Unit 2

Management of Conversion System

Chapter 8: Workforce Measurement
Lesson 23 – Job Design

Learning Objectives

After reading this lesson you will be able to understand

Traditional engineering dimension of job design
Behavioral dimension of job design

Good Morning students, today we are going to introduce the

concept of what is known as JOB DESIGN. We would learn to
appreciate the importance of the concept as applicable in
Production and operations systems.

We have discussed how to design products, where to locate

production facilities, how to design the production process, and
how to configure production facilities. The keys to the production
system, however, are the workers in the system. In theory, all
organizations have access to essentially the same standard
equipment, materials, and facilities. It is an organization’s
personnel that provides the competitive advantage and makes one
organization more successful than another. It is the people who
create new and better products and devise better ways to make and
distribute them.
Recruiting well – educated, responsible, and skilled people is a
good starting point for creating a productive workforce. But, how
employees are trained, organized, and motivated ultimately
determines the success of the company.

Often managers, responsible for many subordinates and

equipment, feel overwhelmed by details.
 Couldn't we be more efficient if we improved our jobs?
But how can we improve them when we hardly know
what the jobs consist of?
Well, my friends, one answer to the managers' dilemma is
offered by the scientific approach.
It urges managers to do the following:
1. Identify the general operations problem and the jobs that
seem to be contributing to or causing the problem.
2. Carefully analyze and document how work is being
performed (established industrial engineering techniques
are available to help analyze and document).
3. Analyze the tasks that the jobs comprise.

4. Develop and implement new work methods.

You get the idea , don’t you?
Jobs can be broken apart into tasks. If the tasks are assigned to
different workers, each worker can perform fewer tasks but can
perform them faster and perhaps under more specialized conditions
(for example, with special tools or work benches).
This basic concept, specialization of labor, has been very
effective in increasing operating efficiency in manufacturing; it has
been less effective, however, in the service industries.
We shall note that traditional engineering approaches to job
design have emphasized the use of operation charts, activity charts,
flow process charts, and principles of motion economy. We shall
note that consideration must also be given to worker physiology
and environmental conditions, as these affect job design.
Such behavioral techniques as job rotation, enlargement, and
enrichment in redesigning jobs will be responsible to enhance
productivity and satisfaction. We shall note that if managers use
both traditional modeling and contemporary behavioral concepts in
designing jobs, the results may be more efficient and effective
performance than could be provided by either alone.
Job Design
A job can be defined as the set of tasks and responsibilities of a
worker. These tasks and responsibilities, along with performance
expectations, work conditions (time and place of work), general
skills, and possibly methods to be used, are normally contained in
a written job description. There is no set formula for designing jobs
that will best fit a production system. The number of variables
controlled by the job designer and the number of corresponding
trade-offs are enormous. However, the tasks to be done, the
training provided, the tools available for use, the organization of
personnel, the design of the work area, and the compensation
system all affect the contribution employees will make to the
system.
Job Content
A central aspect of job design is to define the tasks the employee is
supposed to do – the job content. The extent to which tasks can or
should be defined will vary from job to job. For example, for
repetitive jobs, such as those performed by workers on an
assembly line, all the required tasks of the job can be clearly listed
and described in detail. Other jobs, such as that of an plant
engineer, encompass a much wider range of tasks, many of which
are performed infrequently, and some of the tasks cannot be
described ahead of time. In fact, some jobs deal with solving
problems that arise unexpectedly and are not specifically assigned
to anyone. In these cases, the job content has to be defined more in
terms of general problem areas, skill areas, or responsibilities than
in specific task descriptions.
The trade off between specialization and task variety is the heart of
the conflict between two schools of thought in job design: the
scientific management school and the behavioral or psychological
school. The scientific management school, as epitomized by
Frederick Taylor’s work, concentrated on making the human
mechanical aspects of work as efficient as possible. This approach,
in effect, treated people as little more than thinking animals.
Productivity was postulated to be primarily a function of the
physical work methods of employees and their motivation, which
was assumed to be purely money driven. By studying work
methods in a scientific manner, managers could improve them and
teach them to employees to make them more efficient. Little more
was expected of workers than to carry out the mechanical aspects
of their jobs as prescribed by industrial engineers.
Subsequent study undertaken by those of the behavioral school has
shown that there is more to raising worker productivity than simply
work methods. Both the quality and the quantity of work
performed are affected by psychological and organizational
factors, such as how workers interact with coworkers.
Neither school of thought fully captures the essence of job design.
Successful job design requires a synthesis of both schools; we must
develop efficient work methods and exploit specialization of
repetitive tasks while providing workers with variety, control over
their work, and a satisfying work environment. In recent years, the
goal has been to reduce the layers of management, move decision
making down to first-line workers, and utilize the capabilities of
workers more fully, thereby making their jobs more interesting
while increasing their contribution to the production process.
Job Enlargement
Job enlargement is a horizontal expansion of job tasks; that is, the
worker is assigned more tasks at the same general skill level. In a
manufacturing setting, job enlargement might mean having a
worker do several tasks at a work station rather than only one or
two. In a bank, it might mean training a person to write home
loans, car loans, and installment loans rather than only one of
these.
Job Enrichment
It involves vertical expansion of a job’s responsibilities and skills.
It may mean that a production worker is involved in the design of
the product or production process, is responsible for her own
quality testing, handles customer complaints, or deals directly with
suppliers. For job enrichment to be of greatest value, at least some
of the added tasks and responsibilities should involve greater use
of the worker’s capabilities, including creativity, pattern
recognition, interpersonal communication, and problem solving.
Vertical expansion of the job necessitates greater training and
empowerment of line workers.

Original Job: Install Install audio

Install gauges dashboard equipment
on dashboard frame and
cover

Horizontal job enlargement:

Suggest wider variety of similar tasks
changes to the
assembly
process and
dashboard
design Vertical job enrichment:
Higher level responsibilities

Train dealer
mechanics on
dashboard repairs

Fig : Job enlargement and job enrichment for an automobile assembly worker
Job Rotation
Job rotation can be used to make work more interesting while
exploiting the efficiencies of narrowly defined, repetitive jobs is to
have employees work in teams and exchange jobs on a periodic
basis. Within a department or production line there may be three,
four, or more different jobs, each involving a different level of
interest for the workers. If workers take turns and rotate among the
jobs, no one is stuck with an extremely boring or physically
demanding job all the time; the desirable and undesirable jobs are
equally shared. How often rotation occurs will vary from job to job
and will be affected by learning rates, the time needed to switch
jobs, and the relative desirability of the jobs.
Cross Training
An essential part of job rotation is cross training of workers, that is,
training them to do more than one job. Cross training is a form of
job enlargement and, in many cases, job enrichment as well. It puts
considerable responsibility on the organization to provide the
additional training needed. Although cross-training is often
instituted as part of a formal job rotation policy, it can be
extremely beneficial in itself. Many organizations extensively
cross-train their workers to allow for greater flexibility in using
staff and to improve overall worker skill.

Well, so now we see light at the end of the tunnel.

But let’s all try to help the poor manager, a bit more.
Poor dear…
Work Methods Analysis Aids
To help the manager or a staff analyst study a job once a problem
has been identified, certain techniques have been developed. One
of these uses operation charts to analyze the job in terms of
elementary motions of the right and left hands reaching, carrying,
grasping, lifting, positioning, and releasing, for example.
Often a time scale is placed in the middle of the operation chart so
that it is clear how much time is taken by each hand to perform the
associated motion. Operation charts are appropriate for routine,
repetitive, short-cycle tasks producing low to moderate volume
products.
Activity charts segment tasks into small, physical actions, for
example, of both the worker and the machine worked with. Each
action, human or machine, is timed.
In this way, the analyst can easily compute the percentages of
productive and idle time and concentrate on methods of reducing
idle time for the worker and/or the machine. Activity charts are
appropriate for routine, repetitive tasks with worker-machine
interaction.
Dear students, why don’t you suggest the use of a flow
chart at this stage?
Flow process charts analyze interstation activities, attempting to
portray the flow throughout the overall production process. To
capture this flow, analysts classify each movement of the product
through the conversion process into one of five standard
categories: operation, transportation, storage, inspection, or delay.
Flow process charts are appropriate for visualizing the sequential
stages of the conversion process. They help reveal unnecessary or
duplicated effort whose elimination would improve efficiency.
Flow process charts provide a broader level of analysis than
operation or activity charts. Many jobs are examined, but none in
depth. Descriptions of the five categories of product movement,
and the icon for each, are:
Ο Operation: Work performed in manufacturing the product;
usually assigned to a single station.
Transportation: Movement of the product or its parts
among stations.

∇ Storage: Intervals during which the product or its parts waits

or is at rest.
∇T: A T inside the triangle designates temporary storage, when
the product is stored for a short time before the conversion
process has been completed.
∇P: A P inside the triangle designates permanent storage, when
the completed Product is in a storage facility more than a day
or two.
Inspection: Work performed to verify that the product meets
mechanical, Dimensional, and operational
requirements.
D Delay: Temporary storage before or after a production operation.
When the temporary storage symbol is used, this
category is often omitted.
You know, for this purpose we can also effectively employ
what is known as:-
 Gang process chart

To trace the interaction of several workers with one machine,

analysts may use Gang process charts. A broad set of guidelines,
called the principles of motion economy, may be used for
analyzing and improving work arrangements, the use of human
hands and body, or the use of tools to increase efficiency and
reduce fatigue.
Great, isn’t it.
But have you taken into consideration the Worker Physiology?
You forgot.
Well, I didn’t.
I mean, I can’t really afford to.
So, we progress further…

Worker Physiology
Over the years considerable effort has been devoted to
studying people's physiology as it relates to their work. Statistics
on reaching range, grip strength, lifting ability, and many other
physiological factors have been reasonably well documented.
Workplace arrangements, job design, and equipment design all
require consideration of physiological factors. An industrial
engineering handbook is a good source of information on the
physiological capabilities of workers.
Let’s now focus on the Principles of motion economy

Principles of motion economy

Using the Human Body the Way It Works Best
1. The work should be arranged so that a natural rhythm can
become automatic.
2. The symmetry of the body should be considered.
The motions of the arms should be:
(a) Simultaneous, beginning and completing their
motions at the same time;
(b) Opposite and symmetrical.
3. The human body is an ultimate machine and its full
Capabilities should be employed:
(a)Neither hand should ever be idle.
(b) Work should be distributed to other parts of the
body in line with their ability.
(c) The safe design limits of the body should be
observed.
(d) The human should be employed at its
 "highest" use.
4. The arms and hands as weights are subject to
the physical laws and energy should be conserved:
(a) Momentum should work for the body and
not against it.
(b) The smooth, continuous arc of the ballistic is most
efficient.
(c) The distance of movements should be
minimized.
(d) Tasks should be turned over to machines.
5. Tasks should be simplified:
6.
(a)Eye contacts' should be few and grouped together
(b) Unnecessary actions, delays, and idle time
should be eliminated.
(c) The degree of required precision and control
should be minimized.
(d) The number of individual motions should be
minimized along with the number of muscle
groups involved.
A related question that comes to mind is:-
How are we arranging the Workplace to Assist
Performance
Let us all focus on this important aspect.

Arranging the Workplace to Assist Performance

1. There should be a definite place for all tools and
materials.
2. Tools, materials, and controls should be located
close to the point of use
3. Tools, materials, and controls should be located -to
permit the best sequence and path of motions.
4. The workplace should be fitted to the task and to the
human.

Using Mechanical Devices to Reduce Human Effort

1. Vises and clamps can hold the work precisely
where needed.
 2. Guides can assist in positioning the work without close
operator attention.
3. Controls and foot-operated devices can relieve the hands
of work.

4. Mechanical devices can multiply human abilities

5. Mechanical systems should be fitted to human use.
You know friends, to a greater extent, we are what our
environment has made us. The same applies for the employees
too, who work in the system.
Ask me.
I would know.

Working Environment
Accounting for the physical environment is extremely
important in designing jobs. Temperature, humidity, and air flow
all affect work. If you've ever tried to mow grass or move furniture
on a hot, humid day, you know how much harder high
temperatures make your job. The same is true for less physically
demanding work typing, writing, and studying. These tasks are
easier at temperatures a little warmer than those that are best for
manual tasks, but are harder when temperatures are very high than
when temperatures are moderate. A comfortable temperature might
range from 65 degree F to 80 degree F (26.4 degree C to 38.4
degree C), the lower temperature better for physically demanding
work.
With that, we have come to the end of today’s discussions. I
hope it has been an enriching and satisfying experience. See
you around in the next lecture.

Points to ponder