984) stars are the l eading
accelerator candidates because they produce suficient mechanical energy
in shocks and are the strongest nonthermal sources in the Galaxy (Ginz
burg & Syrovatskii 1 964). Type Ia supernova remnants, arising from an
older stellar population, are less important accelerators of cosmic rays in
normal galaxies. It is now clear that Type Ia supernovae are much less
common in late-type galaxies (van den Bergh & Tammann 1 991 ); and
many occur far from the equatorial plane of their parent galaxy, where
the ambient interstellar density is lower. Type Ia SNRs might contribute
to weak radio sources in galaxies with very low current star-formation
rates.
But discrete supernova remnants themselves emit only a small fraction
of the integrated non thermal flux from M31 (Pooley 1 969) and other
nearby galaxies (Ilovaisky & Lequeux 1 972, Biermann 1 976). Most of the
non thermal emission is so smoothed by cosmic-ray transport that the
spatial distribution of its sources cannot be deduced in detail. Lequeux
( 1 971 ) found that the global spatial distributions of young stars and non
thermal continuum are correlated in the disks of galaxies, and he proposed
that supernova remnants accelerate most of the cosmic rays observed
throughout the disks. Van der Kruit et al ( 1 977) countered that the radial
distribution of non thermal continuum in NGC 6946 more closely matches
the distribution of optical light produced by the older disk stellar popu
lation, which they suggested as the cosmic-ray source. Now that radio
maps of many normal galaxy disks are available it is clear that the non
thermal radio scale l engths are usually greater than both the optical scale
l engths of the older disk stars and the FIR scale lengths tracing very
young stars (Bicay & Helou 1 990). This is probably because cosmic
ray propagation expands the volume occupied by cosmic ray electrons.
Therefore, radial scale lengths cannot directly be used to distinguish
between younger and older stellar populations. Duric et al ( 1 986) observed
that the non thermal emission in NGC 331 0 is locally more closely cor
related with the (spiral) arms than with H II regions or other tracers of
recent star formation, and Duric ( 1 986) proposed spiral shocks as sig-
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nificant accelerators of cosmic rays in normal galaxies with high shock
speeds. However, the gas contai ning cosmic rays may not be shocked
(Section 4. 1 ). Also Giuricin et al ( 1 989) and Urbanik et al (1 989) found
no correlation of radio brightness or the radio/blue ratio with spiral arm
prominence in samples of normal galaxies. Harwit et al ( 1 987) suggested
that violent face-on collisions between the molecular disks of galaxies
accelerate the relativistic electrons in ultraluminous starbursts. Such
sources would be very short lived and probably less compact than observed
(Condon et aI1 991 c).
The non thermal radio luminosities of normal galaxies are correlated to
diferent degrees with luminosities in most other wavebands, and these
luminosity correlations have been used to support di ferent stellar popu
lations as sources of cosmic rays. Hummel ( 1 981 ) once favored the old
disk population because the radio and optical lumi nosities of normal
galaxies are correlated while the disk radio brightness is not clearly cor
related with (B- V) color (but see Kennicutt 1 983b) or arm prominence.
The radi o/blue luminosity correlation is however quite broad and non
linear (Condon 1 989) si nce the most i ntense star formation is hidden
behind dusty molecular clouds. Klein (1 982) did fnd a correlation of radio
brightness with optical color for blue compact galaxies and so favored a
younger stellar population. Kennicutt ( 1 983b) noted that the pre
domi nantly nonthermal 1 .4 GHz flux densities of normal galaxies are
correlated with their Ho fuxes and concluded that the relativistic electrons
responsible for the non thermal radio emission are accelerated by the
population of massive (M: 1 0M 0) short-lived i onizing stars rather than
by the old disk population. The X-ray luminosities of normal galaxies
are better correlated with blue than with radio lumi nosities, so Fab
biano & Trinchieri ( 1 985) suggested that l ow-mass X-ray binaries (older
disk stars) accelerate most of the cosmic rays. The X-ray luminosities
of starburst nuclei are also correlated with Bry lumi nosities, a tracer of
massive stars (Ward 1 988). The best correlation with nonthermal
radio luminosity is the one with FIR lumi nosity -described in Section
5; it favors a very young stellar population (cf de long et al 1 985). Hum
mel et al ( l 988a) stress the correlation of radio surface brightness with
FIR dust color temperature as evidence for radio emission from
young stars. A sophisticated five-band (radio, FIR, near i nfrared, blue,
and X-ray) study of lumi nosity correlations in spirals led Fabbiano et al
( 1 988) to conclude that the radio emission from starbursts must originate
in the young stellar population but no clear conclusion can be drawn from
the lumi nosity correlations i n less active spiral galaxies. Si nce there is no
end to correlations with radio lumi nosities, this is probably the most that
can be said with confidence.
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596 CONDON
Radio supernovae are compact synchrotron sources that appear and
disappear within a period of months to years following Type II or Type Ib
supernovae; no radio emission has been detected from Type Ia supernovae
(Weiler et al 1 986). The power source appears to be the supernova shock
that propagates into the dense circumstellar wind (Chevalier 1 982) or H II
region (McKee 1 988, Chevalier & Laing 1 989) produced by the supergiant
progenitor star before it exploded. Too few radio supernovae have been
observed to establish radio supernova rates in galaxies. They do not appear
to contribute a significant fraction of the average radio luminosities of
normal galaxies, although a single radio supernova may have a radio
luminosity L 1 02 1 h- 2 W Hz- 1 (Rupen et al 1 987) for a few years.
Supernova remnants become radio sources about 50 yr after the explosion
(Gull 1973) as Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities develop in the boundary
between the shock and the ambient i nterstellar medium, and radio SNRs
remain visible for hundreds or thousands of years. About 40 young SNRs
are conspicuous i n high-resolution maps of M82 at 5 GHz (Kronberg et
al 1 985) and 8.4 GHz (Figure 7), and radio SNRs are just visible in NGC
253 (Antonucci & Ulvestad 1 988) and NGC 3448 (Noreau & Kronberg
1 987).
SNRs account for < 1 0% of the radio luminosities of normal galaxies,
but they can be used to estimate supernova rates. Shklovsky ( 1 968) showed
that an optically thin young radio SNR expanding adiabatically with
constant speed and conserving magnetic fux will decay exponentially i n
luminosity. Its age t can be estimated from i ts radio half-life T with the
02 --r---I
0
M 82
0
0
1
"
d
6
9
55' 00"
0
0
59"
0
0 @
c
II
.9
5
8
" '
C
"
0
.

0
c
57
"
u
Q
56"
0
C
54' 55"
I I I I
0
09h51 m44
5
4
35
42
5
41
5
Ri ght Ascension ( 1 950.0 )
Figure 7 The compact sources visible in this 8.44 GHz VLA map (Z.-P. Huang, unpublished
data) of the center of M82 are radio SNRs, the faintest of which are about as luminous as
the Galactic SNR Cassiopeia A. The logarithmic contours are separated by factors of 2 ' /2
in brightness, and the lowest contour is 0.5 mJy beam- ' .
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equation t 2(20+ l )r/ln 2, where 0 is the spectral index. Kronberg &
Sramek (1 985) monitored 5 GHz fux densities of the ten strongest SNRs in
M82 and found half-lives r I S yr, which lead to average ages t 1 02 yr.
Thus the radio supernova rate in M82 lies in the range 0. 1-0.4 yr- 1
depending on whether or not the ten strongest SNRs are the ten youngest.
VLBI measurements and lower limits for the angular diameters of SNRs
in M82 yield a radio supernova rate Y_@ 0. 1 yr- 1 if their radii grow
6 Z 1 03 km S-I (Bartel et al 1 987, Wilkinson & de Bruyn 1 990).
Most cosmic rays escape their parent SNRs, flling the galaxy disk
and halo. In difusion models, cosmic-ray propagation is specifed by an
empirical energy-dependent difusion coefcient D(E). For our galaxy
D(E) 1 02
9
cm2 S-I if E< I GeV and D(E) 1 0 2
9
(E/GeV) 1 / 2 cm2 S-
I
if E > I GeV (Ginzburg et aI 1 980). After time r the cosmic rays difuse a
distance d (Dr) 1/2. Taking E 4 GeV for electrons radiating at V 1 .49
GHz and r 2 x 1 0 7 yr in the solar neighborhood indicates d 3 kpc.
This is sufcient to make the nonthermal radio disk smooth and increase
its radial scale length signifcantly, although the synchrotron brightness
scale length is shorter than the equipartition cosmic-ray or magnetic field
scale lengths (cf Hummel & Grave 1 990, HummeI 1 99I b). Bright compact
sources in galactic nuclei much smaller than 3 kpc are possible because
their cosmic rays have short synchrotron and inverse-Compton lifetimes
(Condon et al 1 991 c). Simple difusion spreads the cosmic rays from a
point source into a Gaussian distribution, but Bicay & Helou (1 990) found
that convolving the FIR brightness distributions (taken to be the source
brightness distributions) of nearby face-on spiral galaxies with Gaussians
did not yield good fts to the observed radio brightness distributions.
Alternatively, cosmic rays can stream at the Alfven speed VA ; 1 00 km
S- I in the ionized interstellar medium and travel ;2 kpc in 2 x 1 07 yr.
Cosmic rays may also difuse into a static halo or convect away from the
disk into a dynamic halo. The efects of cosmic ray propagation on the
non thermal radio emission from halos were studied in some detail by
Lerche & Schlickeiser (1 980, 1 982). Energy-dependent difusion and adia
batic losses from convection produce spectral bends of the form given by
Equation 1 2 with asymptotic spectral-index changes Ao 1 /4. The spec
tral bends are very gradual, however; realistic simulations show only small
diferences between the spectra of edge-on galaxies with static or dynamic
halos (van der Wait 1 990). The radio spectra of the best-observed halos
in NGC 891 (Hummel et al 1 991 b) and NGC 4631 (Hummel & Dettmar
1 990) are consistent with convection. Other signs of convection or winds
are synchrotron protrusions from edge-on disks (Condon 1 983, Reuter et
al 1 991 , Seaquist & Odegard 1 991 ) and ordered halo magnetic fields
(Hummel & Dettmar 1 990, Hummel et al 1 988b, 1 99I a). Observable
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S98 CONDON
distinctions between static and dynamic halos were recently reviewed by
Bloemen ( 1 991 a).
5. THE FIR/RADIO CORRELATION
A correlation between the A 10 Ilm mid-infrared and 1 41 5 MHz radio
luminosities of Seyfert galaxy nuclei was discovered by van der Kruit
( 1 971 ) and soon extended to the nuclei of normal spiral galaxies (van der
Kruit 1 973). At frst both the infrared and radio emission were thought to
be synchrotron radiation from relativistic electrons accelerated by nuclear
monsters (e.g. massive black holes in Seyfert galaxies or other AGNs).
Then Harwit & Pacini (1 975) proposed that the infrared is thermal reradi
ation from dusty H II regions, while the MHz luminosity is dominated
by synchrotron radiation from relativistic electrons accelerated in SNRs
from the same population of massive stars that heat and ionize the H II
regions. Condon et al ( 1 982) classified the luminous central sources in
spiral galaxies as either starbursts or monsters by their radio sizes and
morphologies, and they suggested that the infrared/radio ratio could be
used to distinguish starbursts from monsters since the correlation was
much tighter for nuclear starbursts than for monsters. Rickard & Harvey
( 1 984) found that the FIR/radio correlation applies to the disks of normal
galaxies as well.
The real signifcance of the FIR/radio correlation for normal galaxies
that it is so tight and so universal-was not appreciated until the large
...survey appeared. The ...fux densities at A = 60 Ilm and A 1 00
Ilm can be used to calculate the quantity ..
..
. 1 0
_

..
...
W
m
2
.
Jy
'
14.
which is the total fux between A 40 pm and A

10 11m. ..measures
the majority of the fux reradiated by dust in normal galaxies (Helou et al
1 988). Helou et al ( 1 985) defned the parameter
. S.
q
log
3. 7S x 1 0
1
2 Wm 2
-
log
W
m
2
H
z
1
,
where v 1 .4 GHz unless otherwise specifed, as a logarithmc measure
of the FIR/radio fux-density ratio. The distribution of q was found to be
quite narrow (rms scatter ; about the median (q) at V 1 .4
GHz) among spiral galaxies in Virgo (Helou et aI 1 985), a large, inhomo
geneous sample of spiral and irregular galaxies (Wunderlich et al 1 987), Sbc
galaxies (Hummel et al 1 988a), E/SO galaxies with current star formation
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(Dressel 1 988, Wrobel & Heeschen 1 988, 1 991 ), extragalactic FIR sources
selected at A = 60 Jtm (Condon & Broderick 1 986, 1 99 1), and radio fux
limited samples of normal galaxies (Condon & Broderick 1 988, Condon
et aI 1 991 b). The FIR/radio correlation (Condon et al 1 991 a) for galaxies
in the revised lRS BGS (Soifer et al 1 989) is plotted in Figure 8.
Since synchrotron emissivity (power radiated per unit volume) is pro
purtional to
Bs
+
1)/2
B'
+
a for a given density NoE-Y of relativistic elec
trons (Equation 1 0), it was proposed (Hummel 1 986, Hummel et a1 1 988a)
that deviations of individual galaxies from the average FIR/radio ratio
refect variations in B' +a. The FIR/radio ratio is now known to be nearly
constant over a range of ' 104 in Ur o B2 ' B' +a (Condon et al 1 991 c),
24
23
..
::
l
W
:
22
;
.
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.
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.
.:

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L
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.
.
.
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1 9
8
.
.
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.
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^
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.
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.
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.
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-
.
"
.
.
.
;
.
.
.
.
.
.
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e
.
.
9 1 0 1 1
log (h2L rl)
.'
.
.
1 2
Figure 8 The FIR/radio correlation for strong sources selected at A = 60 Jm and not
containing known monsters (e.g. Seyfert nuclei) or optically thick to free-free absorption at
v = 1 .49 GHz. The measurement errors are smaller than the intrinsic scatter for this sample.
Abscissa: log FIR luminosity in solar units. Ordinate: log 1 .49 GHz luminosity (W Hz
-
' ).
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600 CONDON
where Vm is again the magnetic energy density, so this does not seem to
be the case. If the cosmic-ray production rate is proportional to L
F1R,
the
FIR/radio correlation actually requires that the total radio energy emitted
per relativistic electron during its lifetime be nearly independent of Vm,
but it does not constrain the instantaneous radio power emitted by each
electron. Apparently galaxies conspire to fx the ratio of synchrotron
energy losses to the radio-quiet losses from inverse-Compton scattering,
bremsstrahlung, ionization, adiabatic expansion, and escape into inter
galactic space.
Several explanations for this conspiracy have been proposed. Yolk
( 1 989) argued that the break frequencies (Equation 1 2) of normal galaxies
are \_ ; 5 GHz; that is, galaxies are "calorimeters" or "beam dumps" in
which relativistic electrons lose most of their energy to synchrotron and
inverse-Compton radiation. The ratio of synchrotron to total energy loss
is therefore V m/( V m + Vr), where Vr is the radiation energy density, which
must be nearly constant to save the FIR/radio correlation. Stars are the
dominant source for the radiation energy density Vr in most normal
galaxies at low redshifts, although the independent contribution to Vr from
the cosmic microwave background grows as (1 +Z)4 and might quench
the radio emission at redshifts Z 1 . Turbulence associated with star
formation could amplify the magnetic energy density (Ko & Parker 1 989)
until it is comparable with the interstellar turbulent pressure P
e
p (v2)/3,
where the rms turbulent velocity (v2)
1/2
is about 10 km S-I in our galaxy.
This mechanism will tend to keep the ratio Vm/(Vm + Ur) constant if the
star-formation rate varies. However, it may be difcult to reconcile both
the FIR/radio correlation (which requires that the radio energy density be
roughly proportional to Vr) and a constant Vm/(Vm+ Vr) with minimum
energy or equipartion magnetic felds since the relation between the mini
mum-energy magnetic energy density Vm
in
and radio energy density Vradi
o
is not linear: Vmin ' V:ai
O
(Equation 1 3). Also the FIR/radio correlation
holds at frequencies as low as 0. 1 5 1 GHz (Cox et aI 1 988), and the observed
nonthermal spectral indices of normal galaxies well below 5 GHz are not
as steep as might be expected: If Yo 2 (Bell 1 978) then 1 for \
V_.
Chi & Wolfendale ( 1 990) investigated models in which relativistic electrons
difuse out of all but the most luminous galaxies to get non thermal spectral
indices in better agreement with the observations. They assumed Ur Ur
so Ur/CUm + Ur) 1 /2 automatically. Their assumed difusion coefcient
is proportional to Ur so that cosmic rays escape more quickly from galaxies
with strong magnetic felds, although Lerche & Schlickeiser ( 1 980) have
argued that the difusion coefcient D should decrease with .
Finally, the
radio emitting volume was claimed to be proportional to L& O.
4
. Thus
the emissivity is nearly independent of luminosity, in contrast with the
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.
RADIO EMISSION FROM NORMAL GALAXIES 60 I
observation that sources with higher L
FiR
have smaller volumes and very
high emissivities (Condon et al 1 990). These assumptions are so strong
that they leave little room for departures from the FIR/radio correlation,
but they may not be valid for real galaxies.
The observed FIR/radio correlation is not precisely linear, especially in
optically selected samples containing very low-luminosity galaxies (Fitt et
al 1 988, Cox et al 1 988, Devereux & Eales 1 989). Galaxies with low FIR
luminosities have even lower radio luminosities than expected. Such a
nonlinearity would occur if either the FIR or radio luminosity is not
directly proportional to the star-formation rate. The two-component
model for FIR emission (Relou 1 986, Lonsdale-Persson & Relou 1 987)
includes a warm "active" component from dusty molecular clouds heated
by the massive young stars responsible for radio emission plus a cool
"cirrus" component of dust heated by the general interstellar radiation
field. If the cirrus component of galaxies in a quiescent phase is heated
primarily by the older, radio-quiet stellar population, the cirrus con
tribution to LFIR
should be subtracted to make the FIR/radio correlation
linear. Fitt et al ( 1 988) attempted to correct the FIR/radio correlation by
using the observed FIR color temperature to estimate and subtract the
FIR emission from the cool (they assumed T 20 K) dust component of
each galaxy. Devereux & Eales ( 1 989) argued that the intensity of the
radiation feld heating the cirrus component is proportional to the blue
luminosity, and they subtracted a fixed fraction of the blue luminosity from
the FIR luminosity of each galaxy to linearize the FIR/radio correlation.
Alternatively, Chi & Wolfendale (1 990) assumed that the FIR luminosity
is proportional to the current rate of massive star formation and hence
cosmic-ray production, but that the radio luminosity might be deficient in
low-luminosity galaxies because the cosmic rays are more likely to escape
by difusion (or convection). They corrected the observed radio lumin
osities for their estimate of these losses to make the FIR/radio correlation
linear. Condon et al ( 1 991 a) investigated the FIR/radio correlation for
two well-defined samples of normal galaxies-optically selected spiral
galaxies brighter than BT + 1 2 and the IRAS Revised Bright Galaxy
Sample with S60lm : 5.24 ly-with sufciently accurate 1 .49 GRz flux
densities for individual measurement errors in q to be smaller than the
intrinsic scatter in the q distribution. They found that none of the cor
rections described above can simultaneously linearize the FIR/radio cor
relation and reduce the observed scatter for both galaxy samples. An
empirical correction to q was found that depends on the blue/radio ratio;
it can simultaneously linearize the correlation and reduce the scatter. The
galaxies needing the largest corrections generally have the lowest radio
and infrared luminosities but normal blue luminosities, suggesting that
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CONDON
their current star-formation rates may be lower than the average over the
last ' yr. Thus the empirical correction is consistent with Helou's
.two-component model, but only i f the radio-loud population of
massive ~,~ 0) stars heats both the warm dust in H II regions ...
contributes significantly to heating the cirrus dust, which need not be very
cool. Xu .has recently argued that the cirrus is heated by nonionizing
U from short-lived stars in the ~0 range. Devereux & Young .
used the F(Hr)/FIR ratio to suggest that the dust contributing to FIR
is heated primarily by stars with ~,~ 0' at least in galaxies with
LFIR > Lo Both LFIR and the production rate of cosmic rays thus
appear to be directly proportional to the recent formation rate of massive
stars in most normal galaxies. However, this is not sufcient to ensure a
tight FIR/radio correlation; it is still necessary to show that the nonthermal
radio energy produced per relativistic electron does not vary signifcantly
from galaxy to galaxy. Indeed cosmic-ray escape or other losses may be
a factor in the high FIR/radio ratios of low-luminosity (LFIR < Lo)
galaxies, especially dwarf galaxies with relatively flat radio spectra (Klein
et al .
6. RADIO EMISSION AND STAR FORMATION
6. 1 Nonthermal Luminosity and the Supernova Rate
The lifetimes of the massive stars responsible for most of the radio emission
from normal galaxies are much shorter than a Hubble time, so the current
radio luminosity is proportional to the recent star-formation rate. Bier
mann .first included thermal and nonthermal radio flux measure
ments in quantitative galaxy models because they had "attained a precision
which is comparable to or in some cases clearly better than the precision
of optical measurements." This pioneering work compared (B- V) colors
with blue/radio fux ratios. Biermann assumed a time-independent power
law IMF t(M) ~with slope y = 2. 35 and upper mass limit ~,All
stars with ~ ~,,~0 were presumed to produce radio-emitting
supernova remnants, so the radio supernova rate is
,, .~. .~
.

His flux-time integral for each supernova remnant-O. l Jy yr at V 5
GHz when seen from a distance . Mpc-is an extrapolation of
the observed (Clark & Caswell ..surface brightness-diameter (-D)
relation for Galactic superova remnants. Biermann noted that the lower
mass limit ~,,for radio supernovae is more critical than ~ ~,,
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.
because the steep IMF slope implies that most radio superova progenitors
have masses just above .,, The resulting models could be made to agree
with the observed blue/radio ratios only if the assumed non thermal radio
energy per superova were increased by a factor of ten.
A very clear derivation of the relation between the supernova rate
and the non thermal radio luminosity implied by the -D relation was
given by Ulvestad ( 1 982). The 408 MHz data indicate (W m-2
Hz- 1 sr-I) ' 1 0- 1 5[D(pc)] - 3 and D(pc) ' 0.43EW[n(cm - 3)] - 1/5[t(yr)]
2/5,
where E
5
0 is the explosion energy in units of 1050 ergs, n is the ambient
particle density, and t is the time since the supernova explosion (Clark &
Caswell 1 976). If the supernova remnant is a radio source only during its
adiabatic lifetime r(yr) ' 2 x 1 04E11 7[n(cm - 3)]- 9/ 1 7, then
1 7.
at 408 MHz. Ulvestad ( 1 982) used a relation similar to Equation 1 7 to
derive ,,from the observed radio luminosities of Seyfert galaxies. He
scaled the infrared/optical luminosities from the classic Rieke et al ( 1 980)
model D for M82 with ,,and found them to exceed the observed values
by at least a factor of ten. This prompted his suggestion that the radio
sources in most Seyfert galaxies are powered by AGNs instead of stars.
Gehrz et al (1 983) constructed a steady-state model for the compact
starbursts in NGC 3690 that unified features of the earlier models, and
they used the FIR luminosity as the best estimate of the bolometric lumin
osity of a starburst. Gehrz et al (1 983) compared Ha, FIR, and radio
continuum luminosities ofNGC 3690 with starburst models parameterized
by diferent IMF slopes y and mass limits ML, Mu. They also found it
difcult to reconcile the high supernova rate needed to explain the non
thermal radio emission with the observed FIR and Ha luminosities. Their
successful models have a very steep (y 3. 5) and severely truncated
(Mu ' 25Mo) IMF, plus a low ,,' 6Mo. Such models favor ,,while
minimizing the bolometric luminosity and N
u
v They cannot be applied to
all galaxies since the discovery ofWolf-Rayet stars in some FIR luminous
galaxies (Armus et a1 1 988) proves that the IMF does extend beyond 25M 0
in galaxies obeying the ubiquitous FIR/radio correlation.
These and related difculties are unavoidable if the SNRs themselves
are required to provide all of the nonthermal radio emission from normal
galaxies. Heckman et al ( 1 983) argued that monsters in AGNs, not star
bursts, power strong nuclear sources in spiral galaxies since the average
radio spectral index <0) 0.45 of Galactic SNRs is significantly less than
the average spectral index <t) ' 0. 75 of spiral galaxies. Jenkins ( 1984)
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604 CONDON
could not reconcile the high supernova rate required to explain the non
thermal radio luminosity of the normal spiral galaxy NGC 5953 with its
Ho and bolometric luminosities, concluding that "no explanation can be
found for the radio emission. " Kronberg & Biermann ( 1 981) found exces
sive consumption of HI mass by the starburst nucleus of NGC 2146. For
the ., 6 ` 1 02 1 W Hz
-
I
nonthermal luminosity of our galaxy at 408
MHz (Berkhuijsen 1984), Equation 1 7 implies an excessive radio super
nova rate ,, 0.4 yr-
I
. This is much higher than the Type II supernova
rate ,, 0.023 yr-
I
estimated by Tammann (1 982) or the Galactic pulsar
birthrate 0. 01 -0. 03 yr- I (Lyne et aI 1 985). Even the radio counts of young
Galactic SNRs suggest a radio supernova rate ,, 0. 013 yC I (Caswell
& Lerche 1 979), albeit with large uncertainty (Green 1 984). Supernova
remnants may accelerate the relativistic electrons producing the non
thermal radio emission in spiral galaxies, but > 90% of this emission must
be produced long after the individual supernova remnants have faded out
and the electrons have difused throughout the galaxy-an old (Pooley
1 969, Ilovaisky & Lequeux 1 972) but often overlooked result. Therefore
Condon & Yin ( 1 990) dropped Equation 1 7 in favor of the observed
Galactic relation between LN and VSN, which implies
1 8.
Equation 1 8 probably applies to most normal galaxies, since signifcant
variations in the ratio .,,,from galaxy to galaxy would violate the
observed FR/radio correlation. Also Yolk et al ( 1 989) have argued that
the cosmic-ray energy production per supernova is the same in the starburst
galaxy M82 as in our galaxy.
6. 2 A Simple Model /or Radio Emission /rom Normal
Galaxies
The global radio nonthermal and thermal luminosities plus the FIR/radio
ratio for most normal galaxies can be approximated by a simple model
with only one free parameter, the average formation rate of stars more
massive than SMo:
SFR(M 5 o)
.
-
Mt(M) dM.
Mo yr
-
19.
The "extended" Miller-Scalo (1979) IMF t(M) o M- 5/2 is truncated at
Mu 1 00Mo All stars more massive than ,, 8Mo become radio
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RADIO EMISSION FROM NORMAL GALAXIES
supernovae, so the radio supernova rate
is determined directly by the

star-formation rate:
.

,.
0. 041
-I
. yr ,yr
The nonthermal luminosity

.
can then be obtained from Equation 1 8; it
is

W H
_
GH
-
1
,
Z Z
yr
where is the non thermal spectral index.

The radio thermal fraction can be estimated from stellar models for an
assumed electron temperature Te K if dust absorption of Lyman
continuum photons is negligible. The results of Kennieutt ( 1 983a) imply
-.
..
,,
,.
W Mo yr
Then Equations 3, and .yield

,,
WHz- 1 GHz ,

The thermal fraction implied by the ratio of Equations 21 and agrees
well with the average observed value (Equation . The ionization rate is
)
,
,,

s ,
.
Blue luminosity is a poor quantitative measure of very recent 1 08 yr)
star formation because of extinction in molecular clouds plus confusion
by older (up to 1 0
9
yr) un obscured stellar populations of blue stars (Sage
& Solomon 1 989). Massive stars are formed in dusty giant molecular
clouds from which only a small fraction of the UV or even optical (e.g.
Hf) photons actually escape, so that nearly all of the luminosity produced
by stars in H II regions emerges in the FIR. For typical dust temperatures
and emissivities, about of this emission appears in the
band
between A .0 11m and A 1 0 11m (Helou et al 1 988). Conversely, most
of the luminosity in the band measured by
is from dust heated by

stars more massive than
,(Devereux & Young 1 990, Xu 1 990).

For a time-independent IMF
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606 CONON
2 1MU
L
FIR

3
r(M)L(M),(M) dM,
5Mo
2S.
where reM) is the lifetime of a star with mass M and L(M) is i ts average
bolometric luminosity. The total energy L(M)r(M) emitted by a massive
star during its main-sequence life (Maeder 1 987) can be approximated by
Lr 1 09. 6(M/Mo)3/2Lo yr. If the IMF slope is y 2. S for M; SMo,
then each logarithmic stellar mass range contributes equally to LF
IR
and
26.
Both LN + LT and L
FIR
are proportional to the star-formation rate, so this
model implies a linear FIR/radio correlation. The FIR/radio ratio at
v 1 .4 GHz predicted by Equations 21 , 23, and 26 is q 2.4, close to the
average observed value (q) ' 2. 3 for moderately luminous (L
FlR
;:
109Lo) galaxies (Condon et aI 1 99l a). Also, the ratio L(Ha)/L
F
I
R
0.01
from Equations 22 and 26 is in reasonable agreement with the data in
Devereux & Young (1990).
Since SFR(M

5M _) is the only free parameter, only one observable
(e.g. the radio luminosity at one frequency) per galaxy is needed to deter
mine its model parameters. For example, the measured radio luminosity of
M82 is LN + LT ' 1 .0 ? 1 0W Hz- at V 1 . 4 GHz. The ratio L,/ LT ' 8
follows from either Equation 5 or the ratio of Equations 21 and 23. The
model then predicts the star-formation rate SFR(M 5M 0) ' 2. 2 M 0
yr- I , the radio supernova rate V_@ 0. 1 yr- the ionization rate
Nuv 8 ? 1 05 3 s- and the FIR luminosity LFiR 2. 4 x 1 Ol oLo. These
values are all in very good agreement with the data.
The relative contributions to VSN o
LN, L
F1
R,
and Nuv o LT from stars
in diferent ranges of log (M/ M 0) are plotted for this model in Figure 9.
Since the range of stellar masses contributing most to V_@ falls within the
broad range of masses producing L
F
l
R, the FIR/radio ratio should be
relatively insensitive to time variability or slope changes in the assumed
IMF. The thermal fraction LT/(LN + LT) is less robust because there is less
overlap between the stellar mass ranges responsible for supernovae and
ionization. The steady-state models of Leitherer ( 1 990) indicate that a
change ,y in the IMF slope changes the log of the thermal fraction by
approximately -,"/2. About 3 x 1 06 yr after the termination of a
starburst, the ionization rate (Leitherer 1 990) and hence the thermal lumin
osity fall precipitously while the supernova rate and non thermal emission
persist. Thus it is unlikely that the sharp spectral cutof at V 8 GHz
reported for NGC 1 569 is a consequence of relativistic electron energy
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o
I I 1 ' 1
| | . 1
1 0
I I I
Nu
I I I I
L
. . . . . . - -
.'
:
i
:
i
1 00
M I Me
Fgure 9 The relative contributions to the supernova rate V
SN,
the far-infrared luminosity
LF1R, and the ionization rate Nuv (the last from Leitherer 1 990) per logarithmic interval of
stellar mass for a time-independent IMF i O M- 5/2 truncated at Mu = 100 Mo. Abscissa:
log stellar mass in solar mass units. Ordinate: relative contribution per logarithmic mass
range.
losses in a post-starburst galaxy (Israel & de Bruyn 1 988) since NGC 1 569
still has a normal thermal fraction.
7. SUMMARY
Impressive advances in both observation and interpretation have been
made in the time since the general review of radio emission from spiral
galaxies by van der Kruit & Allen ( 1 976). The VLA has provided the speed
to map hundreds of galaxies in complete samples, the sensitivity to detect
dozens of individual radio supernovae and SNRs in external galaxies, the
resolution to map nearby galaxies in detail and to resolve even the most
compact nuclear starbursts, and the ability to make maps at several fre
quencies with similar (u, v)-plane coverage. Equally important is lRAS,
whose FIR sky survcy provided complete samples of normal galaxies
ranging from the quiescent to the ultraluminous (LFIR > 10 II Lo) and
showed that the FIR/radio correlation is remarkably strong and universal.
The FIR/radio correlation is the single most important factor in the wide
spread acceptance of massive stars as the energy source for both the FIR
and non thermal radio emission from normal galaxies. It also suggests
that the star-formation rate SFR(M 5M 0) is the dominant variable
controlling the range of FIR and radio luminosities observed. Other
factors, such as magnetic field strength, either play a minor role or do
not vary signifcantly from ordinary disk galaxies to luminous nuclear
starbursts.
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608 CONDON
Models relating the thermal radio, non thermal radio, and FIR lumin
osities of galaxies to SFR(M 2 5M 0) can now be constructed that are
consistent with, but not required by, the data. For example, the empirical
relation between the supernova rate and non thermal radio luminosity
(Equation 1 8) does not explain how cosmic rays are generated in supernova
remnants, propagate in the interstellar medium, and lose their energy or
escape from the galaxy; it merely sweeps these problems under the rug.
But such models do highlight the problems that remain to be solved by
better analysis and observation. Existing data on the strong nearby source
in M82 indicate what might be done with other normal galaxies using
improved instruments in the near future. Direct estimates of the supernova
rate are badly needed to pin down the relation between non thermal radio
luminosity and the SFR. The VLA is capable of monitoring the number
of SNRs in M82, their fux densities, and even their angular sizes. Periodic
VLA observations of other nearby galaxies would be sensitive enough to
detect new radio supernovae and determine their average radio supernova
rate without the optical limitations of confusion by starlight and extinction
by dust. At most we have an outline of what might be; only the future will
bring the full picture of what must be.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is operated by Associated
Universities, Inc. , under cooperative agreement with the National Science
Foundation. I thank Pat Crane, George Helou, Allan Sandage, Joan
Wrobel, and especially Ko Hummel for many valuable suggestions and
comments.
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CONDON
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Radio Emition of Normal Galaxies

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Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 1992.

M 82 IC 6941 NGC 3690

cm-3 and 5 ? 103 K < Te < 10

K. The fux F(Bnx) 2 ? 10- 1 1 erg cm

S-I of M82 (Willner et al 1977)

IlG 41 K GHz kpc

Q) is the observed nonthermal Rayleigh-Jeans

would become large, the cosmic rays would

is determined directly by the

The nonthermal luminosity

is from dust heated by

,(Devereux & Young 1 990, Xu 1 990).

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