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Contents
Articles
Bratharogam Book of Ballymote Younger Futhark Ogham Old Irish Scholastic ogham Ailm Beith (letter) Ceirt Coll (letter) Dair Eadhadh Fearn (letter) Forfeda Gort (letter) Ifn Iodhadh Luis (letter) Muin NGadal Nion Onn Ruis (letter) Sail (letter) Straif Tinne Uath r 1 4 6 10 21 44 49 50 52 54 55 56 57 58 62 63 65 66 67 68 69 71 72 73 74 75 76 77

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 78 79

Article Licenses

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80

Bratharogam

Bratharogam
In Early Irish literature a Bratharogam ("word ogham", plural Bratharogaim) is a two word kenning which explains the meanings of the names of the letters of the Ogham alphabet. Three variant lists of bratharogaim or 'word-oghams' have been preserved, dating to the Old Irish period. They are as follows: Bratharogam Morainn mac Mon Bratharogam Maic ind c Bratharogam Con Culainn The first two of these are attested from all three surviving copies of the Ogam Tract, while the "C Chulainn" version is not in the Book of Ballymote and only known from 16th- and 17th-century manuscripts. The Auraicept na n-ces or 'Scholars' Primer' reports and interprets the Bratharogam Morainn mac Mon. Later Medieval scholars believed that all of the letter names were those of trees, and attempted to explain the bratharogaim in that light. However, modern scholarship has shown that only eight at most of the letter names are those of trees, and that the word-oghams or kennings themselves support this. The kennings as edited (in normalized Old Irish) and translated by McManus (1988) are as follows:
Letter Meaning Bratharogam Morainn mac Mon fochos foltchain "withered foot with fine hair" l sla "lustre of the eye" airenach fan "vanguard of warriors" l ambi "pallor of a lifeless one" costud sde "establishing of peace" condl can "assembly of packs of hounds" ardam dosae "highest tree" Bratharogam Maic ind c Bratharogam Con Culainn maise malach "beauty of the eyebrow"

Beithe

'Birch'

glaisem cnis "greyest of skin"

Luis

'Flame' or 'Herb'

carae cethrae "friend of cattle" comt lachta "milk container" lth bech "sustenance of bees" bg ban "boast of women" bnad gnise "blanching of faces"

lth cethrae "sustenance of cattle" dn cridi "protection of the heart" tosach mela "beginning of honey" bg maise "boast of beauty" ansam aidche "most difficult at night"

Fern

'Alder'

Sail

'Willow'

Nin

'Branch-fork'

ath

'Fear'

Dair

'Oak'

grs sor "handicraft of a craftsman"

slechtam sore "most carved of craftsmanship" trian n-airm "one of three parts of a weapon" milsem fedo "sweetest tree" dgu fethail "dregs of clothing"

Tinne

'Iron Bar'

trian roith "one of three parts of a wheel" caniu fedaib "fairest tree" clithar baiscill "shelter of a [lunatic?]"

smiur gaile "marrow of (char)coal"

Coll

'Hazel'

carae blesc "friend of nutshells" brg anduini "substance of an insignificant person" rusc n-airlig "proverb of slaughter" ined erc "suitable place for cows"

Cert

'Bush' or 'Rag'

Muin

'Neck', 'Ruse/Trick' or 'Love;' How about 'breath?' 'Field'

tressam fedmae "strongest in exertion" milsiu fraib| "sweetest grass"

conar gotha "path of the voice" ssad ile "sating of multitudes"

Gort

Bratharogam

2
'Slaying' lth lego "sustenance of a leech" tiud midach "raiment of physicians" tosach n-chto "beginning of slaying" saigid nl "seeking of clouds" bruth fergae "glow of anger" tosach garmae "beginning of calling" lth fan "[equipment] of warrior bands" forbbaid amb "shroud of a lifeless one" brthair bethi (?) "brother of birch" (?) lth lobair (?) "energy of an infirm person" (?) canem co "fairest fish"

GG Gtal

Straif

'Sulphur'

tressam ramnai mrad rn "strongest reddening (dye)" "increase of secrets" tindem rucci "most intense blushing" ardam achta "loudest groan" congnaid ech "wounder of horses" ramnae drech "reddening of faces" tosach frecrai "beginning of an answer" fthem sore "smoothest of craftsmanship"

Ruis

'Red'

Ailm

'Pine'?

Onn

'Ash-tree'

'Earth'

araib adbaib "in cold dwellings" rgnaid fid "discerning tree" sinem fedo "oldest tree"

slad cland "propagation of plants" comman carat "exchange of friends" canem sen "fairest of the ancients"

Edad

Unknown

Idad

'Yew-tree'?

EA bad

Unknown

snmchan feda "fair-swimming letter"

cosc lobair "[admonishing?] of an infirm person"

OI

ir

'Gold'

sruithem aicde l crotha "most venerable substance" "splendour of form" tthmar fid "fragnant tree" milsem fedo "sweetest tree" lad sethaig "groan of a sick person" cubat oll "great elbow/cubit" amram mlais "most wonderful taste" mol galraig "groan of a sick person"

UI

Uillenn

'Elbow'

IO

Iphn

'Spine/thorn'?

AE Emancholl 'Twin-of-hazel'

beithe means "birch-tree", cognate to Latin betula. The kenning in the Auraicept is Feocos foltchain in beithi "of withered trunk fairhaired the birch" luis is either related to luise "blaze" or lus "herb". The kenning Li sula luis (.i. caertheand) ar ailleacht a caer "[delightful] for eye is luis (i.e. rowan) owing to the beauty of its berries" the kenning "for the eye is luis" would support a meaning of "blaze". fern means "alder-tree", Primitive Irish *wern, so that the original value of the letter was [w]. The kenning is Airenach Fiann (.i. fernd) air is di na sgeith "the van of the warrior-bands (i.e. alder), for thereof are the shields" sail means "willow-tree", cognate to Latin salix, with the kenning Li ambi .i. nemli lais .i. ar cosmaillius a datha fri marb "the colour of a lifeless one, i.e. it has no colour, i.e. owing to the resemblance of its hue of a dead person" nin means either "fork" or "loft". The Auraicept glosses it as uinnius "ash-tree", cosdad sida nin .i. uinnius, ar is di doniter craind gae triasa "A check on peace is nin (i.e. ash), for of it are made spear-shafts by which the peace is broken" ath is unattested in inscriptions. The kenning "a meet of hounds is huath" identifies the name as ath "horror, fear", although the Auraicept glosses "white-thorn[1]":

Bratharogam comdal cuan huath (.i. sce L. om); no ar is uathmar hi ara deilghibh "a meet of hounds is huath (i.e. white-thorn); or because it is formidable (uathmar) for its thorns." The original etymology of the name, and the letter's value, are however unclear. McManus (1986) suggested a value [y]. Linguist Peter Schrijver suggested that if ath "fear" is cognate with Latin pavere, a trace of PIE *p might have survived into Primitive Irish, but there is no independent evidence for this. (see McManus 1991:37) dair means "oak" (PIE *doru-). arirde dossaib duir "higher than bushes is an oak" tinne from the evidence of the kennings means "bar of metal, ingot". The Auraicept equates it with "holly" trian roith tindi L .i. ar is cuileand in tres fidh roith in carbait "a third of a wheel is tinne, that is, because holly is one of the three timbers of the chariot-wheel" the word is probably cognate to Old Irish tend "strong" or tind "brilliant". coll meant "hazel-tree", cognate with Welsh collen, correctly glossed as cainfidh "fair-wood" ("hazel"), coll .i. cach ac ithi a chno "coll, i.e. every one is eating from its nuts" cert is cognate with Welsh pert "bush", Latin quercus "oak" (PIE *perkwos). It was confused with Old Irish ceirt "rag", reflected in the kennings. The Auraicept glosses aball "apple", clithar boaiscille .i. elit gelt quert (.i. aball) "shelter of a boiscill, i.e. a wild hind is queirt, i.e. an apple tree" muin: the kennings connect this name to three different words, muin "neck, upper part of the back", muin "wile, ruse", and muin "love, esteem". The Auraicept glosses finemhain "vine", with a kenning consistent with "love": airdi masi muin .i. iarsinni fhasas a n-airde .i. finemhain "highest of beauty is min, i.e. because it grows aloft, i.e. a vine-tree" gort means "field" (cognate to garden). The Auraicept glosses "ivy": glaisiu geltaibh gort (.i. edind) "greener than pastures is gort (i.e. "ivy")." gtal from the kennings has a meaning of "killing", maybe cognate to gonid "slays", from PIE gwen-. The value of the letter in Primitive Irish, then, was a voiced labiovelar, [gw]. The Auraicept glosses cilcach, "broom" or "fern": luth lega getal (.i. cilcach) no raith "a physician's strength is getal (i.e. broom)." straiph means "sulphur". The Primitive Irish letter value is uncertain, it may have been a sibilant different from s, which is taken by sail, maybe a reflex of /st/ or /sw/. The Auraicept glosses draighin "blackthorn": aire srabha sraibh (.i. draighin) "the hedge of a stream is sraibh (i.e. blackthorn)." ruis means "red" or "redness", glossed as trom "elder": ruamma ruice ruis (.i. trom) "the redness of shame is ruis (i.e. elder)" ailm is of uncertain meaning, possibly "pine-tree". The Auraicept has crand giuis .i. ochtach, "fir-tree" or "pinetree" onn means "ash-tree", although the Auraicept glosses aiten "furze", r, based on the kennings, means "earth, clay, soil". The Auraicept glosses fraech "heath". edad and idhad are paired names of unknown meaning, although idhad may be a form of 'yew-tree', altered to make a pairing. The Auraicept glosses them as ed uath .i. crand fir no crithach "horrible grief, i.e. test-tree or aspen", and ibhar "yew", respectively.

Of the forfeda, four are glossed by the Auraicept, ebhadh with crithach "aspen", oir with feorus no edind "spindle-tree or ivy", uilleand with edleand "honeysuckle", and iphin with spinan no ispin "gooseberry or thorn".

Bratharogam

References
Damian McManus, Irish letter-names and their kennings, riu 39 (1988), 127-168.

References
[1] http:/ / toolserver. org/ %7Edispenser/ cgi-bin/ dab_solver. py?page=Br%C3%ADatharogam& editintro=Template:Disambiguation_needed/ editintro& client=Template:Dn

Book of Ballymote
The Book of Ballymote (Leabhar Bhaile an Mhta, RIA MS 23 P 12, 275 foll.), named for the parish of Ballymote, County Sligo, was written in 1390 or 1391. It was produced by the scribes Solam Droma, Robertus Mac Sithigh and Magnus Duibhgennain, on commission by Tonnaltagh McDonagh, in the possession of whose clan the manuscript remained until 1522, when it was purchased by Aed g O'Donnell, prince of Tr Conaill, for 140 milch cows. In 1620 it was given to Trinity College, Dublin, but was subsequently stolen from the library, and only returned to the Royal Irish Academy upon its foundation in 1785 by Chevalier O'Gorman who allegedly purchased it from a millwright's widow in Drogheda for 20 pounds. The first page of the work contains a drawing of Noah's Ark. The first written page is lost, and the second page describes the ages of the world. After this follows a description of the History of the Lost Israelites and the migration from Israel into Europe and their descendants becoming the Celtic and Anglo-Saxon people (see British Israelism). (2r) a life of Saint Patrick (6r) a copy of the Lebor Gabla renn (8r) Tecosca Cormaic "The Instructions of King Cormac" and other stories concerning king Cormac mac Airt Triads of Ireland stories of Fionn Mac Cumhail and Brian Borumh various genealogies of clans and kings Christian kings of Ulster (34v) Christian kings of Leinster (35v) Christian kings of Connaught (37v) of the Munster families (97r) Dl gCais (102v) rules of the different measures of Irish versification (157r) the only known copy of the Auraicept na n-ces, or "scholars' primer"(169r) the Lebor na gCeart (Book of Rights) (181r)
fol. 8r

Book of Ballymote The book ends with various Greek and Latin fragments on the fall of Troy, including a fragment of the Aeneid.

Editions
Robert Atkinson. NY: AMS Press. ISBN 0-404-17535-X O'Donovan, The Book of Rights, ed. and trans. 1847. The Book of Ballymote: Photographic facsimile with introduction by R. Atkinson, (Dublin 1887).

References
McDonagh, James, History of Ballymote and the Parish of Emlaghfad (1998). [1] Harrison, A.: 'Leabhar Bhaile an Mhta ag ts an 18 aois', igse 23 (1989), 147-50. Concheanainn, T.: 'The Book of Ballymote', Celtica 14 (1981), 15-25.

External links
Royal Irish Academy description [2] The Book of Ballymote [1] (excerpt of McDonagh 1998) Genealogies from the Book of Ballymote [3] Leabhar Bhaile an Mhta [4] (ria.ie) Leabhar Bhaile an Mhta [5] Irish Script on Screen [6] has digital images of the document. Select "Collections", then select "Royal Irish Academy", then scroll down to MS 23 P 12, The Book of Ballymote.

References
[1] http:/ / homepage. tinet. ie/ ~jhiggins/ book. html [2] http:/ / www. ria. ie/ Library/ Special-Collections/ Manuscripts/ Book-of-Ballymote. aspx [3] http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ query?url=http:/ / www. geocities. com/ Athens/ Aegean/ 2444/ irish/ BB-index. htm& date=2009-10-25+ 05:47:45 [4] http:/ / www. ria. ie/ library+ catalogue/ ballymote. html [5] http:/ / staffweb. itsligo. ie/ staff/ jforan/ Irish_project/ Alt14/ ALT14A. HTM [6] http:/ / www. isos. dias. ie/ english/ index. html

Younger Futhark

Younger Futhark
Younger Futhark
Type Languages Time period alphabet Old Norse 8th to 12th centuries

Parent systems Phoenician alphabet Greek alphabet Old Italic alphabet Elder Futhark Child systems Sister systems Younger Futhark

Medieval runes Anglo-Saxon runes

Part of a series on

Old Norse

English words of Old Norse origin

The Younger Futhark, also called Scandinavian runes, is a runic alphabet, a reduced form of the Elder Futhark, consisting of only 16 characters, in use from about the 9th century, after a "transitional period" which lasted during the 7th and 8th centuries. The reduction, somewhat paradoxically, happened at the same time as phonetic changes led to a greater number of different phonemes in the spoken language, when Proto-Norse evolved into Old Norse. Thus, the language included distinct sounds and minimal pairs which were not separate in writing. The Younger Futhark is divided into long-branch (Danish) and short-twig (Swedish and Norwegian) runes, in the 10th century further expanded by the "Hlsinge Runes" or staveless runes. The lifetime of the Younger Futhark corresponds roughly to the Viking Age. Their use declined after the Christianization of Scandinavia; most writing in Scandinavia from the 12th century was in the Latin alphabet, but the runic scripts survived in marginal use, in the form of the Medieval runes (in use ca. 11001500) and the Latinised Dalecarlian runes (ca. 15001910).

Younger Futhark

History
Usage of the Younger Futhark is found in Scandinavia and Viking Age settlements abroad, probably in use from the 9th century onward. While the Migration Period Elder Futhark had been an actual "secret" known only to a literate elite, with only some 350 surviving inscriptions, literacy in the Younger Futhark became widespread in Scandinavia, as witnessed by the great number of Runestones (some 6,000), sometimes inscribed with almost casual notes. During a phase from about 650 to 800, some inscriptions mixed the use of Elder and Younger Futhark runes. Examples of inscriptions considered to be from this period include DR 248 from Snoldelev, DR 357 from Stentoften, DR 358 from Gummarp, DR 359 from Istaby, and DR 360 from Bjrketorp, and objects such as the Setre Comb (N KJ40).[1] g 136 in Rk, which uses Elder Futhark runes to encrypt part of the text, and g 43 in Ingelstad, which uses a single Elder Futhark rune as an ideogram, are also sometimes included as transitional inscriptions. By the late 8th century, the reduction from 24 to 16 runes was complete. The main change was that the difference between voiced and unvoiced consonants was no longer expressed in writing. Other changes are the consequence of sound changes that separate Old Norse from Proto-Norse and Common Germanic (mostly changes to the vowel system). The first aett was reduced to its first six letters, furk, losing the g and w runes (the old a rune is transliterated as for Old Norse as the phoneme it expressed had become more closed). The second aett lost the and p runes. The j rune was rendered superfluous due to Old Norse sound changes, but was kept with the new sound value of a. The old z rune was kept (transliterated in the context of Old Norse as ) but moved to the end of the rune row in the only change of letter ordering in Younger Futhark. The third aett was reduced to four runes, losing the e, , o and d runes. In tabular form:
Elder Futhark f f u a r r k g w h h n n i j p z s s t b e t,d b,p m m l l o d

Younger Futhark

u/v/w,y,o,

,o,

k,g

i,e

a,

The Younger Futhark became known in Europe as the "alphabet of the Norsemen", and was studied in the interest of trade and diplomatic contacts, referred to as Abecedarium Nordmannicum in Frankish Fulda (possibly by Walahfrid Strabo) and ogam lochlannach "Ogham of the Scandinavians" in the Book of Ballymote.

Rune names
The names of the 16 runes of the Younger futhark are recorded in the Icelandic and Norwegian rune poems. The ogam lochlannach, Book of Ballymote, fol. 170v The names are: fe ("wealth"), ur ("iron"/"rain"), Thurs ("giant"), As/Oss, reidh ("ride"), kaun ("ulcer"), hagall ("hail"), naudhr/naud ("need"), is/iss ("ice"), ar ("plenty"), sol ("sun"), Tyr, bjarkan/bjarken ("birch"), madhr/madr ("man"), logr/lg ("liquid"), yr ("yew"). From comparison with Anglo-Saxon and Gothic letter names, most of these names directly continue the names of the Elder Futhark runes. The exceptions to this are: yr which continues the name of the unrelated Eihwaz rune; thurs and kaun, in which cases the Old Norse, Anglo-Saxon and Gothic traditions diverge.

Younger Futhark

Variants
The Younger Futhark is divided into long-branch (Danish) and short-twig (Swedish and Norwegian) runes. The difference between the two versions has been a matter of controversy. A general opinion is that the difference was functional, i.e. the long-branch runes were used for documentation on stone, whereas the short-branch runes were in everyday use for private or official messages on wood.

Long-branch runes
The long-branch runes are the following signs:

The Younger Futhark: Danish long-branch runes and Swedish/Norwegian short-twig runes.

- f u r k h n i a s t b m l
Short-twig runes
In the short-twig runes (or Rk runes), nine runes appear as simplified variants of the long-branch runes, while the remaining seven have identical shapes:

f u r k h n i a s t b m l
Hlsinge runes (staveless runes)
Hlsinge runes are so named because in modern times they were first noticed in the Hlsingland region of Sweden. Later other runic inscriptions with the same runes were found in other parts of Sweden. They were used between the 10th and 12th centuries. The runes seem to be a Staveless runes simplification of the Swedish-Norwegian runes and lack vertical strokes, hence the name 'staveless.' They cover the same set of staves as the other Younger Futhark alphabets. This variant has no assigned Unicode range (as of Unicode 4.0).

Younger Futhark

Descendant scripts
Medieval
In the Middle Ages, the Younger Futhark in Scandinavia was expanded, so that it once more contained one sign for each phoneme of the old Norse language. Dotted variants of voiceless Medieval Runes signs were introduced to denote the corresponding voiced consonants, or vice versa, voiceless variants of voiced consonants, and several new runes also appeared for vowel sounds. Inscriptions in medieval Scandinavian runes show a large number of variant rune-forms, and some letters, such as s, c and z, were often used interchangeably (Jacobsen & Moltke, 194142, p.VII; Werner, 2004, p.20). Medieval runes were in use until the 15th century. Of the total number of Norwegian runic inscriptions preserved today, most are medieval runes. Notably, more than 600 inscriptions using these runes have been discovered in Bergen since the 1950s, mostly on wooden sticks (the so-called Bryggen inscriptions). This indicates that runes were in common use side by side with the Latin alphabet for several centuries. Indeed some of the medieval runic inscriptions are actually in the Latin language.

Early modern
According to Carl-Gustav Werner, "in the isolated province of Dalarna in Sweden a mix of runes and Latin letters developed" (Werner 2004, p.7). The Dalecarlian runes came into use in the early 16th century and remained in some use up to the 20th century. Some discussion remains on whether their use was an unbroken tradition throughout this period or whether people in the 19th and 20th centuries learned runes from books written on the subject. The character inventory is suitable for transcribing modern Swedish and the local Dalecarlian dialect.

References
[1] p. 451.

Other sources
Jacobsen, Lis; Moltke, Erik (194142). Danmarks Runeindskrifter. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaards Forlag. Werner, Carl-Gustav (2004). The allrunes Font and Package (ftp://tug.ctan.org/pub/tex-archive/fonts/ allrunes/allrunes.pdf).

External links
Runes found in the Eastern Viking (http://www.arild-hauge.com/ru-e-rusland.htm) An English Dictionary of Runic Inscriptions in the Younger Futhark (http://runicdictionary.nottingham.ac.uk/) (Nottingham University)

Ogham

10

Ogham
Ogham

an inscription found in 1975 in Ratass Church, Tralee, County Kerry Type Languages Alphabet Primitive Irish; Old Irish c. 4th10th centuries Ogam, 212 Mixed Ogham U+1680U+169F [1]

Time period ISO 15924 Direction Unicode alias Unicode range

Ogham (/m/; Old Irish: ogam, pronounced[ am], Modern Irish [om] or [om]) is an Early Medieval alphabet used primarily to write the early Irish language (in the so-called "orthodox" inscriptions, 4th to 6th centuries), and later the Old Irish language (so-called scholastic ogham, 6th to 9th centuries). There are roughly 400 surviving orthodox inscriptions on stone monuments throughout Ireland and western Britain; the bulk of them are in the south of Ireland, in Counties Kerry, Cork and Waterford.[2] The largest number outside of Ireland is in Pembrokeshire in Wales.[3] The vast majority of the inscriptions consist of personal names. Ogham is sometimes called the "Celtic Tree Alphabet", based on a high medieval Bratharogam tradition ascribing names of trees to the individual letters. The etymology of the word ogam or ogham remains unclear. One possible origin is from the Irish og-aim 'point-seam', referring to the seam made by the point of a sharp weapon.[4]

Origins
The earliest inscriptions in ogham date to about the 4th century AD,[5] but James Carney believes its invention is rather within the 1st century BC.[6] Although the use of "classical" ogham in stone inscriptions seems to have flowered in the 5th and 6th centuries around the Irish Sea, from the phonological evidence it is clear that the alphabet predates the 5th century. A period of writing on wood or other perishable material prior to the preserved monumental inscriptions needs to be assumed, sufficient for the loss of the phonemes represented by ath ("H") and straif ("Z"), as well as the velar nasal, gtal, all of which are clearly part of the system, but unattested in inscriptions. It appears that the ogham alphabet was modelled on another script,[7] and some even consider it a mere cipher of its template script (Dwel 1968:[8] points out similarity with ciphers of Germanic runes). The largest number of scholars favours the Latin alphabet as this template,[citation needed] although the Elder Futhark and even the Greek alphabet have their supporters.[9] Runic origin would elegantly explain the presence of "H" and "Z" letters unused in Irish, as well as the presence of vocalic and consonantal variants "U" vs. "W" unknown to Latin or Greek writing. The Latin

Ogham alphabet is the primary contender mainly because its influence at the required period (4th century) is most easily established, viz., via Britannia, while the runes in the 4th century were not very widespread even in continental Europe. In Ireland and in Wales, the language of the monumental stone inscriptions is termed Primitive Irish. The transition to Old Irish, the language of the earliest sources in the Latin alphabet, takes place in about the 6th century.[10] Since ogham inscriptions consist almost exclusively of personal names and marks possibly indicating land ownership, linguistic information that may be glimpsed from the Primitive Irish period is mostly restricted to phonological developments.

11

Theories of origin
There are two main schools of thought among scholars as to the motivation for the creation of ogham. Scholars such as Carney and MacNeill have suggested that ogham was first created as a cryptic alphabet, designed by the Irish so as not to be understood by those with a knowledge of the Latin alphabet.[11] With this school of thought, it is asserted that the alphabet was created by Irish scholars or druids for political, military or religious reasons to provide a secret means of communication in opposition to the authorities of Roman Britain.[citation needed] The Roman Empire, which then ruled over neighbouring southern Britain, represented a very real threat of invasion to Ireland, which may have acted as a spur to the creation of the alphabet.[citation needed] Alternatively, in later centuries when the threat of invasion had receded and the Irish were themselves invading the western parts of Britain, the desire to keep communications secret from Romans or Romanised Britons would still have provided an incentive.[citation needed]. With bilingual ogham and Latin inscriptions in Wales, however, one would suppose that the ogham could easily be decoded by anyone in the Post-Roman world.[12] The second main school of thought, put forward by scholars Fol. 170r of the Book of Ballymote (1390), the Auraicept na such as McManus,[13] is that ogham was invented by the n-ces explaining the ogham script. first Christian communities in early Ireland, out of a desire to have a unique alphabet for writing short messages and inscriptions in the Irish language. The argument is that the sounds of Primitive Irish were regarded as difficult to transcribe into the Latin alphabet, so the invention of a separate alphabet was deemed appropriate. A possible such origin, as suggested by McManus (1991:41), is the early Christian community known to have existed in Ireland from around AD 400 at the latest, the existence of which is attested by the mission of Palladius by Pope Celestine I in AD 431. A variation is that the alphabet was first invented, for whatever reason, in 4th-century Irish settlements in west Wales after contact and intermarriage with Romanized Britons with a knowledge of the Latin alphabet.[citation needed] In fact, several ogham stones in Wales are bilingual, containing both Irish and British Latin, testifying to the Celtic contact that led to the existence of some of these stones.[14]

Ogham A third theory put forward by the noted ogham scholar R.A.S. Macalister was influential at one time, but finds little favour with scholars today.[15] Macalister believed that ogham was first invented in Cisalpine Gaul around 600 BC by Gaulish druids as a secret system of hand signals, and was inspired by a form of the Greek alphabet current in Northern Italy at the time. According to this theory, the alphabet was transmitted in oral form or on wood only, until it was finally put into a written form on stone inscriptions in early Christian Ireland. Later scholars are largely united in rejecting this theory, however,[16] primarily because a detailed study of the letters[citation needed] shows that they were created specifically for the Primitive Irish of the early centuries AD. The supposed links with the form of the Greek alphabet that Macalister proposed can also be disproved.[citation needed] Macalister's theory of hand or finger signals as a source for ogham is a reflection of the fact that the signary consists of four groups of five letters, with a sequence of strokes from one to five. A theory popular among modern scholars is that the forms of the letters derive from the various numerical tally-mark systems in existence at the time. This theory was first suggested by the scholars R. Thurneysen and J. Vendrys, who proposed that the ogham script was inspired by a pre-existing system of counting based around the numbers five and twenty, which was then adapted to an alphabet form by the first ogamists.[17]

12

Legendary accounts
According to the 11th-century Lebor Gabla renn, the 14th-century Auraicept na n-ces, and other Medieval Irish folklore, ogham was first invented soon after the fall of the Tower of Babel, along with the Gaelic language, by the legendary Scythian king, Fenius Farsa. According to the Auraicept, Fenius journeyed from Scythia together with Godel mac Ethoir, ar mac Nema and a retinue of 72 scholars. They came to the plain of Shinar to study the confused languages at Nimrod's tower (the Tower of Babel). Finding that they had already been dispersed, Fenius sent his scholars to study them, staying at the tower, co-ordinating the effort. After ten years, the investigations were complete, and Fenius created in Brla tbaide "the selected language", taking the best of each of the confused tongues, which he called Godelc, Goidelic, after Godel mac Ethoir. He also created extensions of Godelc, called Brla Fne, after himself, armberla, after ar mac Nema, and others, and the Beithe-luis-nuin (the ogham) as a perfected writing system for his languages. The names he gave to the letters were those of his 25 best scholars. Alternatively, the Ogam Tract credits Ogma mac Elathan (Ogmios) with the script's invention. Ogma was skilled in speech and poetry, and created the system for the learned, to the exclusion of rustics and fools. The first message written in Ogam were seven b's on a birch, sent as a warning to Lug mac Elathan, meaning: "your wife will be carried away seven times to the otherworld unless the birch protects her". For this reason, the letter b is said to be named after the birch, and In Lebor Ogaim goes on to tell the tradition that all letters were named after trees, a claim also referred to by the Auraicept as an alternative to the naming after Fenius' disciples.

Alphabet: the Beith-Luis-Nin

Strictly speaking, the word ogham refers only to the form of letters or script, while the letters themselves are known collectively as the Beith-luis-nin after the letter names of the first letters (in the same manner as the Greek Alpha and Beta). The fact that the order of the letters is in fact BLFSN led the scholar Macalister to propose that the letter order was originally BLNFS. This was to fit into his own theories which linked the Beith-luis-nin to a form of the Greek alphabet current in Northern Italy in the 6th and 5th centuries BC. However, there is no evidence for Macalister's theories and they have since been discounted by later scholars. There are in fact other explanations for the name Beith-luis-nin. One explanation is that the word nin which literally means 'a forked branch' was also regularly used to mean a written letter in general. Beith-luis-nin could therefore mean simply 'Beith-luis letters'. The other explanation is that Beith-luis-nin is a convenient contraction of the first five letters thus: Beith-LVS-nin.[18] The ogham alphabet originally consisted of twenty distinct characters (feda), arranged in four series aicm (plural of aicme "family"; compare aett). Each aicme was named after its first character (Aicme Beithe, Aicme hatha, Aicme Muine, Aicme Ailme, "the B Group", "the H Group", "the M Group", "the A Group"). Five additional letters were

Ogham later introduced (mainly in the manuscript tradition), the so-called forfeda. The Ogam Tract also gives a variety of some 100 variant or secret modes of writing ogham (92 in the Book of Ballymote), for example the "shield ogham" (ogam airenach, nr. 73). Even the Younger Futhark are introduced as a kind of "Viking ogham" (nrs. 91, 92).

13

The ogam airenach, closeup from the page shown above.

The four primary aicm are, with their transcriptions in manuscript tradition and their names according to manuscript tradition in normalised Old Irish, followed by the their Primitive Irish sound values, and their presumed original name in Primitive Irish in cases where the name's etymology is known:

The twenty standard letters of the Ogham alphabet and the five forfeda. The box on the left shows the consonants, and the box on the right shows the vowels (both non-IPA). The letter labelled IA (Ifn) earlier had the value of p. An additional (secondary) letter p is shown as 26th character (peith). Note: This is the vertical writing of Ogham. In the horizontal form, the right side would face downward. Right side/downward strokes 1. B beith [b] (*betwi-s) 2. L luis [l] (*lubsti-) 3. F fearn [w] (*wern) 4. S saille [s] (*salik-s) 5. N nuin [n] Left side/upward strokes 1. H ath [j] (*osato-) 2. D duir [d] (*darek-s) 3. T tinne [t] 4. C coll [k] (*koslas) 5. Q ceirt [k] (*ker[x]t) Across/pendicular strokes 1. M muin [m] 2. G gort [] (*gorto-s)

Ogham 3. NG gtal [] (*gdtlo-) 4. Z straif [sw] or [ts]? 5. R ruis [r] (*rudsti-) notches (vowels) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. A ailm [a] O onn [o] (*osno-) U r [u] E edad [e] I idad [i]

14

A letter for p is conspicuously absent, since the phoneme was lost in Proto-Celtic, and the gap was not filled in Q-Celtic, and no sign was needed before loanwords from Latin containing p appeared in Irish (e.g., Patrick). Conversely, there is a letter for the labiovelar q ( ceirt), a phoneme lost in Old Irish. The base alphabet is therefore, as it were, designed for Proto-Q-Celtic. Of the five forfeda or supplementary letters, only the first, bad, regularly appears in inscriptions, but mostly with the value K (McManus, 5.3, 1991). The others, except for emancholl, have at most only one certain 'orthodox' (see below) inscription each.[19] Due to their limited practical use, later ogamists turned the supplementary letters into a series of diphthongs, changing completely the values for pn and emancholl.[20] This meant that the alphabet was once again without a letter for the P sound, forcing the invention of the letter peithboc (soft 'B'), which appears in the manuscripts only. EA bad OI ir UI uillenn P, later IO pn (later iphn) X or Ch (as in loch), later AE emancholl

Letter names
The letter names are interpreted as names of trees or shrubs in manuscript tradition, both in Auraicept na n-ces ('The Scholars' Primer') and In Lebor Ogaim ('The Ogam Tract'). They were first discussed in modern times by Roderic O'Flaherty (1685), who took them at face value. The Auraicept itself is aware that not all names are known tree names, saying "Now all these are wood names such as are found in the Ogham Book of Woods, and are not derived from men", admitting that "some of these trees are not known today". The Auraicept gives a short phrase or kenning for each letter, known as a Bratharogam, that traditionally accompanied each letter name, and a further gloss explaining their meanings and identifying the tree or plant linked to each letter. Only five of the twenty primary letters have tree names that the Auraicept considers comprehensible without further glosses, namely beith "birch", fearn "alder", saille "willow", duir "oak" and coll "hazel". All the other names have to be glossed or "translated" with a plant name. According to the leading modern ogham scholar, Damian McManus the "Tree Alphabet" idea dates to the Old Irish period (say, 10th century), but it post-dates the Primitive Irish period, or at least the time when the letters were originally named. Its origin is probably due to the letters themselves being called feda "trees", or nin "forking branches" due to their shape. Since a few of the letters were, in fact, named after trees, the interpretation arose that they were called feda because of that. Some of the other letter names had fallen out of use as independent words, and were thus free to be claimed as "Old Gaelic" tree names, while others (such as ruis, ath or gort) were more or less forcefully re-interpreted as epitheta of trees by the medieval glossators. McManus (1991, 3.15) discusses possible etymologies of all the letter names, and as well as the five mentioned above, he adds one other definite tree name: onn "ash" (the Auraicept wrongly has furze). McManus (1988, p.164) also believes that the name Idad is probably an artificial form of Iubhar or yew, as the kennings support that

Ogham meaning, and concedes that Ailm may possibly mean "pine tree" as it appears to be used to mean that in an 8th-century poem.[21] Thus out of twenty letter names, only eight at most are the names of trees. The other names have a variety of meanings, which are set out in the list below.
Ogham letters Aicme Beithe Aicme Muine

15

Beith Luis Fearn Sail Nion

Aicme hatha

Muin Gort nGadal Straif Ruis

Aicme Ailme

Uath Dair Tinne Coll Ceirt

Forfeda

Ailm Onn r Eadhadh Iodhadh

abhadh r Uilleann Ifn Peith Eamhancholl

Beith, Old Irish Beithe means "birch-tree", cognate to Latin betula. Luis, Old Irish Luis is either related to luise "blaze" or lus "herb". The arboreal tradition has caertheand "rowan". Fearn, Old Irish Fern means "alder-tree", Primitive Irish *wern, so that the original value of the letter was [w]. Sail, Old Irish Sail means "willow-tree", cognate to Latin salix. Nion, Old Irish Nin means either "fork" or "loft". The arboreal tradition has uinnius "ash-tree". Uath, Old Irish ath means ath "horror, fear", the arboreal tradition has "white-thorn". The original etymology of the name, and the letter's value, are however unclear. McManus (1986) suggested a value [y]. Peter Schrijver (see McManus 1991:37) suggested that if ath "fear" is cognate with Latin pavere, a trace of PIE *p might have survived into Primitive Irish, but there is no independent evidence for this. Dair, Old Irish Dair means "oak" (PIE *doru-). Tinne, Old Irish Tinne from the evidence of the kennings means "bar of metal, ingot". The arboreal tradition has cuileand "holly". Coll, Old Irish Coll meant "hazel-tree", cognate with Welsh collen, correctly glossed as cainfidh "fair-wood" ("hazel") by the arboreal interpretation. The Latin corylus is a possible cognate.

Ogham Ceirt, Old Irish Cert is cognate with Welsh perth "bush", Latin quercus "oak" (PIE *perkwos). It was confused with Old Irish ceirt "rag", reflected in the kennings. The Auraicept glosses aball "apple". Muin, Old Irish Muin: the kennings connect this name to three different words, muin "neck, upper part of the back", muin "wile, ruse", and muin "love, esteem". The arboreal tradition has finemhain "vine". Gort, Old Irish Gort means "field" (cognate to garden). The arboreal tradition has edind "ivy". nGadal, Old Irish Gtal from the kennings has a meaning of "killing", maybe cognate to gonid "slays", from PIE gwen-. The value of the letter in Primitive Irish, then, was a voiced labiovelar, []. The arboreal tradition glosses cilcach, "broom" or "fern". Straif, Old Irish Straiph means "sulphur". The Primitive Irish letter value is uncertain, it may have been a sibilant different from s, which is taken by sail, maybe a reflex of /st/ or /sw/. The arboreal tradition glosses draighin "blackthorn". Ruis, Old Irish Ruis means "red" or "redness", glossed as trom "elder". Ailm, Old Irish Ailm is of uncertain meaning, possibly "pine-tree". The Auraicept has crand giuis .i. ochtach, "fir-tree" or "pinetree". Onn, Old Irish Onn means "ash-tree", although the Auraicept glosses aiten "furze". r, Old Irish r, based on the kennings, means "earth, clay, soil". The Auraicept glosses fraech "heath". Eadhadh, Old Irish Edad of unknown meaning. The Auraicept glosses crand fir no crithach "test-tree or aspen" Iodhadh, Old Irish Idad is of uncertain meaning, but is probably a form of ibhar "yew", which is the meaning given to it in the arboreal tradition. Of the forfeda, four are glossed by the Auraicept: Eabhadh, Old Irish Ebhadh with crithach "aspen"; r, "gold" (from Latin aurum); the arboreal tradition has feorus no edind, "spindle tree or ivy" Uilleann, Old Irish Uilleand "elbow"; the arboreal tradition has edleand "honeysuckle" Pn, later Ifn, Old Irish Iphin with spinan no ispin "gooseberry or thorn".

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The fifth letter is Emancholl which means 'twin of hazel'

Ogham

17

Corpus
Monumental ogham inscriptions are found in Ireland and Wales, with a few additional specimens found in southwest England; (Devon & Cornwall), the Isle of Man, and Scotland, including Shetland and a single example from Silchester in England. They were mainly employed as territorial markers and memorials (grave stones). The stone commemorating Vortiporius, a 6th-century king of Dyfed (originally located in Clynderwen), is the only ogham stone inscription that bears the name of an identifiable individual.[22] The language of the inscriptions is predominantly Primitive Irish, apart from the few examples in Scotland, such as the Lunnasting stone, which record fragments of what is probably the Pictish language. The more ancient examples are standing stones, where the script was carved into the edge (droim or faobhar) of the stone, which formed the stemline against which individual characters are cut. The text of these "Orthodox Ogham" inscriptions is read beginning from the bottom left-hand side of a stone, continuing upward along the edge, across the top and down the right-hand side (in the case of long inscriptions). Roughly 380 inscriptions are known in total (a number, incidentally, very close to the number of known inscriptions in the contemporary Elder Futhark), of which the highest concentration by far is found in the southwestern Irish province of Munster. Over one third of the total are found in Co Kerry alone, most densely in the former kingdom of the Corcu Duibne. Later inscriptions are known as "scholastic", and are post 6th century in date. showing the droim in centre. Text reads The term 'scholastic' derives from the fact that the inscriptions are believed to BIVAIDONAS MAQI MUCOI CUNAVA[LI], or in English, "Of have been inspired by the manuscript sources, instead of being continuations Bivaidonas, son of the tribe Cunava[li]" of the original monument tradition. Unlike orthodox ogham, some medival inscriptions feature all five Forfeda. Scholastic inscriptions are written on stemlines cut into the face of the stone, instead of along its edge. Ogham was also occasionally used for notes in manuscripts down to the 16th century. A modern ogham inscription is found on a gravestone dating to 1802 in Ahenny, County Tipperary. In Scotland, a number of inscriptions using the ogham writing system are known, but their language is still the subject of debate. It has been argued by Richard Cox in The Language of Ogham Inscriptions in Scotland (1999) that the language of these is Old Norse, but others remain unconvinced by this analysis, and regard the stones as being Pictish in origin. However due to the lack of knowledge about the Picts, the inscriptions remain undeciphered, their language possibly being non-Indo-European. The Pictish inscriptions are scholastic, and are believed to have been inspired by the manuscript tradition brought into Scotland by Gaelic settlers.
Ogham stone from the Isle of Man

Non-monumental uses
As well as its use for monumental inscriptions, the evidence from early Irish sagas and legends indicates that ogham was used for short messages on wood or metal, either to relay messages or to denote ownership of the object inscribed. Some of these messages seem to have been cryptic in nature and some were also for magical purposes. In addition, there is evidence from sources such as In Lebor Ogaim, or the Ogham Tract, that ogham may have been used to keep records or lists, such as genealogies and numerical tallies of property and business transactions. There is also evidence that ogham may have been used as a system of finger or hand signals.

Ogham In later centuries when ogham ceased to be used as a practical alphabet, it retained its place in the learning of Gaelic scholars and poets as the basis of grammar and the rules of poetry. Indeed, until modern times the Latin alphabet in Gaelic continued to be taught using letter names borrowed from the Beith-Luis-Nin, along with the Medieval association of each letter with a different tree.

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Unicode
Ogham was added to the Unicode Standard in September 1999 with the release of version 3.0. The spelling of the names given is a standardisation dating to 1997, used in Unicode Standard and in Irish Standard 434:1999. The Unicode block for ogham is U+1680U+169F. Ogham[1] Unicode.org chart [1] (PDF)

U+168x U+169x Notes

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

1.^ As of Unicode version 6.3

Neopaganism
Modern New Age and Neopagan approaches to ogham largely derive from the theories of Robert Graves in his book The White Goddess.[citation needed] In this work Graves took his inspiration from the theories of the ogham scholar R.A.S Macalister (see above) and elaborated on them much further. Graves proposed that the ogham alphabet encoded a set of beliefs originating in the Middle-east in Stone Age times, concerning the ceremonies surrounding the worship of the Moon-goddess in her various forms. Graves' argument is extremely complex, but in essence he argues that the Hebrews, Greeks and Celts were all influenced by a people originating in the Aegean, called 'the people of the sea' by the Egyptians, who spread out around Europe in the 2nd millennium BC, taking their religious beliefs with them.[23] At some early stage these teachings were encoded in alphabet form by poets to pass on their worship of the goddess (as the muse and inspiration of all poets) in a secret fashion, understandable only to initiates. Eventually, via the druids of Gaul, this knowledge was passed on to the poets of early Ireland and Wales. Graves therefore looked at the Tree Alphabet tradition surrounding ogham and explored the tree folklore of each of the letter names, proposing that the order of the letters formed an ancient "seasonal calendar of tree magic".[24] Although his theories have been disregarded by modern scholars (including Macalister himself, with whom Graves corresponded ),[25] they have been taken up with enthusiasm by the neopagan movement. In addition, Graves followed the BLNFS order of ogham letters put forward by Macalister (see above), with the result that this has been taken up by New Age and Neopagan writers as the 'correct' order of the letters, despite its rejection by scholars. The main use of ogham by modern Druids, Neo-Pagans is for the purpose of divination. Divination by using ogham symbols is mentioned in Tochmarc tane, a tale in the Irish Mythological Cycle. In the story, druid Dalan takes four wands of yew, and writes ogham letters upon them. Then he uses the tools for divination. The tale doesn't explain further how the sticks are handled or interpreted. Another method requires a cloth marked out with Finn's Window. A person selects some sticks randomly, throws them on the cloth, and then looks both at the symbols and where they fell. The divinatory meanings are usually based on the tree ogham, rather than the kennings of the Bratharogam. Each letter is associated with a tree or other plant, and meanings are derived from them. Robert Graves' book The White

Ogham Goddess has been a major influence on assigning divinatory meanings for ogham. Some reconstructionists of Druidic ways use Briatharogam kennings as a basis for divinatory meanings in ogham divination. The three sets of kennings can be separated into Past-Present-Future or Land-Sea-Sky groupings in such systems, but other organising structures are used, as well.[26][27]

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Notes
[1] http:/ / www. unicode. org/ charts/ PDF/ U1680. pdf [2] McManus (1991) is aware of a total of 382 orthodox inscriptions. The later scholastic inscriptions have no definite endpoint and continue into the Middle Irish and even Modern Irish period, and record also names in other languages, such as Old Norse, (Old) Welsh, Latin and possibly Pictish. See Forsyth, K.; "Abstract: The Three Writing Systems of the Picts." in Black et al. Celtic Connections: Proceedings of the Tenth International Congress of Celtic Studies, Vol. 1. East Linton: Tuckwell Press (1999), p. 508; Richard A V Cox, The Language of the Ogam Inscriptions of Scotland, Dept. of Celtic, Aberdeen University ISBN 0-9523911-3-9 (http:/ / www. abdn. ac. uk/ celtic/ old/ ogamleaf. html); See also The New Companion to the Literature of Wales, by Meic Stephens, page 540. [3] O'Kelly, Michael J., 'Early Ireland, an Introduction to Irish Prehistory', p. 251, Cambridge University Press, 1989 [4] (MacManus, 8.6) [5] O'Kelly 1989, p. 250 [6] Carney, James. The Invention of the Ogam Cipher 'riu', 1975, p.57, Dublin: Royal Irish Academy [7] Macalister, R.A.Stewart, The Secret Languages of Ireland reprinted by Craobh Rua Books, Armagh 1997. [8] Dwel, Klaus. "Runenkunde" (runic studies). Stuttgart/Weimar: Metzler, 1968. OCLC 183700 [9] The Secret Languages of Ireland as above. [10] Thurneysen, Rudolf A Grammar of Old Irish. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. 1980, etc. pages 811. [11] Carney, J "The Invention of the Ogam Cipher" 'riu' 22, pp. 6263, 1975; MacNeill, E. "Archaisms in the Ogham Inscriptions", 'Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy' 39, pp. 3353, Dublin [12] Thurneysen, R. A Grammar of Old Irish pages 910: " ... In Britain ... most of these inscriptions are bilingual, with a Latin version accompanying the Ogam". Macalister, The Secret Languages of Ireland page 19: "The reader has only to jot down a few sentences in this alphabet to convince himself that it can never have been used for any extended literary purpose." [13] MacManus 1988, pp. 7, 41, 1991 [14] The New Companion to the Literature of Wales, by Meic Stephens, page 540; http:/ / ogham. lyberty. com/ mackillop. html [15] Macalister, R. A. S. 'The Secret Languages of Ireland', pp. 2736, Cambridge University Press, 1937 [16] McManus 1988, pp. 2223, 1991 [17] Vendrys 'L'criture ogamique et ses origines' tudes Celtiques, 4, pp. 110113, 1941; Thurneysen, 'Zum ogam' Beitrge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur, pp. 196197, 1937. Cf. McManus 1988, p. 11, 1991. [18] McManus 1988, pp. 36, 167, 1991; B. Cuv, "Irish words for Alphabet", Eriu 31, p. 101. There is also the fact that it would be impossible to change the order of letters in ogham, given that it is a numbered series of strokes. In other words, to change N from the third to the fifth letter would also mean changing its symbol from three strokes to five strokes. The letters F and S would also have to be changed. This would obviously lead to great confusion, and would only be done if there was some compelling reason for the change. Macalister provides no such reason. [19] See inscription 235 for ir, 240 for uillen, and 327 and 231 for pn in Macalister CIIC, Vol I [20] MacManus 1988, 7.1314, 1991 [21] The rationale for the artificial form Idad would be to make a pairing with Edad. With regard to Ailm, in the King and Hermit poem the hermit Marban says caine ailmi ardom-peitet 'beautiful are the pines that make music for me' This is a reference to the idea that pine makes a pleasing, soothing sound as the wind passes through its needles. [22] The Welsh Academy Encyclopedia of Wales. Cardiff: University of Wales Press 2008 [23] Graves, R 'The White Goddess', pp. 61, 123, Faber & Faber, London, 1961 [24] Graves 1961, p. 165 [25] Graves 1961, pp. 116117 [26] O'Dubhain, Searles, Ogham Divination Course, The Journal of the Henge of Keltria (19951998) and offered online in the Summerlands (19952007) [27] Laurie, Erynn Rowan, Ogam: Weaving Word Wisdom, Megalithica Books (2007) ISBN 1-905713-02-9

Ogham

20

References
Carney, James. The Invention of the Ogam Cipher 'riu' 22, 1975, pp.6263, Dublin: Royal Irish Academy Dwel, Klaus. Runenkunde (runic studies). Stuttgart/Weimar: Metzler, 1968. OCLC 183700 Forsyth, Katherine. The Ogham Inscriptions of Scotland: An Edited Corpus, PhD Dissertation, Harvard University (Ann Arbor: UMI, 1996). OCLC 48938210 Gippert, Jost; Hlavek, Ivan; Homolka, Jaromr. Ogam. Eine frhe keltische Schrifterfindung, Praha: Charles University, 1992. ISBN 80-901489-3-X OCLC 39570484 Macalister, Robert A. S. The Secret Languages of Ireland, pp.2736, Cambridge University Press, 1937 Macalister, Robert A. S. Corpus inscriptionum insularum celticarum. First edition. Dublin: Stationery Office, 19451949. OCLC 71392234 McManus, Damian. Ogam: Archaizing, Orthography and the Authenticity of the Manuscript Key to the Alphabet, riu 37, 1988, 131. Dublin: Royal Irish Academy. OCLC 56088345 McManus, Damian. A Guide to Ogam, Maynooth 1991. ISBN 1-870684-17-6 OCLC 24181838 MacNeill, Eoin. Archaisms in the Ogham Inscriptions, 'Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy' 39, pp.3353, Dublin O'Brien, Michael A., ed.; Kelleher, John V. (intro. in the reprints of 1976 and 2005) (1962). Corpus Genealogiarum Hiberniae 1. Dublin: DIAS. ISBN0901282316. OCLC 56540733 (http://www.worldcat.org/ oclc/56540733). Raftery, Barry. A Late Ogham Inscription from Co. Tipperary, Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland 99, 1969. ISSN 0035-9106 OCLC 6906544 Swift, C. Ogam Stones and the Earliest Irish Christians, Maynooth: Dept. of Old and Middle Irish, St. Patrick's College, 1997. ISBN 0-901519-98-7 OCLC 37398935 Ranke-Graves, Robert von. Die Weisse Gttin: Sprache des Mythos (The White Goddess), ISBN 978-3-499-55416-2 OCLC 52100148, several re-editions, but rarely available. Editions available in German and English. Sims-Williams, Patrick. The Celtic Inscriptions of Britain: Phonology and Chronology, c. 4001200. (Publications of the Philological Society 37) Oxford : Blackwell Publishing, 2003. ISBN 1-4051-0903-3 Thurneysen, Rudolf. Zum Ogam, Beitrge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur, 61 (1937), pp.188208. Vendrys, Joseph. L'criture ogamique et ses origines tudes Celtiques, 4 (1941), pp.83116.

External links
Description and history of the ogham script (http://www.omniglot.com/writing/ogham.htm) TITUS: The Ogham Script (http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/didact/idg/kelt/ogamabb.htm) & Project Ogamica (http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/ogam/index.htm) Every Ogham Thing on the Web (http://www.evertype.com/standards/og/ogmharc.html) Irish Ogham Stones (http://www.megalithicireland.com) Pictish Ogham Inscriptions (http://web.onetel.net.uk/~hibou/Pictish Inscriptions.html) Time Team Manx Gaelic Ogham Stone (http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/T/timeteam/ 2007_iom_ogham.html)

Old Irish

21

Old Irish
Old Irish
Godelc Pronunciation Region Era [oiel] Ireland, Isle of Man, western coast of Great Britain 6th century10th century; evolved into Middle Irish about the 10th century

Language family Indo-European Celtic Insular Celtic Goidelic Early forms Primitive Irish Writing system Old Irish Old Irish

Latin Language codes

ISO 639-2 ISO 639-3 Linguasphere

sga sga 50-AAD-ad

Old Irish (sometimes called Old Gaelic) is the name given to the oldest form of the Goidelic languages for which extensive written texts are extant. It was used from c.AD600900. The primary contemporary texts are dated c.AD700850; by AD900 the language had already transitioned into early Middle Irish. Some Old Irish texts date from the 10th century, although these are presumably copies of texts composed at an earlier time period. Old Irish is thus the ancestor of Modern Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx. Old Irish is known for having a particularly complex system of morphology and especially of allomorphy (i.e. more or less unpredictable variations in stems and suffixes in differing circumstances), as well as a complex sound system involving grammatically significant consonant mutations to the initial consonant of a word. Apparently,[1] neither characteristic was present in the preceding Primitive Irish period. Much of the complex allomorphy was subsequently lost, but the sound system has been maintained with little change in the modern languages. Contemporary Old Irish scholarship is still greatly influenced by the works of a small number of scholars active in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, among them Rudolf Thurneysen (18571940) and Osborn Bergin (18731950).

Notable characteristics
The complex systems of allomorphy and consonant mutations probably the two most salient characteristics of Old Irish compared with other old Indo-European languages have been mentioned above. Other notable characteristics are: A system of conjugated prepositions that is unusual in Indo-European languages (although found in many Semitic languages, e.g. Arabic), e.g. dm "from me", dt "from you", de "from him", di "from her", diib "from them" (basic preposition di "from"). There is a great deal of allomorphy here as well. Infixed object prepositions, which are inserted between the verb stem and its prefix(es). If a verb lacks any prefixes, a dummy prefix is normally added.

Old Irish Special verbal conjugations used to signal the beginning of a relative clause Old Irish also preserves most aspects of the complicated Proto-Indo-European (PIE) system of morphology. Nouns and adjectives are declined in three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter); three numbers (singular, dual, plural); and five cases (nominative, vocative, accusative, dative and genitive). Most PIE noun stem classes are maintained (e.g. o-, yo-, -, y-, i-, u-, r-, n-, s-, and consonant stems). Most of the complexities of PIE verbal conjugation are also maintained, in addition to new complexities introduced by various sound changes (see below).

22

Consonant mutations
In the system of initial consonant mutations, the initial consonant of a word must be modified in one or another way, depending on the nature of the preceding word. An example is la teg /la te/ "towards a house" vs. fo theg /fo e/ "under a house" i teg /i de/ "into a house", with the alternation /t ~ ~ d/ in the initial consonant of teg "house" triggered by the preceding preposition. There are four types of mutation: no change; lenition (softening, producing /b ~ v/, /t ~ /, /f ~ /, etc.); nasalisation (producing /b ~ mb/, /t ~ d/, etc.); and gemination (only visible between two vowels, where an /h/ appears, e.g. a ech /a hex/ "her horse"). In general there is no way to predict from the form of a given word which type of mutation it will trigger. (Note that the spelling of the initial consonant does not always change to indicate mutation in Old Irish, although it generally does starting in Middle Irish.) In many cases the mutation has grammatical significance; an example is a teg /a te/ "her house" vs. a theg /a e/ "his house" vs. a teg /a de/, where the mutation is the only thing distinguishing the three meanings "her" vs. "his" vs. "their" of the possessive pronoun a. Mutations can also signal various other grammatical features, e.g. noun case in fer becc /fer be/ "small man (nom. sg.)" vs. fer m-becc /fer mbe/ "small man (acc. sg.)" vs. d fer becc /da er ve "two small men (nom.)", in this case with an alternation /b ~ v ~ mb/ signalling the different cases of the otherwise identical form fer (but note that d "two" also mutates the following word, in this case causing the loss of /f/ in fer). Another grammatical feature signalled by mutations is relative clause attachment, where lenition indicates the beginning of a relative clause, often in place of any explicit relative pronoun (although in some cases the verbal ending also changes to a special relative form).

Verbal allomorphy
The system of Old Irish allomorphy, particularly in verbal conjugation, is notoriously complex and unpredictable, even among the already highly complex verbal morphology of other old Indo-European languages (e.g. Sanskrit, Ancient Greek, Latin). Not only does Old Irish preserve most aspects of the already quite complex Proto-Indo-European (PIE) verbal system, but adds major new complexities due the interaction of a series of sound changes with shifting stress positions. Verbs are conjugated in three persons, two numbers (singular, plural), three voices (active, passive, deponent), three moods (indicative, subjunctive, imperative), and four tenses (present, future, imperfect, preterite). Most of the complexities of PIE verbal conjugation are still present: primary and secondary endings; thematic and athematic endings; active and deponent (originally mediopassive) endings, as well as innovative passive endings; multiple verb stems for each verb, which must be memorised as principal parts; and numerous means of verb-stem formation (reduplication, ablaut, n-infixing, various stem suffixes, etc.). On top of this, however, there are different conjugations used when no vs. one prefix precedes (termed absolute vs. conjunct, respectively), e.g. biru "I carry", berid "he carries" vs. n-biur "I do not carry", n-beir "he does not carry" (with negative prefix n-) or dobiur "I bring/give", dobeir "he brings/gives" (with verbal prefix do- "to"). (As shown in these examples, there is significant umlaut vowel variation in verbal paradigms, triggered by lost vowels; this operates in addition to the inherited system of Indo-European ablaut vowel variation.) When two or more prefixes precede it gets even more complex, with a special conjunct prototonic conjugation required, e.g. n-tabur "I do not bring/give", n-tabair "he does not bring/give". In such cases, the stem merges with all but the first prefix in a complex and often unpredictable fashion, e.g. doberat "they bring/give" vs. n-taibret "they do not bring/give" but

Old Irish asberat "they say" (with verbal prefix as- "out of") vs. n-epret "they do not say". In the s-subjunctive, the allormorphy is even more extreme, especially in the third-person singular: cf. indicative asboind "he refuses" vs. nopaind "he does not refuse", subjunctive asb "he may refuse" vs. nop "he may not refuse". In many cases, from a synchronic perspective, the changes appear utterly random (e.g. dorsc(a)i "he surpasses" vs. n-derscaigi "he does not surpass") or even unrecognisable (e.g. immso "he turns around" vs. n-impa "he does not turn around"). However, these forms mostly result from a series of regular sound changes (see below).[2]

23

Classification
Old Irish was the only member of the Goidelic/Gaelic branch of the Celtic languages which is in turn a sub-family of the wider Indo-European language family that also includes Slavonic, Italic/Romance, Indo-Aryan, Germanic sub-families and a few less well known ones. Old Irish is the ancestor of all the modern Goidelic languages; they are Modern Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx. A still older form of Irish is known as Primitive Irish. Fragments of Primitive Irish, mainly personal names, are known from inscriptions on stone written in the Ogham alphabet. These inscriptions date from about the 4th to the 6th centuries. Primitive Irish appears to be very close to Common Celtic, the ancestor of all Celtic languages, and has a lot of the characteristics of other archaic Indo-European languages.

Sources
Relatively little survives in the way of strictly contemporary sources. These are mainly represented by shorter or longer glosses on the margins or between the lines of religious Latin manuscripts, most of them preserved in monasteries in Germany, Italy, Switzerland, France and Austria, having been taken there by early Irish missionaries. Whereas in Ireland, many of the older manuscripts appear to have been worn out through extended and heavy use, their counterparts on the Continent were much less prone to the same risk, because once they ceased to be understood, they were rarely consulted.[3] The earliest Old Irish passages may be the transcripts found in the Cambrai Homily, which is thought to belong to the early 8th century. The Book of Armagh contains texts from the early 9th century. Important Continental collections of glosses from the 8th and 9th century include the Wrzburg Glosses (mainly) on the Pauline Epistles, the Milan Glosses on a commentary to the Psalms and the St Gall Glosses on Priscian's Grammar. Further examples are found at Karlsruhe (Germany), Paris (France), Milan, Florence and Turin (Italy). A late 9th-century manuscript from the abbey at Reichenau, now in St. Paul in Carinthia (Austria), contains a spell and four Old Irish poems. The Liber Hymnorum and the Stowe Missal date from about 900 to 1050. In addition to contemporary witnesses, the vast majority of Old Irish texts are attested in manuscripts of a variety of later dates. Manuscripts of the later Middle Irish period, for instance, such as the Lebor na hUidre and the Book of Leinster, contain texts which are thought to derive from written exemplars in Old Irish now lost and retain enough of their original form to merit classification as Old Irish. The preservation of certain linguistic forms which were current in the Old Irish period may provide reason to assume that an Old Irish original directly or indirectly underlies the transmitted text or texts.

Phonology
Consonants
The consonant inventory of Old Irish is shown in the chart below. The complexity of Old Irish phonology is due to a four-way split of phonemes inherited from Primitive Irish, with both a fortislenis and a "broadslender" (velarised vs. palatalised) distinction arising due to historical changes. The sounds /f v x h n l r/ are the broad lenis equivalents of broad fortis /p b t d k s m N L R/; likewise for the slender (palatalised) equivalents. (However, most

Old Irish /f f/ sounds actually derive historically from /w/.)

Labial Dental Alveolar Velar Glottal Nasal

24

broad slender

m m pb pb fv fv

Nn Nn td td s s

k k x x h h

Plosive

broad slender

Fricative

broad slender

Nasalized fricative Approximant

broad slender broad slender

Rr Rr Ll Ll

Lateral

broad slender

Some details of Old Irish phonetics are not known. /s/ may have been pronounced [] or [], as in Modern Irish. /h/ may have been the same sound as /h/ and/or /x/. The precise articulation of the fortis sonorants /N/, /N/, /L/, /L/, /R/, /R/ is unknown, but they were probably longer, tenser, and generally more strongly articulated than their lenis counterparts /n/, /n/, /l/, /l/, /r/, /r/, as in the Modern Irish dialects (e.g. Connacht Irish) that still possess a four-way distinction in the coronal nasals and laterals. /N/ and /L/ may have been pronounced [] and [-] respectively. The difference between /R()/ and /r()/ may have been that the former were trills while the latter were flaps.

Vowels
Old Irish had distinctive vowel length in both monophthongs and diphthongs. Short diphthongs were monomoraic, taking up the same amount of time as short vowels, while long diphthongs were bimoraic, same as long vowels. (This is much like the situation in Old English, but different from e.g. Ancient Greek, whose shorter and longer diphthongs were bimoraic and trimoraic, respectively, e.g. /ai/ vs. /ai/.) The inventory of Old Irish long vowels changed significantly over the Old Irish period, but the short vowels changed much less. The following short vowels existed:
Monophthongs Diphthongs Close Mid Open 1 i e a u o u u (u)1 u

The short diphthong u may have existed very early in the Old Irish period, but not later on.

Archaic Old Irish (before about AD750) had the following inventory of long vowels:

Old Irish

25

Monophthongs Close Mid Open 1 i u

Diphthongs iu ui

e, e1 o, (o?)2 eu oi, (ou)3 a ai, au3

Both /e/ and /e/ were normally written but must have been pronounced differently, since they have different origins and distinct outcomes in later Old Irish. /e/ stems from Proto-Celtic * < PIE *ei, or from in words borrowed from Latin. e generally stems from compensatory lengthening of short *e due to loss of the following consonant (in certain clusters) or a directly following vowel in hiatus. It is generally thought that /e/ was higher than /e/.[4] Perhaps /e/ was [e] while /e/ was []. They are clearly distinguished in later Old Irish, where /e/ becomes a (but before a palatal consonant), while /e/ becomes in all circumstances. Furthermore, /e/ is subject to u-affection, becoming u or u, while /e/ is not.
2

A similar distinction may have existed between /o/ and /o/, both written , and stemming respectively from former diphthongs (*eu, *au, *ou) and from compensatory lengthening. However, in later Old Irish both sounds appear usually as a, sometimes as , and it is unclear whether /o/ existed as a separate sound any time in the Old Irish period.
3

/ou/ only existed in early archaic Old Irish (c. AD700 or earlier); afterwards it merged into /au/. Neither sound occurred before another consonant, and both sounds became in later Old Irish (often or u before another vowel). This late does not develop into a, suggesting that u > post-dated > a. Later Old Irish had the following inventory of long vowels:
Monophthongs Diphthongs Close Mid Open 1 i e a u o iu, ia ui, ua eu oi?1

Early Old Irish /ai/ and /oi/ merged in later Old Irish. It is unclear what the resulting sound was, as scribes continued to use both a and o to indicate the merged sound. The choice of /oi/ in the table above is somewhat arbitrary. The distribution of short vowels in unstressed syllables is a little complicated. All short vowels may appear in absolutely final position (at the very end of a word), after both broad and slender consonants. The front vowels /e/ and /i/ are often spelled ae and ai after broad consonants, which might indicate a retracted pronunciation here, perhaps something like [] and []. All ten possibilities are shown in the following examples:
Old Irish marba licea marbae lice marbai lici slo doirseo marbu Pronunciation /marva/ /Lea/ English Annotations kill leave 1 sg. subj. 1 sg. subj. 2 sg. subj. 2 sg. subj. 2 sg. indic. 2 sg. indic. gen. gen. 1 sg. indic.

/marve/ ([marv]?) kill /Lee/ /marvi/ ([marv]?) /lei/ /sulo/ /doRso/ /marvu/ leave kill leave eye door kill

Old Irish

26
liciu /Leu/ leave 1 sg. indic.

The distribution of short vowels in unstressed syllables, other than when absolutely final, was quite restricted. It is usually thought that there were only two allowed phonemes: // (written a, ai, e or i depending on the quality of surrounding consonants) and /u/ (written u or o). The phoneme /u/ tended to occur when the following syllable contained an * in Proto-Celtic (for example, dligud /dliu/ "law" (dat.) < PC *dliged), or after a broad labial (for example, lebor /Levor/ "book"; domun /doun/ "world"). The phoneme // occurred in other circumstances. The occurrence of the two phonemes was generally unrelated to the nature of the corresponding Proto-Celtic vowel, which could be any monophthong, long or short. Long vowels also occur in unstressed syllables. However, they do not in general reflect Proto-Celtic long vowels, which were shortened prior to the deletion (syncope) of inner syllables. Rather, they originate in one of the following ways: from the late resolution of a hiatus of two adjacent vowels (usually as a result of loss of *s between vowels); from compensatory lengthening in response to loss of a consonant (e.g. cenl "kindred, gender" < *cenethl; duair-chr "I have purchased" < *-chechr, preterite of crenaid "buys"[5]); from assimilation of an unstressed vowel to a corresponding long stressed vowel; from late compounding; from lengthening of short vowels before unlenited /m, N, L, R/, still in progress in Old Irish (cf. errndem "highest" vs. rind "peak"[6]).

Stress
Stress is generally on the first syllable of a word. However, in verbs it occurs on the second syllable when the first syllable is a clitic (e.g. the verbal prefix as- in asbeir /asber/ "he says"). In such cases, the unstressed prefix is indicated in grammatical works with a following center dot ().

Orthography
As with most medieval languages, the orthography of Old Irish is not fixed, so the following statements are to be taken as generalisations only. Individual manuscripts may vary greatly from these guidelines. The Old Irish alphabet consists of the following eighteen letters of the Latin alphabet: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u In addition, the acute accent and the superdot are used as diacritics with certain letters: The acute accent indicates a long vowel. The following are long vowels: , , , , . The superdot indicates the lenition of f and s: is silent, is pronounced /h/ The superdot is also sometimes used on m and n with no change in pronunciation, when these letters are used to mark the nasalisation mutation: , . A number of digraphs are also used: The letter i is placed after a vowel letter to indicate that the following consonant was slender: ai, ei, oi, ui; i, i, i, i The letter h is placed after c, t, p to indicate a fricative: ch, th, ph The diphthongs are also indicated by digraphs: e/a, a, u, u, e/o, a, u, u, iu, au, eu The following table indicates the broad pronunciation of various consonant letters in various environments:

Old Irish

27

Consonant letter

Word-initial unmutated nasalised lenited

After a vowel

b c d f g h l m n p r s t

/b/ /k/ /d/ /f/ //

// /v/ See discussion below /L/ /m/ /N/ silent

/v/ /k, / // /f/ //

/l/ // /n/ /b/ /r/ /h/ /d/ /s/ /t, d/ /p, b/

/p/ /R/ /s/ /t/

Notes: A dash () in an entry indicates that the respective consonant sound is spelled differently under the respective mutation (lenition or nasalisation) and hence the indicated consonant letter does not occur in this situation (e.g. the spelling c does not occur in a leniting environment; instead, ch /x/ does). See the next two entries. Lenited c, p, t are spelled ch /x/, ph /f/, th // respectively. Nasalized b, d, g are spelled m-b /mb/, n-d /nd/, n-g /n/ [] respectively. In some cases, lenited f and s are spelled with a superdot. When initial s stemmed from Primitive Irish *sw-, its lenited version is f (written and pronounced). The slender (palatalised) variants of the above consonants occur in the following environments: before a written e, , i, ; after a written i, when not followed by a vowel letter (but not after the diphthongs a, o, u). Although Old Irish has both a sound /h/ and a letter h, there is no consistent relationship between the two. Vowel-initial words are sometimes written with an unpronounced h, especially if they are very short (the preposition i "in" was sometimes written hi) or if they need to be emphasised (the name of Ireland, riu, was sometimes written Hriu). On the other hand, words that begin with the sound /h/ are usually written without it, for example a r /a hor/ "her gold". If the sound and the spelling cooccur, it is by coincidence, as n hed /Ni he/ "it is not". After a vowel or l, n, or r the letters c, p, t can stand for either voiced or voiceless stops; they can also be written double with either value:

Old Irish

28

Old Irish

Pronunciation

English son small refuse mantle goad hole red fosterling who hide of remaining who remain

mac or macc /mak(k)/ bec or becc op or opp /be()/ /ob(b)/

brat or bratt /brat(t)/ brot or brott /brod(d)/ derc derc daltae celtae anta antae /derk/ /der/ /daLte/ /keLde/ /aNta/ /aNde/

Geminate consonants appear to have existed at the beginning of the Old Irish period, but were simplified by the end, and the spelling generally reflects this, although double ll mm nn rr were eventually repurposed to indicate non-lenited variants of these sounds in certain positions. After a vowel the letters b, d, g stand for the fricatives /v, , / or their slender equivalents:
Old Irish Pronunciation English dub mod mug claideb claidib /duv/ /mo/ /mu/ /klav/ /klav/ black work slave sword swords

After m, b is a stop, but after d, l and r it is a fricative:

Old Irish Pronunciation imb odb delb marb /imb/ /ov/ /delv/ /marv/ English butter knot (in a tree) image dead

After n and r, d is a stop:

Old Irish

29

Old Irish Pronunciation bind cerd /biNd/ /keRd/

English melodious "art, skill"

After n, l, and r, g is usually a stop, but it is a fricative in a few words:

Old Irish long delg or delc Pronunciation /Lo/ /del/ English ship thorn silver daughter nail, claw loaf of bread

argat or arggat /ar()d/ ingen ingen bairgen [7] /inn/ /iNn/ /barn/

After vowels m is usually a fricative, but sometimes a (nasal) stop, in which case it is also often written double:
Old Irish dm Pronunciation English /da/ company bare

lom or lomm /Lom/

The digraphs ch, ph, th do not occur in word-initial position except under lenition, but wherever they occur they are pronounced /x/, /f/, //.
Old Irish Pronunciation English ech oph th /ex/ /oif/ /a/ horse beauty ford

The letters l, n, and r are generally written double when they indicate the tense sonorants, single when they indicate the lax sonorants. Originally this reflected an actual difference between single and geminate consonants, as tense sonorants in many positions (e.g. between vowels or word-finally) developed from geminates. But as the gemination was lost, the use of written double consonants was repurposed to indicate tense sonorants. Doubly-written consonants of this sort do not occur in positions where tense sonorants developed from non-geminated Proto-Celtic sonorants (e.g. word-initially or before a consonant).
Old Irish Pronunciation corr cor coll col sonn son ingen ingen /koR/ /kor/ /koL/ /kol/ /soN/ /son/ /inn/ /iNn/ English crane putting hazel sin stake sound daughter nail, claw

Old Irish Written vowels a, ai, e, i in post-stressed syllables (except absolutely word-finally) all seem to represent phonemic //. The particular vowel that appears is determined by the quality (broad vs. slender) of the surrounding consonants, and has no relation to the etymological vowel quality:
Preceding consonant broad broad broad slender slender Following consonant broad slender (in open syllable) Spelling a a dgail /dil/ "vengeance" (acc./dat.) dliged /dli/ "law" (acc.) dligid /dli/ "law" (gen.) Example dgal /dil/ "vengeance" (nom.)

30

slender (in closed syllable) ai broad slender e i

It seems likely that the spelling variations reflected allophonic variations in the pronunciation of //.

History
Old Irish was affected by a series of phonological changes that radically altered its appearance compared with Proto-Celtic and older Celtic languages (e.g. Gaulish, which still had the appearance of typical early Indo-European languages such as Latin or Ancient Greek). These changes were such that Irish was not recognised as Indo-European at all during much of the 19th century. The changes must have happened quite rapidly, perhaps in a one or two-century period c.AD500600, since almost none of the changes are visible in Primitive Irish (4th to 6th centuries AD) and all of them are already complete in archaic Old Irish (8th century AD). A capsule summary of the most important changes is (in approximate order):[8][9] 1. Syllable-final *n (from PIE *m, *n) assimilated to the following phoneme, include across word boundaries in the case of syntactically-connected words. Voiceless stops became voiced: *mp *nt *nk > /b d /. Voiced stops became prenasalised /mb nd /. (These were reduced to simple nasals during the Old Irish period.) Before a vowel, /n-/ was attached to the beginning of the syllable. 2. Lenition of all single consonants between vowels. This applied across word boundaries in the case of syntactically-connected words. Stops became fricatives. *s became /h/ (later lost unless the following syllable was stressed). *w was eventually lost (much later). *m became a nasalised continuant (/w/; perhaps [w] or []). *l *n *r remained, but the non-lenited variants were strengthened to /L N R/ (see phonology section above). Extensive umlaut ("affection") of short vowels, which were raised or lowered to agree with the height of following Proto-Celtic vowels. Similarly, rounding of *a to /o/ or /u/ often occurred adjacent to labial consonants. Palatalization of all consonants before front vowels. Loss of part or all of final syllables. Loss of most interior vowels (syncope).

3. 4. 5. 6.

These led to the following effects: Both the palatalised ("slender") and lenited variants of consonants were phonemicised, multiplying the consonant inventory by 4 (broad, broad lenited, slender, slender lenited). *Variations between broad and slender became an important part of the grammar. e.g.: in masc. o-stems: macc "son" (nom. acc.) vs. maicc (gen.), cl "back" (nom. acc.) vs. cil (gen.), cf. Latin -us (nom.), -um (acc.) vs. - (gen.);

Old Irish in fem. -stems: tath "tribe, people" (nom.) vs. taith (acc. dat.), mucc "pig" (nom.) vs. muicc (acc. dat.); in r-stems: athar "father" (gen.) vs. ath(a)ir (nom. acc. dat.). Lenition and nasal assimilation across word boundaries in syntactically-connected words produced extensive sandhi effects (Irish initial mutations). These variations became an important part of the grammar. Both umlaut (vowel affection) and especially syncope radically increased the amount of allomorphy found across declensions and conjugations. The most dramatic deviations are due to syncope: cf. asberat "they say" vs. n-epret "they do not say" or dorsc(a)i "he surpasses" vs. n-derscaigi "he does not surpass" (where the stressed syllable is boldfaced).

31

Examples of changes
The following are some examples of changes between Primitive Irish and Old Irish.
Primitive Irish inigena [10] [11] Old Irish ingen cruimther maicc filed [14] Luigdech daughter priest son (gen.) poet (gen.) genitive of Lug(u)id (name) Meaning

qrimitir maqqi

[12] [13]

velitas

Lugudeccas

Anavlamattias Coillabotas

[15] Anfolmithe genitive of Anblamath (name) Colbad genitive of name

[16]

Initial mutations
All words within a syntactic phrase were treated phonologically as a single unit for the purpose of lenition and nasal assimilation, producing extensive sandhi effects. Synchronically these were unpredictable, but diachronically they reflected the state of the original final syllable in Primitive Irish: Lenition: If the word originally ended in a vowel, the first consonant of the following word was lenited. Gemination: If the syllable originally ended in *-s, or in *-t or *-k after a vowel, the first consonant was geminated, while /h-/ appeared before a vowel-initial word (regularly from *-s, analogically in the other cases). By Old Irish times, this gemination appeared only after vowel-final words. Nasalization (eclipsis): If the syllable originally ended in a nasal, the nasal is attached to the beginning of the following word, with various further changes (see above). These mutations became an important part of the grammar, and remain with little change in modern Irish (see Irish initial mutations). Mutations were only partly noted in Old Irish spelling: Lenition is only clearly indicated in the case of initial voiceless stops (written ph th ch) and (in later Old Irish) initial /f- s-/ (written ). Nasalization is only clearly indicated in the case of initial voiced stops and vowels, where n- is prefixed (mbefore b). Gemination is only partly indicated when geminated consonants were produced (geminated consonants were in the process of reducing to single consonants in Old Irish times). It was not indicated at all when /h-/ resulted. The fact that mutations applied more extensively than indicated in spelling is largely inferred from later written and modern spoken evidence.

Old Irish Example:

32

forms of fer becc "small man", fer cumachtach "powerful man"

Singular Old Irish Prim Irish ending Old Irish Plural Prim Irish ending *- < PIE *-oi *-s < PIE *-s *-s < PIE *-ns

Nom fer becc /fer begg/, fer cumachtach /k-/

*-os

fir bicc /fir vigg/, fir chumach(a)ig /x-/ firu biccu /firu biggu/, firu cumachtchu /k-/ firu biccu /firu biggu/, firu cumachtchu /k-/

Voc fir bicc /fir vigg/, fir chumach(a)ig /x-/ *-e Acc fer m-becc /fer mbegg/, fer cumachtach /g-/ *-on < PIE *-om

Gen fir bicc /fir vigg/, fir chumach(a)ig /x-/ *- Dat fiur biucc /fr vgg/, fiur chumachtach *- < *-i < PIE /x-/ *-i

fer m-becc /fer mbegg/, fer cumachtach /g-/ fer(a)ib becc(a)ib /ferv beggv/, fer(a)ib cumachtch(a)ib /k-/

*-on < PIE *-m -obis < PIE *-obhis

In the case of a "his, her, its, their", only the initial mutation of the following word distinguishes the various meanings.

initial mutation after a "his, her, its, their"

Effect Masc/Neut Sing Fem Sing Plur Lenition ech "horse" a ech /a ex/ bo "cow" a bo /a vo/ teg "house" a theg /a e/ a teg /a tte/ a teg /a de/ *esyo [18] PIE form [17] Sanskrit form asya

Gemination

a ech /a hex/

a bo /a bbo/ a m-bo /a mbo/

*esys < *esyehs Masc/Neut *eysm? *eysoHom? *eysom? (*es-?) [19] Fem *eys-? (*es-?) *ihs-?

asys m (fem. sm)

Nasalization a n-ech /a nex/

Allomorphy
These various changes, esp. syncope, produced quite complex allomorphy, because the addition of prefixes or various pre-verbal particles (proclitics) in Proto-Celtic changed the syllable containing the stress: According to the Celtic variant of Wackernagel's Law, the stress fell on the second syllable of the verbal complex, including any prefixes and clitics. By the Old Irish period, most of this allomorphy still remained, although it was rapidly eliminated beginning in the Middle Irish period. Among the most striking changes are in prefixed verbs with or without pre-verbal particles. With a single prefix and without a proclitic, stress falls on the verbal root, which assumes the deuteronic ("second-stressed") form. With a prefix and also with a proclitic, stress falls on the prefix, and the verb assumes the prototonic ("first-stressed") form. Rather extreme allomorphic differences can result, e.g.:

Old Irish

33

Example differences between deuterotonic and prototonic forms of various verbs. Stress falls directly after the center dot or hyphen.[20]
Earlier form Deuterotonic Meaning Prototonic Meaning

*ess-bero(n)t < PIE *-bheronti asberat /as-berd/ they say *cum-uss-ana *de-ro-uss-scochi *de-lugi < PIE *-logheyeti *de-ro-gn... conosna dorsc(a)i dolug(a)i dorna he rests

n-epret /Ni-hebrd/ they do not say n-cumsana he does not rest he does not surpass he does not pardon he may not do

he surpasses n-derscaigi he pardons he may do n-dlg(a)i n-derna

The following table shows how these forms might have been derived.

Possible derivation of some verbal forms

"they say" Post-PIE eks bheronti eks beronti ess-es beront ess-es berodd es-eh berod es-eh berod --"they do not say" n eks bheronti "he rests" "he does not rest" n kom uks henehti n kom-uks-anti n-s kom-uss-ant --"he surpasses" "he does not surpass" n d pro uks skokeyeti n d-ro-uks-skokti n-s di-ro-uss-skokt ---

kom uks henehti

d pro uks skokeyeti d ro-uks-skokti d-s ro-uss-skokt ---

Proto-Celtic

n eks-beronti kom uks-anti n-s ess-beront n-s ess-berodd kon-es uss-ant ---

Early Irish

Nasal assimilation

Lenition

N-h es-berod kon-eh us-an N-h es-berod -----

N-h kow-us-an N-h kow-us-an ---

d-h Ro-us-skox d-h Ro-us-skox d-h Rs-skox ---

N-h di-ro-us-skox N-h di-ro-us-skox N-h di-rs-skox N-h de-rs-skox ---

Palatalization

Hiatus reduction

---

Umlaut (vowel affection)

---

---

kon-eh os-an --kon-e h-os-an kon h-os-ana kon h-os-ana kon h-osna

N-h kuw-us-an --N k-kuw-us-an N k-kuw-us-ana N k-kuw-us-ana N k-kuwsana --N k-kuwsna --N-kuwsna

Shortening of absolutely final vowel Loss/assimilation of final consonant(s)

--es-e b-berod

--N h-es-berod ---

---

d R-Rs-skox N d-de-rs-skox

Mora reduction in unstressed final vowel es b-berod Consonant assimilation es berod

d R-Rs-skoxi N d-de-rs-skoxi

N h-eb-berod N h-ebbrod

d R-Rs-skoxi N d-de-rs-skoxi

Syncope Further consonant assimilation Unstressed vowel reduction Prepositional modification

es berod --es berd as berd

d R-Rsskxi d R-Rsski di R-Rsski do R-Rsski doRski

Nd-dersskoxi Nd-derskoxi N d-derskxi --N-derskxi

N h-ebbrod kon osna N h-ebbrd ----Nh-ebrd --konosna

Geminate reduction asberd (non-vocalic-adjacent); sandhi geminate reduction

Old Irish

34
----------Nd-derski

Fricative voicing between unstressed syllables Old Irish pronunciation Old Irish spelling

asberd asberat

N-h-ebrd n-epret

konosna conosna

N-kuwsna n-(c)cumsana

doRski dorsc(a)i

N-derski n-(d)derscaigi

The most extreme allomorphy of all came from the 3rd person singular of the s-subjunctive, because an athematic person marker -t was used, added directly onto the verbal stem (formed by adding -s directly onto the root). This led to a complex word-final cluster, which was deleted entirely. In the prototonic form (after two proclitics), the root was unstressed and thus the root vowel was also deleted, leaving only the first consonant. Examples:

Examples of extreme allomorphy of 3rd person singular s-subjunctive, conjunct[21]

Present Indicative Positive (Deuterotonic) Primitive Irish Old Irish Negative (Prototonic) Primitive Irish Old Irish Present Subjunctive Positive (Deuterotonic) Primitive Irish *uss 'bod-s-t Old Irish asb Negative (Prototonic) Primitive Irish Old Irish n op /ob/ n diair

"he refuses" "he remains over" "he repeats, amends" "he can"

*uss bond-et(i)

asboind

*ns uss-bond-et(i) n op(a)ind /obnd/ *ns di-wo-uss-ret-et(i) n durat

*ns uss-bod-s-t

*di dofarat wo-uss-ret-et(i)

*di dofair wo-uss-ret-s-t

*ns di-wo-uss-ret-s-t

*ad ess-reg-et(i)

adeirrig

*ns *ad-ess-reg-et(i)

(n aithrig?? >) *ad n aithirrig ess-reg-s-t

athe(i)rr *ns ad-ess-reg-s-t

n aithir

*con ink-et(i)

comic

*ns com-ink-et(i)

n cum(a)ic > n cum(u)ing, n cumaing

*con ink-s-t

con

*ns com-ink-s-t, *ns com-ink--t

n cum, n cumai

"it happens"

*ad com-ink-et(i)

(adcum(a)ic *ns >) adcumaing ad-com-ink-et(i)

(n ecm(a)ic >) *ad n ecmaing com-ink--t

adcumai *ns ad-com-ink--t

n ecm(a)i

Syncope in detail
In more detail, syncope of final and intervocalic syllables involved the following steps (in approximate order): Loss of most final consonants, including *m, *n, *d, *t, *k, and all clusters involving *s (except *rs, *ls, where only the *s is lost). Loss of absolutely final short vowels (including those that became final as a result of loss of a final consonant). Shortening of long vowels in unstressed syllables. Collapsing of vowels in hiatus (producing new unstressed long vowels). Syncope (deletion) of vowels in every other interior unstressed syllable following the stress. That is, if there are two remaining syllables after the stress, the first one loses its vowel; if there are four remaining syllables after the stress, the first and third lose their vowel. Resolution of impossible clusters resulting from syncope and final-vowel deletion: Adjacent homorganic obstruents where either sound was a fricative became a geminate stop, voiceless if either sound was voiceless (e.g. * *d *d > /dd/; * * *d *t etc. > /tt/). Otherwise, adjacent obstruents assumed the voicing of the second consonant (e.g. *dt > /tt/; *kd > /gd/; *t > /xt/). *l *r *n not adjacent to a vowel became syllabic and then had a vowel inserted before them (e.g. domun "world" < *domn < *domnos < *dumnos; immormus "sin" < *imm-ro-mess). However, in the case of *n this

Old Irish occurred only when the nasal had not previously been joined to a following voiced stop as a result of nasal assimilation; c.f. frecnd(a)irc "present" (disyllabic). Remaining impossible clusters were generally simplified by deletion of consonants non-adjacent to vowels (e.g. between other consonants). Note, however, that Old Irish tolerated geminates adjacent to other consonants as well other quite complex clusters, including e.g., ainm /aNm/ "name" (one syllable), fedb /fe/ "widow", do-aidbdetar /do-adr/ "they are shown".[22]

35

PIE short vowels, vowel affection

All five Late Proto-Indo-European (PIE) short vowels (*a, *e, *i, *o, *u) survive into Proto-Celtic and Primitive Irish more or less unchanged in stressed syllables. However, during the run-up to Old Irish a number of mutations (umlauts) take place, where former vowels are modified in various ways depending on following vowels (or sometimes surrounding consonants). These mutations are known in Celtic literature as affections or infections, of which the most important are:[23] 1. i-affection: Short *e and *o are raised to i and u when the following syllable contains a high vowel (*i, *, *u, *). Does not happen when the vowels are separated by certain consonant groups. 2. a-affection: Short *i and *u are raised to e and o when the following syllable contains a non-high back vowel (*a, *, *o, *). 3. u-affection: Short *a, *e, *i are broken to short diphthongs au, eu, iu when the following syllable contains a *u or * that was later lost. It is assumed that, at the point this change operated, u-vowels that were later lost were short *u, while those that remain were long *. This change operates after i-affection; hence, original *e may end up as iu. Nominal examples (reconstructed forms are Primitive Irish unless otherwise indicated): sen "old (nom. sg.)" < *senos, but sin "old (gen. sg.)" < *sen (i-affection), siun "old (dat. sg.)" < *senu (i-affection and u-affection) < *sen < PIE *seni, sinu "old (acc. pl)" < *sens (i-affection but no u-affection since the u remains) < PIE *senons. fer "man (nom. sg.)" < *wiros (a-affection), but fir "man (gen. sg.)" < *wir (no a-affection), fiur "man (dat. sg.)" < *wiru (u-affection) < *wir < PIE *wiri, firu "men (acc. pl)" < *wirs (no u-affection since the u remains) < PIE *wirons. nert "strength (nom. sg.)", but neurt "strength (dat. sg.)" < *nertu (u-affection but no i-affection, which was blocked by the cluster rt) < *nert < PIE *nerti. mil "honey" < PIE *melit (i-affection), milis "sweet" < *melissus (i-affection). fiurt "miracle (nom. sg.)" < *wirtus (u-affection; cf. Latin virtus), fert(a)e "miracle (nom. pl.)" < *wirtowes. Verbal paradigm example:
form meaning Absolute 1sg Absolute 2sg Absolute 3sg Conjunct 1sg Conjunct 2sg biru /biru/ Pronunciation "I carry" Prim Irish *bers Post-PIE *bher + -s i-affection Comments

biri

/biri/

"You (sg.) carry" "He carries"

*berisis

*bheresi + -s *bhereti + -s

i-affection (unstressed *-es- > *-is- in Primitive Irish; also found in s-stems) Unstressed i = // with surrounding palatalised consonants; see #Orthography i-affection + u-affection

berith /bir/

*beretis

biur

/br/

"I carry"

*beru < *ber *bher

bir

/bir/

"You (sg.) carry"

*beris < *berisi

*bheresi

i-affection (unstressed *-es- > *-is- in Primitive Irish)

Old Irish

36
beir /ber/ "He carries" *beret < *bereti *bhereti i in ei signals palatalisation of following consonant; see #Orthography

Conjunct 3sg

The result of i-affection and a-affection is that it is often impossible to distinguish whether the root vowel was originally *e or *i (e.g. sen < *senos and fer < *wiros have identical declensions). Note however the cases of nert vs. fiurt above, where i-affection but not a-affection was blocked by intervening rt.

PIE long vowels, diphthongs, syllabic sonorants

Late Proto-Indo-European (PIE) long vowels, diphthongs and vocalic sonorants develop in stressed syllables as follows:
Post-PIE Proto-Celtic archaic Old Irish later Old Irish Example(s)

* * * * * *ai

r (gen. rg) "king" (cf. Latin rx, Sanskrit rjan-) rm "number" (cf. OHG rm; Latin rtus "rite")

mthir "mother" (cf. Latin mter) dn "gift" (cf. Latin dnum)

* *ai /ai/ (spelled e or a) /oi/ (spelled e or o)

merged (both spellings used)

cl "back" (cf. Latin clus "ass") cech "one-eyed" < PIE *kaikos (cf. Latin caecus "blind", Gothic hihs "one-eyed") on on "one" < PIE *oinos (cf. archaic Latin oenos)

*oi

*oi

*ei

archaic tgot "they go" > tagat < PIE *steigh- (Ancient Greek [24] stekhein "to walk", Gothic steigan "to ascend") aithed athad "singleness" < Post-PIE *aut- "self" (cf. Ancient Greek auts "self") tath "tribe, people" < Post-PIE *teut (cf. Gothic iuda) rad "red" < PIE *roudh- (cf. Gothic raus)

*au/u (+C)

[25]

*au

*eu/u (+C) *ou/u (+C) *au/u (not +C) [26]

*ou

*au

archaic u "ear" > < Post-PIE *aus- (cf. Latin auris) archaic nu "ship" < Post-PIE *nw- (cf. Latin nvis) archaic nue "new" > noe < Late Proto-Celtic *nowiyos (cf. Gaulish Neuio-dunum, Nouio-dunum (city name)) < PIE *newiyos (cf. Gothic [27] niujis) early archaic bu "cow" (gen. sg.) (c. 700 AD) > archaic bu > b < [27] Proto-Celtic *bowos < PIE *gowos

*eu/u (not +C)

*ou

u > u

*ou/u (not +C)

*rH,*lH,*mH,*nH (+C, but not +y)

*r,*l,*m,*n

r,l,m,n

ln "full" < PIE *plhno- (cf. Sanskrit pr, Lithuanian [28][29] plnas) grn "grain" < PIE *rHnom (cf. Latin grnum, English [28][29] corn) [30][29] cride "heart" < Post-PIE *krdy (cf. Ancient Greek karda) lethan "wide" < PIE *plthns (cf. Ancient Greek pltanos; Vedic [28] Sanskrit prth < PIE *plths) [29] cruim "worm" < *krim < PIE *krmis (cf. Sanskrit kmi) marb "dead" < PIE *mrwos tart "drought, thirst" < PIE *trst- (cf. Old English urst "thirst", [28] Sanskrit trh "dry")

*r,*l (+m, +stop)

*ri,*li

ri,li (re,le by vowel affection)

*r,*l (otherwise)

*ar,*al

ar,al

Old Irish

37
*am,*an am,an (+vowel, sonorant)

*m,*n (otherwise)

tan(a)e "thin" < PIE *tnhewos (cf. Ancient Greek tanas) sam "summer" < PIE *smH- (cf. Old English sumor) gainethar "(he) is born" < PIE *nhyetor [31] ainb "ignorant" < PIE *n-widainm "name" < Post-PIE *nmen damnaid "(he) tames" < PIE *dmnH[31] rogeinn "(he) finds room" < Post-PIE *pro-ghnd-nct "hundred" /ked/ < PIE *kmtm dt "tooth" /ded/ < PIE *hdntdeichN "ten" < *deken < Proto-Celtic *dekam < PIE *dekm (cf. Latin [31] decem, Ancient Greek dka)

*em,*en > em/en, , etc.

The Old Irish diphthongs i, u, u stem from earlier sequences of short vowels separated by *w, e.g. drid- "druid" < *dru-wid- "tree-knower". Most instances of and in non-archaic Old Irish are due to compensatory lengthening of short vowels before lost consonants, or to the merging of two short vowels in hiatus, e.g. ct /ked/ "hundred" < Proto-Celtic kantom (cf. Welsh cant) < PIE *ktom.

PIE consonants
Overview See Proto-Celtic for various changes that occurred in all the Celtic languages, most notably: PIE *g > Proto-Celtic *b (but PIE *gh > *g). Loss of aspiration in *bh *dh *gh *gh. Loss of *p.Initially and intervocalically it was simply deleted; elsewhere it variously became *w, *b, *x etc. From Proto-Celtic to Old Irish, the most important changes are: Lenition and palatalisation, multiplying the entire set of consonants by 4. See #History for more details. Loss of most final consonants. See #Syncope in detail. Proto-Celtic *s is lenited to /h/, which then disappears between vowels. In general, Old Irish s when not word-initial stems from earlier geminate ss (often still written as such, especially in archaic sources). Proto-Celtic *k *g remain in Ogam Irish (e.g. maqqi "son" (gen. sg.)) but become simple c g in Old Irish. Occasionally they leave their mark by rounding the following vowel. Proto-Celtic *w is lost early on between vowels, followed by early hiatus resolution. In some cases, *w combines with a preceding vowel to form a diphthong, e.g. bu bo "living, alive" < *bewas < *biwos < *giwos.[32] Other instances of *w become [], which still remains in Ogam Irish. By Old Irish times, this becomes f- initially (e.g. fer "man" < *wiros, flaith "lordship" < *wltis), lenited b after lenited voiced sounds (e.g. tarb "bull" < *tarwos, fedb "widow" < *widw), f after lenited *s (lenited fur "sister" < *swesr), and is lost otherwise (e.g. du "two" < *dwu, unlenited sur "sister" < *swesr). Proto-Celtic *y becomes *iy after a consonant, much as in Latin. The vowel *i often survives before a lost final vowel, partly indicating the nature of the final vowel as a result of vowel affection, e.g. cride cridi cridiu "heart" (nom. gen. dat.) < *krideon *kridi *kridi < *kridiyom *kridiy *kridiy < Post-PIE *kdyom *kdy *kdyi. After this, *y is lost everywhere (after palatalising a preceding consonant).

Old Irish Initial clusters Old Irish preserves intact most initial clusters, unlike many other Indo-European languages. Preserved initial clusters:[33] sn- smr- sr- sl- sc- scr- scl-, e.g. snm "swimming", smiur "marrow", sruth "stream", scth "shadow, reflection", scrissid "he scratches (out)", sclo "misery (?)". cr- cl- cn-, e.g. cr "blood", cloth "fame", cn "nut". gr- gl- gn-, e.g. gran "sun", gl "clear", gnth "customary". tr- tl- tn-, e.g. tromm "heavy', tlacht "garment", tnth "jealousy, passion". dr- dl-, e.g. dringid "he climbs", dlong(a)id "he cleaves". mr- ml-, e.g. mruig "land", mliuchtae "milch". br- bl-, e.g. br "belly", blth "flower". Modified initial clusters:[34] *wl- *wr- > fl- fr-, e.g. flaith "lordship" < *wltis, froch "heather" < *wroik-. *sp-/*sw- > s- (lenited f-), e.g. sur "sister" (lenited fur) < PIE *swesr. *st- > t-, e.g. tagu "I go" < *stg-s < Post-PIE *steigh. *pl- *pr- lose the *p.

38

PIE *gn- > Proto-Celtic *bn- > mn-, e.g. mn "woman" (gen. sg.) < *bns < PIE *gnehs, an extremely archaic noun form.[35] Intervocalic clusters A large number of intervocalic clusters are reduced, becoming either a geminate consonant or a simple consonant with compensatory lengthening of the previous vowel. During the Old Irish period, geminates are reduced to simple consonants, occurring earliest when adjacent to a consonant. By the end of the Old Irish period, written ll mm nn rr are repurposed to indicate the non-lenited sounds /L m N R/ when occurring after a vowel and not before a consonant. Cluster reduction involving *n: *nt *nk > unlenited /d g/ (normally written t c). Note that PCelt *ant,*ent > *ent > /ed/ but *int *ont *unt > /idd odd udd/; similarly for *nk. E.g. ct /ked/ "hundred" < PCelt *kantom (cf. Welsh cant) < PIE *ktm; st /sed/ "way" < *sentu- (cf. Breton hent); roicc ric(c) /r(o)-i/ "he reaches" < *ro-ink- (cf. Breton re kout ra kout "to be obliged to"; tocad /toa/ "luck" (cf. Breton to ket "fate").[36] *ns > unlenited s with compensatory lengthening of a preceding vowel; *ans > *ens > s similarly to *ant *ank. E.g. gis "swan" < PCelt *gans- < PIE *hans- (cf. OHG gans "goose"). Cluster reduction involving *s *z: Medial *sm *sn *sl > mm nn ll. E.g. am(m) "I am" < PIE *esmi. Medially, *st > ss (but *str > str, *rst > rt). *zb > db /v/, *zg > dg // (but rg after an unstressed syllable), *zd > /dd/. E.g. net /nedd/ "nest" < PIE *nisdos /nizdos/. Lenited stops *x * * * generally disappear before sonorants *r *l *n *m, with compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel. Many examples occur in reduplicated preterites or words with consonant-final prefixes (e.g. ad-) . Examples:[5] duair-chr "I have purchased" < *-xexr < PCelt *-kikra; cal(a)e "he heard" < *koxlowe < PCelt *kuklowe; ram "number" < *a-rm; m thm "a moving to and fro" < *am -am (verbal nouns of agid "he drives" and compound doaig); dl "assembly" < *dal (cf. Old Welsh datl).

Old Irish But *r, *r, *l survive, e.g. crathraid "he perforates" < PCelt *krtrti-s; gabur "goat" < PCelt *gabros (cf. Welsh gafr); mebul "shame" (cf. Welsh mefl).

39

Morphology
Nouns
Old Irish had three genders, namely, masculine, feminine and neuter; three numbers, namely, singular, dual and plural, with the dual being attested only to a limited degree with somewhat distinct forms, though it is almost always preceded by the cardinal d, meaning "two" (and as such has been retained in the modern Gaelic languages); and five cases (nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive and dative). Thurneysen had fourteen classes of noun, defined by the morphological marking on the stem, with seven vocalic stems and seven consonantal stems (including one class of irregular and indeclinable nouns). The full range of case is only evident in the noun phrase, where the article causes noun initial mutation, and where the initials of following adjectives are mutated according to the underlying case ending, thus in fer becc "the small man", nominative, differs from the accusative in fer /er/ m-becc, though at times such mutations were not written. In the following L shows lenition of the following adjective, N shows nasalisation (eclipsis) of the following adjective, and H shows prefixing of h to following vowel initial adjectives. (These mutations are related to the form of the case ending in Common Celtic. Endings with a final vowel triggered lenition; those with a final nasal consonant triggered eclipsis; and those with a final /s/ triggered prefixing of h. For the most part, the endings that can be reconstructed by these mutations agree with the corresponding forms in Sanskrit, Ancient Greek and/or Latin.)
Feminine -stems Nominative/Vocative Accusative Genitive Dative Singular tath L taith N taithe (H) tath L taith L tath N Dual Plural

taith L tatha (H)

tath(a)ib

Masculine o-stems Singular Dual Plural Nominative Vocative Accusative Genitive Dative fer fir L fer N fir L fiur L fer N fer(a)ib fer L fir L firu (H)

Neuter o-stems Nominative/Vocative/Accusative Genitive Dative

Singular scl N scuil/scoil L scul L

Dual

Plural scl L; scla (L) scl N scl(a)ib

Old Irish

40

Verbs
Verbs stand initially in the sentence (preceded only by some particles, forming a "verbal complex", and very few adverbs). The verb can be either suffixed for tense, person, mood and aspect (often portmanteau suffixes), or these can be shown by vowel changes in the stem (e.g. asbeir present "says", asrubart past "said", asbra future "will say"). Before this core "verb phrase" are placed various other preverbal clitic particles, e.g. negative ni-/n-, perfective ro- or one or more preverbal particles that modify the meaning of the verb in unpredictable ways (compare -, ex-, in-, d-, etc. in Latin verbs). Personal pronouns as direct objects are infixed between the preverb and the verbal stem. In an overall sense, the verb structure is agglutinative. A single verb can stand as an entire sentence in Old Irish, in which case emphatic particles such as -sa and -se are affixed to the end of the verb. Verbs are conjugated in present, imperfect, past, future and preterite tenses; indicative, subjunctive, conditional and imperative moods; and active and passive voices. The only verbal form lacking in Old Irish is the infinitive, this covered, as in the modern Gaelic languages, by the verbal noun. Old Irish inherits a large amount of Indo-European verbal morphology, including: extensive ablaut variations, made significantly more complicated by vowel affection and syncope reduplication primary and secondary endings thematic and athematic endings

deponent verbs multiple ways of forming each of the various tenses and moods, and no general cross-tense/mood conjugational classes, i.e. in general a series of principal parts must be memorised for each verb, much as in Latin or Ancient Greek. Most verbs have, in addition to the tenses, voices, and moods named above, two sets of forms: a conjunct form, and an absolute form. The absolute form occurs when the verb occurs absolutely sentence-initial with no preverbs, while the conjunct form occurs when the verb is preceded by one or more preverbs. Absolute and conjunct forms are distinguished primarily by the endings. In addition, the conjunct form comes in two variants, deuterotonic ("second-stressed", when exactly one preverb precedes and the stress is on the first syllable of the verbal stem) and prototonic ("first-stressed", when more than one preverb precedes and the stress is on the second preverb). These variants are marked by (sometimes radical) changes in the verbal stem and non-initial preverbal particle(s), which merge with the stem. This is due to the Celtic version of Wackernagel's law, where stress falls in second position whenever there is one or more preverbs. The difference between absolute and conjunct endings is thought to reflect an additional particle *-es added to the absolute verbal form.[37] Final -i in the conjunct forms was apparently lost early on (cf. a similar change in Latin). See below for an example of absolute vs. conjunct endings, and deuteronic vs. prototonic stems. Present tense The following is an example of a strong present-tense verb (class B I), showing the absolute, conjunct deuterotonic and conjunct prototonic forms.

Old Irish

41

Conjugation of berid "he carries", dobeir "he gives, brings" < *to-beret(i), n-tab(a)ir "he does not give, bring" < *ns to-beret(i), asbeir "he says" < *ess-beret(i), n-ep(a)ir "he does not say" < *ns ess-beret(i)
Absolute Deuterotonic Old Irish 1st Sing biru 2nd Sing biri PCelt *ber-s *beresi-s dobiur dobir dobeir doberam Old Irish asbiur asbir asbeir asberam PCelt *-ber *-beres(i) *-beret(i) *-beromos n-tabur n-tab(a)ir n-tab(a)ir n-taibrem Conjunct Prototonic Old Irish n-epur n-ep(a)ir n-ep(a)ir n-eprem

3rd Sing berid, -ith *bereti-s 1st Pl 2nd Pl 3rd Pl berm(a)i *beirthe ber(a)it *beromos-es *beretes-es *beronti-s

[38] doberid, -ith asberid, -ith [38] n-taibrid, -ith n-eprid, -ith *-beretes doberat asberat *-beront(i) n-taibret n-epret

The following present-tense formations existed: Weak verbs: A I: a-presents (e.g. mr(a)id "he magnifies", conjunct mra), with a suffix *-- < PIE *-eh (cf. Latin -re) A II: i-presents (e.g. l(i)cid "he leaves", conjunct l(i)ci), with a suffix *-- < PIE causative *-ye- with o-grade, PIE denominative *-ey-, PIE stative *-eh (cf. Latin -re, -re) A III: hiatus verbs (e.g. rad/rd "he rows", conjunct r; gnid/gnd "he does"), with a root that synchronically ends with a vowel Strong verbs: B I: Verbs with alternating root-final broad/slender quality (e.g. berid "he carries", agid "he drives", canid "he sings") < PIE simple thematic verbs B II: Verbs originally with consistent root-final slender quality (e.g. a(i)rid "he plows", ga(i)bid "he takes", gu(i)did "he prays") < PIE thematic verbs in *-y B III: Verbs with n-infix (e.g. bongid "he breaks", with reduplicated preterite bobag-) < PIE n-infix verbs B IV: Verbs with broad n-suffix (e.g. cren(a)id "he buys", cf. Sanskrit krti, 3rd sing. subjunctive cria) < PIE -neh- verbs B V: Verbs originally with alternating broad/slender n-suffix (e.g. arachrin "he decays", pl. arachrinat) < PIE -neu-/-nu- verbs Other forms The subjunctive comes in two variants: a-subjunctive (cf. Latin subjunctives in --) s-subjunctive, apparently < PIE s-aorist subjunctive In the s-subjunctive, the s is attached directly to the root. The endings are partly athematic, especially the 3rd singular, with original suffix *-s-t that leads to truncation of the root: cf. asboind "he refuses" < *uss-bond-et, prototonic op(a)ind < *uss-bond-et; subj. asb < *uss-bod-s-t, prototonic op /ob/ < *uss-bod-s-t; 2 sg. subj. asbis < *uss-bod-s-es, prototonic obbais < *uss-bod-s-es with thematic *-s-es.[39] The imperfect is built off the same stem as the present, but with different endings. The same endings are used in the past subjunctive, attached to the present subjunctive stem. The future comes in four variants: f-future, made to weak verbs;

Old Irish reduplicated a-future; -future ( replaces verb-stem vowel); reduplicated s-future (cf. Sanskrit desiderative jighsati "he wants to kill" < PIE *ghi-ghn-hs-eti, root *ghen-). The preterite comes in four variants: s-preterite; t-preterite; reduplicated suffixless preterite; non-reduplicated suffixless preterite.

42

Syntax
Old Irish follows the typical VSO (verb-subject-object) structure shared by most Insular Celtic languages (even though other orders are possible, especially under Bergin's Law). Verbs are all fully conjugated, and have most of the forms typical of Indo-European languages (see above). Personal pronouns, when used as direct objects, are prefixed to the verb with which they are associated (after other prefixes, and therefore are often referred to as infixes). Prepositions have the same status as the Latin prepositions, including the property of being verb prefixes.

Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] It is difficult to know for sure, given how little Primitive Irish is attested and the limitations of the Ogham alphabet used to write it. Primitive Irish *di-s-ro-uss-skokt vs. *n-s-di-ro-uss-skokt, *embi-s-sawet vs. *n-s-embi-sawet, with the stressed syllable underlined. Thurneysen 1946, p.4. Kortlandt 2007, p.8. Thurneysen 1946, p.79. Thurneysen 1946, p.32.

ingen "daughter" < Ogam < Proto-Celtic *eni-gen (cf. Latin indigen "(female) native", Ancient Greek engn "granddaughter". ingen "claw, nail" < Proto-Celtic *angn < PIE *hgh- (cf. Latin unguis). [8] Kortlandt 2007. [9] Greene 1973. [10] Thurneysen 1946, p.18. [11] Thurneysen 1946, p.137. [12] Thurneysen 1946, p.181. [13] Thurneysen 1946, p.58. [14] Thurneysen 1946, p.98. [15] Thurneysen 1946, pp.192193. [16] Thurneysen 1946, p.42. [17] Sihler 1995, p.391. [18] Per Sihler 1995, Ringe 2006; *eso according to Beekes 1995. See footnote for genitive plural. [19] The PIE form of the genitive plural (both ending and stem) is somewhat unclear. The ending is traditionally reconstructed as *-m, but Ringe (2006: 56) reconstructs *-oHom, while both Sihler (1995: 391) and Beekes (1995: 213, 229) reconstruct *-om. Ringe and Sihler both reconstruct a masculine/neuter stem *eys-, while Beekes reconstructs *es-. Sihler and Beekes both reconstruct the feminine stem as identical to the masculine stem (*eys- for Sihler, *es- for Beekes), while Ringe reconstructs a separate feminine stem *ihs-. These differences are based on the divergent attested outcomes, with the various scholars differing as to which parts of which attested forms are inherited and which are due to analogy. [20] Thurneysen 1946, p.68. [21] Fortson 2004, p.324. [22] Thurneysen 1946, pp.70,100. [23] Thurneysen 1946, pp.4650,57. [24] Thurneysen 1946, p.36. [25] When followed by a consonant in Old Irish. [26] When not followed by a consonant in Old Irish. This includes words originally followed by *s, which was lost by Old Irish times. [27] Thurneysen 1946, p.45. [28] Thurneysen 1946, p.131. [29] Matasovi 2011.

Old Irish
[30] Thurneysen 1946, p.130. [31] Thurneysen 1946, p.129. [32] Thurneysen 1946, p.125. [33] Thurneysen 1946, pp.128140. [34] Thurneysen 1946, pp.123139. [35] Originally a neuter proterokinetic noun of the form *genh (nom. sg.), *gnehs (gen. sg.). The original PIE nominative is still preserved in poetic/legal Old Irish bN "woman" (still neuter!) < Proto-Celtic *ben < PIE *genh. The normal Old Irish nominative is benL (feminine) < Proto-Celtic *ben < *ben + normal feminine *-. No other IE language preserves the original neuter gender. [36] Thurneysen 1946, pp.126127. [37] Thurneysen 1946, p.363. [38] Sihler 1995, p.465. [39] The root of this verb is *bod-, originally *bud- < PIE *bhudh- (cognate with Old English bodan "to offer, announce", Sanskrit bodhati "to awaken, inquire"); the variant *bod- occurred in the present indicative through a-infection and was generalised. The *-n- is a present-tense infix (cf. the cognate Ancient Greek verb punthnomai "I inquire", aorist eputhmn "I inquired").

43

References Bibliography
Beekes, Robert (1995). Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction. Fortson, Benjamin W., IV (2004). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Green, Antony (1995). Old Irish Verbs and Vocabulary. Somerville, Massachusetts: Cascadilla Press. ISBN1-57473-003-7. Greene, David (1973). "The Growth of Palatalization in Old Irish". Transactions of the Philological Society 72 (1): 127136. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-968X.1973.tb01017.x (http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-968X.1973. tb01017.x). Kortlandt, Frederik Herman Henri (2007). Italo-Celtic Origins and the Prehistory of the Irish Language. Leiden Studies in Indo-European 14. Rodopi. ISBN9042021772. Lehmann, R.P.M.; W.P. Lehmann (1975). An Introduction to Old Irish. New York: Modern Language Association of America. ISBN0-87352-289-3. Matasovi, Ranko (2011). Problems in the Reconstruction of Proto-Celtic (http://exadmin.matita.net/uploads/ pagine/644703631_handouts_pavia_matasovic.pdf). Pavia Summer School in Indo-European Linguistics. McCone, Kim (1987). The Early Irish Verb. Maynooth: An Sagart. ISBN1-870684-00-1. McCone, Kim (2005). A First Old Irish Grammar and Reader. Maynooth: Department of Old and Middle Irish, National University of Ireland. ISBN0-901519-36-7. O'Connell, Frederick William (1912). A Grammar of Old Irish (http://www.archive.org/details/ grammaroldirish00oconuoft). Belfast: Mayne, Boyd & Son. Quin, E.G. (1975). Old-Irish Workbook. Dublin: Royal Irish Academy. ISBN0-901714-08-9. Ringe, Don (2006). From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic. Sihler, Andrew (1995). New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin. Oxford University Press. Stifter, David (2006). Sengoidelc: Old Irish for Beginners. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. ISBN0-8156-3072-7. Strachan, John (1949). Old-Irish Paradigms and Selections from the Old-Irish Glosses (http://www.archive. org/details/oldirishparadigm00strauoft). Revised by Osborn Bergin (Fourth ed.). Dublin: Royal Irish Academy. ISBN0-901714-35-6. Thurneysen, Rudolf (1946). A Grammar of Old Irish. Translated by D. A. Binchy and Osborn Bergin. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. ISBN1-85500-161-6. Tigges, Wim; Feargal Barra (2006). An Old Irish Primer. Nijmegen: Stichting Uitgeverij de Keltische Draak. ISBN90-806863-5-2.

Old Irish

44

External links
An Etymological Dictionary of the Gaelic Language (http://www.ceantar.org/Dicts/MB2/index.html) MacBain, Alexander Gairm Publications, 1982 Old Irish dictionary (http://www.smo.uhi.ac.uk/sengoidelc/duil-belrai/english.html) Old Irish Online (http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/iriol-0-X.html) from the University of Texas at Austin. eDIL (http://www.dil.ie/) (digital edition of the Dictionary of the Irish Language)

Scholastic ogham
Use of the early medieval Irish ogham alphabet is largely divided between "monumental" epigraphy and "scholastic" use in, or influenced by, manuscript tradition, Scholastic ogham notably involves artificial expansions of the alphabet, such as the forfeda group, and many variations or cryptographic substitutions for the classic ogham alphabet. Scholastic ogham develops from about the 7th century and remains in use for notes in manuscripts until the 16th century. Manuscript tradition of ogham notably records Bratharogam, i.e. medieval kennings of letter names. The most notable source of such kennings is In Lebor Ogaim, preserved in a late 14th-century manuscript.

Gaelic poetry and grammar

Even after it ceased to be used as an everyday alphabet for writing, ogham continued to be used as the basis for teaching grammar and the rules and metrics of poetry in the Gaelic language (McManus 8.2, 1991). The medieval work The Scholar's Primer or Auraicept na n-ces, laid down the basis for poetic composition in the Irish language for the trainee poet or file, and looked to ogham or more exactly the Beith-luis-nin for guidance. This was because the ogham alphabet was felt to be peculiarly suited to the needs of the Irish language. In addition the training of the poet or file, involved the learning of one hundred and fifty varieties of ogham fifty in each of the first three years of study (McManus 7.12, 1991). It is clear that most of these are the same as the one hundred of so different ogham alphabets found in The Ogam Tract or In Lebor Ogaim, which was included along with the Auraicept in the Book of Ballymote. Most of these alphabets are cryptic varieties of doubtful practical value, but some were word lists which could have given the poet a convenient vocabulary at his fingertips, while others indicate a link to tally or counting systems. Perhaps their main value was simply to train the mind in the use of words and concepts, as word play and 'punning' were a major part of Gaelic poetry. So central was ogham to Gaelic learning that until modern times the Latin alphabet was taught in both Irish and Scots Gaelic using the letter names borrowed from the Beith-luis-nin, along with the tradition that each name was that of a different tree (Dinneen;Thompson, p92). The following is the list from Dinneen's IrishEnglish Dictionary, published in 1927 (note there is no J, K, Q, V, W, X, Y, or Z in the modern Irish alphabet): A: Ailm (Elm); B: Beith (Birch); C: Coll (Hazel); D: Dair (Oak); E: Eadadh (Aspen); F: Fearn (Alder); G: Gath/Gort (Ivy); H: hUath (Whitethorn); I: odha (Yew), L: Luis (Rowan); M: Muin (Vine); N: Nuin (Ash); O: Oir (Broom); P: Peith (Dwarf Elder); R: Ruis (Elder); S: Sail (Willow); T: Teithne (Furze); U: Ur (Heather).

Scholastic ogham

45

Manuscript traditions on pragmatic use of ogham

Manuscript tradition, especially medieval Irish mythology, also gives accounts on uses of ogham not known from the archaeological record (McManus 8.10, 1991). Most of these involve ogham being used for short messages or inscriptions on wood. There is only one reference to ogham being inscribed on metal, which occurs in the epic story 'The Cattle Raid of Cooley' or Tin B Cailnge. A stone pillar has a ring of iron with an ogham inscription on it stating that it is taboo ( geasa ) for a warrior bearing arms to approach without challenging to single combat. The great Ulster warrior Cchulainn responds to this challenge by throwing the pillar, inscribed ring and all, into a nearby pond. The rest of the references are to inscriptions on wood. One such is in the tale involving Cchulainn's search for the three sons of Duil Dermait. Cchulainn sees a boat coming to land in the harbour at Dundalk. He boards it, killing all the passengers except the king of Alba (Scotland), who gives him the boat and sets a sea charm to help him in his quest. In return, Cchulainn gives him a little spear ( sligin ) with an ogham inscription on it and tells him to take Cchulainn's seat in the court of the king of Ulster at Emain Macha in the meantime. The inscription seems to involve a signature unique to Cchulainn, which will guarantee that the king of Alba will be believed when he says that Cchulainn sent him (unless of course there is something unique about the spear). These examples suggest that objects were inscribed with individual 'signatures' for the purposes of identification. As well as confirming that a message came from a particular individual, being able to identify objects as a particular person's property would obviously be very useful. A very interesting connection exists between ogham and Cornwall in two literary references which tie ogham into the Cornish legend of Tristan and Iseult. The first of these is in a lay written by Marie of France which speaks of Tristan cutting and squaring off a branch of hazel on which he writes his name to alert Iseult to his presence (Vendryes, 1941, p108). The second reference is found in the version of the Tristan legend by the Englishman Thomas of Ercildoune (ibid, p108) which describes how Tristan engraved his name in strange runes on small bits of wood, putting them in a stream so that they would flow down to where Iseult could see them. While it is true that neither version directly refers to ogham there are good grounds for believing that ogham was the 'strange runes' used by Tristan. First of all, the cutting, squaring off, and writing of names on bits of wood sounds compatible with how ogham was probably used. Second, ogham fits better into the cultural milieu of the story than the runes. Iseult is from Ireland, and Tristan first meets Iseult when spending some time there, so it is quite plausible that they would use ogham for writing to each other. The story also reflects the reality of links between Ireland and Cornwall, visible today in the surviving ogham inscriptions. It is not hard from this to see how the Cornish could include a reference to the strange Irish writing in one of their stories. The story may ultimately be of Irish origin anyway (see Dillon, 1946, p78 ), transmitted through those same links.

Cryptic
Some of the messages are referred to as being written in a cryptic form of ogham called Ogam fortgithe. One such reference comes in the story of Corc son of Lugaid, who arrives in Scotland after being banished from Ireland. He is befriended by Gruibne, poet to Feradach, king of Scotland; who notices a cryptic ogham inscription ( Ogam fortgithe ) on Corc's shield. He informs Corc that the inscription says that if Corc should arrive at Feradach's court by day, he is to be killed by night; if he should arrive by night, he is to be killed by morning. To protect Corc, Gruibne changes the inscription to say that if Corc should arrive by day he should be given Feradach's daughter by evening, if by night, he should have slept with her by morning. The use of ogham to convey a cryptic message is also found in the story of the Gaelic warrior Finn McCool and his fool or clown Lomnae. Lomnae notifies Finn of his wife's infidelity by cutting an inscription on a four sided rod and handing it to Finn. The message does not directly accuse Finn's wife, but is instead a series of metaphors: A wooden stake ( an alder stake in one version) in a fence of silver, hellebore among edible plants, husband of a wanton woman, a cuckold among the well taught Fni, and heather on alann of the Luigne. Finn understands the message,

Scholastic ogham but Lomnae pays for telling, as Finns wife has his head cut off. It should be noted that the wording itself is what is cryptic here, not the writing in ogham. Much has been made of the cryptic nature of the inscriptions. Graves and Vendryes, in particular, argue that the inscriptions on wood are fundamentally different from those on stone, being secret and magical in character. McManus rightly argues that there is no evidence of such a sharp distinction, and as we have seen, there are enough examples to prove that inscriptions on wood were not necessarily for magical reasons. There are hints of ogham being written cryptically, but this is not the same as saying it was written for magical purposes.

46

Magical
The issue of ogham being used for magical purposes is the subject of a tedious argument among scholars over whether it was the alphabet itself that was considered magical, or whether it was simply a tool used by those who practised magic. This argument is related to the issue of whether the alphabet was invented by Christians or pagans, with it being presumed (perhaps wrongly) by both sides that magic would be a major motivation for a pagan inventor. What can be said with certainty is that there are clear examples in the literature of ogham being used for magical purposes. However, what can also be said is nothing to indicate that magic was ever the main reason for inventing ogham. The best known reference to magic is in the tale Tochmarc tane when the druid Dalln locates the missing woman tan Eochaid through inscribing ogham on four rods of yew. The inscription and his 'keys of poetry' ( eochraib csi ) reveal to him that tan has been taken to the sd or mound of Br Lith by Midir. This process seems to have involved some form of divination or cleromancy. According to Dinneen (1927) divination was practised using an ogham-inscribed wooden lamina or tablet known as a fiodh-lann and McCullough (1911, p251) mentions a reference to fidlanna being used in this way in 'Adomnn's Second Vision'. It is interesting to note that the general Irish term for the casting of lots is crann-chur, literally 'the casting of wood'; probably originating from the traditional use of sticks or pieces of wood to draw the lots. This is not enough evidence in itself of course, to say that the term originated from a connection with ogham. Another often quoted example of magical use concerns the f or rod of aspen. The f was kept in pagan graveyards to measure corpses and graves and was regarded with fear and dread. Everything that was regarded as hateful was written on it, apparently for the purposes of setting a curse, or else to keep evil sprits away from the dead. Other magical uses include a charm to cure a man of impotence by writing his name in ogham on an elm wand and striking him with it (Charles Graves,1879), and the mention in the Ogam Tract of the use of ogham to determine the sex of an unborn child. As well as purely magical uses, there are references to ogham being used to send messages which have a magical aspect to them. The most famous of these is mentioned in the epic story The Tin B Cuailnge. This involves the Ulster hero Cchulainn writing an ogham inscription on a withe, while standing on one leg, using one hand, and having one eye closed which he then casts over a pillar stone. His rival Fergus mac Rich reads the inscription, which declares that none shall pass unless a similar feat be performed, Fergus excepted. Fergus gives the inscribed withe to the druids, asking them to interpret its secret meaning, but they have nothing to add to Fergus' interpretation. Fergus states that if this message is ignored, the withe on which the inscription is made will return magically to Cchulainn, who then will kill one of the company before morning. Cchulainn leaves much the same inscription on two occasions shortly afterwards. Again we are faced with the dispute about whether ogham itself was providing the magic, or whether it was just an unwitting tool. Charles Graves (1879, p213) provides a good example of the different aspects of ogham combined in one. When a poet failed to receive payment for one of his compositions Irish law directed him to cut a four square wand, and write on it in ogham 'in the name of God'. On one side a cross was to be inscribed, the name of the offence on the second, the name of the offender on the third and an encomium (or praise poem) on the fourth. The wand should then be set up at the end of ten days. If the poet made a satire without doing this he was liable for a fine. This is an

Scholastic ogham interesting combination of the Christian and pre-Christian. A cross is inscribed in the name of God, but the praise poem gets its power from the poet or file, whose supposed powers are certainly pre-Christian in origin.

47

Record and tally keeping

The few indications in the literature of ogham being used for other inscriptions than names or brief messages are rather vague, but there is evidence to point to ogham being used to keep records of names and lists of various kinds. The clearest example appears in the story where Conn the King of Ireland is visited by the spirit of the Celtic god Lugh, who gives him the names of the future Kings of Ireland, from Conn himself to the end of time. The list is so long that Cesarn, Conn's poet, is unable to memorise it and writes it down in ogham on four rods of yew, each eight sided and twenty four feet long. The ogham is not involved in any way in the supernatural appearance of Lugh and is only mentioned in respect of the practical task of recording information. Ogham would have been concise enough to record genealogical lists, especially if each rod had eight sides to it as in this case. The excessive length of the rods mentioned here is because every name until the end of time has to be written down. In reality, most genealogies would have been of a much more manageable size! The Ogam Tract or In Lebor Ogaim in the Book of Ballymote points to other possible uses of ogham for record keeping. This includes lusogam ('herb ogham'), which may have been used in medicine, or biadogam ('food ogam') which may have used as part of housekeeping duties. Other varieties strongly suggest property or business transactions, for example conogam ( 'dog ogham') or dam-ogam ('ox ogham'). Unlike other lists, each letter in these forms does not stand for a separate name, but for a different aicme or group. Damogam is described thus: Bull for group B, one bull, two, three, four, five bulls (for B,L,F,S,N); Ox for group H, one ox, two, three, four, five oxen (for H,D,T,C,Q); Bullock for group M, one bullock, two, three etc.; Steer for group A, one steer, two, etc. This list is significant as it involves numbers as well as names, suggesting that counting is going on and indicating a role as a tally system and record of property. Another example of this is Ogam usceach ( Water-ogham) regarding various types of water source as follows: Group B: One stream for B, and so on to five for N; Group H: 1 Weir for H, 2 for D and so on; Group M: 1 River for M, 2 for G and so on; Group A1 Well for A, 2 for O and so on. Sources of fresh water were valuable, and it would have been very helpful to keep a record of the number and type of water source on ones lands. A bundle of ogham rods recording such lists would not have been too cumbersome to carry from place to place in the travelling schools of the poets or filed, or kept in the various crannogs or hillforts of the chieftains. It is also likely that ogham could have had a role in recording trading transactions and legal judgements of various kinds. Perhaps the names of those involved were cited together with the nature and number of objects concerned. These records could have been kept in a similar way on rods to provide legal proof of what had occurred.

Hand signals
There is direct evidence for the existence of a system of ogham hand signals. The ogam tract In Lebor Ogaim mentions two forms of finger spelling; cossogam ('foot-ogham') and sronogam ('nose-ogham'). Cossogam involves putting the fingers to the right or left of the shinbone for the first or second aicmi, and across it diagonally or straight for the third or fourth aicmi. One finger is used for the first letter, two for the second, and so on. Sronogam involves the same procedure with the ridge of the nose. Placing the finger straight across the shinbone or nose for the fourth aicme mimics the later, manuscript form of the letters. Another alphabet, basogam ('palm-ogham') is mentioned which seems to involve striking the hand in various ways against wood. Probably the angle of the hand indicated the aicme while the number of strikes indicated the letter. The inclusion of these alphabets in the Tract shows that a connection between the ogham letters and fingers was still known at the time the Book of Ballymote was written in the Middle Ages. Further evidence of the possible use of ogham hand gestures comes in the form of various literary references to finger signs. Plummer (1910 p cxvi) cites several works which mention the use of finger signs, including the Life of

Scholastic ogham Saint Brendan.

48

Literature
Here the evidence is much more ambiguous as the use of the word ogham was sometimes used in later stories to refer to writing in the general sense, rather than in the ogham script. The best known example is found in The Voyage of Bran. Bran spent so long on his seafaring travels in the otherworld that several hundred years had passed in Ireland. On arriving back to Ireland he decided that it is unwise to disembark from his boat after one of his comrades leapt ashore and was turned to ashes on the spot. Instead he wrote his adventures in quatrains in ogham for the crowd gathered at the shore and departed, never to be heard of again. Another instance of writing on wood which might possibly refer to ogham is found in the story of the lovers Aillinn and Baile Mac Buain. The lovers come to a tragic end and are buried separately. An apple tree grows out of Aillin's grave and a yew tree out of Baile's. Both trees are cut down by the poets of Leinster and Ulster respectively to make writing tablets. The tablets are taken to Tara and the stories inscribed on them are recited for the High King Cormac Mac Art. He is much taken by the beauty of the stories and asks to see the tablets. On taking them into his hands the two tablets immediately spring together and become entwined about each other like woodbine. The reference to wooden writing tablets has been cited as evidence that ogham was used in this way, but this does not really follow. Firstly, ogham is not directly mentioned in the tale, and secondly the story is itself originally a borrowing from international sources, according to hOgin ( 1991, p43). A more interesting reference is found in the story of Aethicus of Istria who sailed from Iberia to Ireland circa 417 A.D. ( Beresford Ellis p165). He is said to have remained in Ireland for some time, examining the Irish books he came across. These he described as 'ideomochos' meaning strange or unfamiliar. This has been taken to mean that Aethicus had perhaps seen some collection of ogham rods. This is a more trustworthy piece of evidence, but again it is too vague in itself to prove anything specific. None of these examples add up to any conclusive evidence that ogham was ever used in a literary way to record poems, stories or any kind of sustained narrative, and the likelihood is that it wasn't. The nature of the alphabet itself militates against any use of it in this way.

References
Beresford Ellis, Peter, The Druids, Constable & Co., London (1994) Dillon, Myles, The Cycles of the Kings (1946) Dinneen, P.S. Foclir Gaedhilge agus Barla, Irish Texts Society (1927) Graves, Charles, 'On the Ogam Beith Luis Nin', Hermathena 3, (1879), 208244 McCullough, J.A. The Religion of the Ancient Celts, Edinburgh (1911) McManus, Damian, A Guide to Ogam, Maynooth, (1991) hgin, Daith, Myth, Legend and Romance: An Encyclopedia of the Irish Folk Tradition, (1991) Plummer, C Vita Sanctorum Hiberniae Vol. 1 Oxford, (1910) Thompson, F The Supernatural Highlands, (1976) Edinburgh Vendryes, J 'L'criture ogamique et ses origines' tudes Celtiques 4, (1941), 83116

Ailm

49

Ailm
Ogham letters Aicme Beithe Aicme Muine

Beith Luis Fearn Sail Nion

Aicme hatha

Muin Gort nGadal Straif Ruis

Aicme Ailme

Uath Dair Tinne Coll Ceirt

Forfeda

Ailm Onn r Eadhadh Iodhadh

abhadh r Uilleann Ifn Peith Eamhancholl

Ailm is the Irish name of the twentieth letter of the Ogham alphabet, . Its phonetic value is [a]. The "Tree Alphabet" glossators identify it with the pine. The original meaning of the name is unknown. The Bratharogam kennings all refer to the sound [a] and not to the name, either as the sound of a "groan", or to the Irish vocative particle, . Thurneysen maintained that Ailm, Beithe was influenced by Alpha, Beta, but while beithe is an actual Irish word, ailm would have to be considered the only loaned letter name. The word is attested once outside a context of the Ogham alphabet, in the poem "King Henry and the Hermit", caine ailmi ardom-peitet which translates to Beautiful are the pines which make music for me Here the poet is most likely directly influenced by the "Tree Alphabet" manuscript tradition.

Ailm

50

References
Damian McManus, Irish letter-names and their kennings, riu 39 (1988), 127-168.

Beith (letter)
Ogham letters Aicme Beithe Aicme Muine

Beith Luis Fearn Sail Nion

Aicme hatha

Muin Gort nGadal Straif Ruis

Aicme Ailme

Uath Dair Tinne Coll Ceirt

Forfeda

Ailm Onn r Eadhadh Iodhadh

abhadh r Uilleann Ifn Peith Eamhancholl

Beith is the Irish name of the first letter of the Ogham alphabet, , meaning "birch". In Old Irish, the letter name was Beithe, which is related to Welsh bedw(en), Breton bezv(enn), and Latin betula. Its Proto-Indo-European root was *get- 'resin, gum'. Its phonetic value is [b]. The Auraicept na n-ces contains the tale of the mythological origins of Beith

This moreover is the first thing that was written by Ogham, [illustration of seven b's, in Ogham script] i.e. (the birch) b was written, and to convey a warning to Lug son of Ethliu it was written respecting his wife lest she should be carried away from him into faeryland, to wit, seven bs in one switch of birch: Thy wife will be seven times carried away from thee into faeryland or into another country, unless birch guard her. On that account, moreover, b, birch, takes precedence, for it is in birch that Ogham was first written.

In the medieval kennings, the verses associated with Beith are: Focos foltchan: "Withered foot with fine hair" (Word Ogham of Morann mic Mon)

Beith (letter) Glaisem cnis: "Greyest of skin" (Word Ogham of Mac ind c) Maise malach: "Beauty of the eyebrow" (Word Ogham of Culainn) Peith , a late addition to the Forfeda, is a variant of Beith, with a phonetic value of [p], also called beithe bog "soft beithe", [p] being considered a "soft" variant of [b]. It likely replaced Ifn , one of the "original" five Forfeda. Prior to the addition of the Forfeda to the original twenty letters, both [p] and [b] were probably symbolized by the same letter: Beith.

51

Notes

Ceirt

52

Ceirt
Ogham letters Aicme Beithe Aicme Muine

Beith Luis Fearn Sail Nion

Aicme hatha

Muin Gort nGadal Straif Ruis

Aicme Ailme

Uath Dair Tinne Coll Ceirt

Forfeda

Ailm Onn r Eadhadh Iodhadh

abhadh r Uilleann Ifn Peith Eamhancholl

Ceirt (queirt) is a letter of the Ogham alphabet, transcribed as Q. It expresses the Primitive Irish labiovelar phoneme. The 14th century Auraicept na n-ces glosses the name as aball, meaning "apple tree". Its phonetic value is [k]. The Bratharogam (kennings) for the letter are: Morainn mac Mon: Clithar baiscill the shelter of a lunatic Maic ind c: Brg anduini substance of an insignificant person Con Culainn: Dgu fethail dregs of clothing McManus (1991:37) compares it to Welsh pert bush, Latin quercus oak (PIE *perkwos). The name was confused with Old Irish ceirt rag, reflected in the kennings. In the framework of a runic origin of the Ogham, the name has also been compared to the name of the Anglo Saxon Futhorc p-rune, Peor: This name is itself unclear, but most often identified as pear, a meaning not unrelated to apple. Interestingly, the p letter of the Gothic alphabet has a cognate name, pairra, alongside the clearly related qairra, the name for the Gothic labiovelar. Since an influence of Ogham letter names on Gothic letter names is eminently unlikely, it seems most probable that the Proto-Germanic p rune had a meaning of pear tree

Ceirt (*pera-trew?), continued in the Anglo-Saxon peor rune (with the meaning of the name forgotten), and was introduced into 4th century Ireland as the name of a rune named after a pear or apple tree. As p was nonexistent as a phoneme in Primitive Irish, the p and q runes would have been considered equivalent.

53

References
Damian McManus, A Guide to Ogam, Maynooth 1991.

Coll (letter)

54

Coll (letter)
Ogham letters Aicme Beithe Aicme Muine

Beith Luis Fearn Sail Nion

Aicme hatha

Muin Gort nGadal Straif Ruis

Aicme Ailme

Uath Dair Tinne Coll Ceirt

Forfeda

Ailm Onn r Eadhadh Iodhadh

abhadh r Uilleann Ifn Peith Eamhancholl

Coll is the Irish name of the ninth letter of the Ogham alphabet , meaning "hazel-tree", which is related to Welsh collen pl cyll, and Latin corulus. Its Proto-Indo-European root was *kos(e)lo-. Its phonetic value is [k].

References

Dair

55

Dair
Ogham letters Aicme Beithe Aicme Muine

Beith Luis Fearn Sail Nion

Aicme hatha

Muin Gort nGadal Straif Ruis

Aicme Ailme

Uath Dair Tinne Coll Ceirt

Forfeda

Ailm Onn r Eadhadh Iodhadh

abhadh r Uilleann Ifn Peith Eamhancholl

Dair is the Irish name of the seventh letter of the Ogham alphabet, , meaning "oak", which is related to Welsh derw(en). Its Proto-Indo-European root was *deru- 'oak'. Its phonetic value is [d]. Dair forms the basis of some first names in Irish Gaelic such as Daire, Dara, Darragh and Daragh.

References

Eadhadh

56

Eadhadh
Ogham letters Aicme Beithe Aicme Muine

Beith Luis Fearn Sail Nion

Aicme hatha

Muin Gort nGadal Straif Ruis

Aicme Ailme

Uath Dair Tinne Coll Ceirt

Forfeda

Ailm Onn r Eadhadh Iodhadh

abhadh r Uilleann Ifn Peith Eamhancholl

Eadhadh is the Irish name of the twenty-fourth letter of the Ogham alphabet, . In Old Irish, the letter name was Edad. Its phonetic value is [e]. The original meaning of the letter name is unknown, but it is likely influenced by Idad, much like Gothic pairra, qairra, together with which it forms the coda of the Briatharogaim. The "arboreal" glossators assign crand fir no crithach "'true tree' or aspen".

Fearn (letter)

57

Fearn (letter)
Ogham letters Aicme Beithe Aicme Muine

Beith Luis Fearn Sail Nion

Aicme hatha

Muin Gort nGadal Straif Ruis

Aicme Ailme

Uath Dair Tinne Coll Ceirt

Forfeda

Ailm Onn r Eadhadh Iodhadh

abhadh r Uilleann Ifn Peith Eamhancholl

Fearn is the Irish name of the third letter of the Ogham alphabet, , meaning "alder-tree". In Old Irish, the letter name was Fern, which is related to Welsh gwern(en). Its Primitive Irish root was *wern and its phonetic value then was [w]. Its Old Irish and modern phonetic value is [f].

Forfeda

58

Forfeda
Ogham letters Aicme Beithe Aicme Muine

Beith Luis Fearn Sail Nion

Aicme hatha

Muin Gort nGadal Straif Ruis

Aicme Ailme

Uath Dair Tinne Coll Ceirt

Forfeda

Ailm Onn r Eadhadh Iodhadh

abhadh r Uilleann Ifn Peith Eamhancholl

The Forfeda are the "additional" letters of the Ogham alphabet, beyond the basic inventory of twenty signs. The most important of these are five forfeda which were arranged in their own aicme or class, and were invented in the Old Irish period, several centuries after the peak of Ogham usage. They appear to have represented sounds felt to be missing from the original alphabet, maybe (o), (i), (i), p and ch.Wikipedia:Please clarify

Forfeda

59

The aicme forfeda

The five aicme forfeda are glossed in the manuscripts Auraicept na n-ces ('The Scholars' Primer), De dilib feda ('Elements of the Letters') and In Lebor Ogaim ('The Book of Ogam'), by several Bratharogaim ("word oghams" ), or two word kennings, which explain the meanings of the names of the letters of the Ogham alphabet. Three variant lists of bratharogaim or 'word-oghams' have been preserved, dating to the Old Irish period. They are as follows: Bratharogam Morainn mac Mon Bratharogam Maic ind c Bratharogam Con Culainn Later Medieval scholarsWikipedia:Avoid weasel words believedWikipedia:Avoid weasel words that all of the letter names of the ogham alphabet were those of trees, and attempted to explain the bratharogaim in that light. However, modern scholarshipWikipedia:Avoid weasel words has shown that only eight at most of the original twenty letter names are those of trees, and that the word-oghams or kennings themselves support this. Of the forfeda letter names, only one may beWikipedia:Vagueness that of a tree or shrub (pn) and their kennings as edited (in normalized Old Irish) and translated by McManus (1988) are as follows:
Letter Meaning Bratharogam Morainn mac Mon snmchan feda "fair-swimming letter" Bratharogam Maic ind c Bratharogam Con Culainn canem co "fairest fish"

EA

bhadh

Unknown

cosc lobair "[admonishing?] of an infirm person" l crotha "splendour of form" cubat oll "great elbow/cubit" amram mlais "most wonderful taste" mol galraig "groan of a sick person"

OI

ir

'Gold'

sruithem aicde "most venerable substance" tthmar fid "fragnant tree" milsem fedo "sweetest tree"

UI

Uilleann

'Elbow'

P, later IO

Pn, later Iphn Eamhancholl

'Spine/thorn'?

CH or X, later AE

'Twin-of-hazel' lad sethaig "groan of a sick person"

Four of these names are glossed in the Auraicept with tree names, ebhadh as crithach "aspen", oir as feorus no edind "spindle-tree or ivy", uilleand as edleand "honeysuckle", and iphin as spinan no ispin "gooseberry or thorn". The kennings for bhadh point to the sound o or , which is also the word for "salmon". The name appears modelled after Eadhadh and Iodhadh. The kennings for r point to the word r "gold" (from Latin aurum). The kenning of Uilleann, "great elbow", refers to the letter name. Since the Ogham alphabet dates to the Primitive Irish period, it had no sign for [p] in its original form and the letter Pn was added as a letter to express it. McManus states that the name Pn was probably influenced by Latin pinus ('pine'), but a more likely explanation is that it derives from Latin spina ('thorn'), as the kennings indicate a tree or shrub with sweet tasting fruit. According to Kelly (1976) the name spn ( deriving from the Latin ) appears in the Old Irish tree lists as meaning either gooseberry or thorn, so the medieval glosses may be correct on this occasion. The name Eamhancholl means "twinned C", referring to the shape of the letter. The Bratharogam kenning "groan of a sick person" refers to a value ch [x], predating the decision that all five forfeda represent vowels. Apart from the first letter, the forfeda were little used in inscriptions, and this led later ogamists to rearrange them as a series of vowel diphthongs, necessitating a complete change to the sounds of Pn and Eamhancholl (the name Pn also had to be changed to Iphn). This arrangement is how they appear in most manuscripts:

(U+1695) abhadh: ea, o ea; (U+1696) r: oi e, oi; (U+1697) Uilleann: ui, a, ui;

Forfeda

60

(U+1698) Ifn: io a, ia; (U+1699)Eamhancholl: ae.

This arrangement meant that once again the ogham alphabet was without a letter for the [p] sound, making necessary the creation of Peith (see below).

Inscriptions
Apart from the first letter Eabhadh, the forfeda do not appear often in orthodox ogham inscriptions. Eabhadh was in fact frequently used as part of the formula word KOI, but with the value /k/ or /x/. KOI means something like 'here' and is the ogham equivalent of the Latin HIC IACIT (McManus 5.3, 1991). It also appears with its vocalic value in later orthodox inscriptions however. Of the other forfeda the next three appear only a few times, and the last letter Eamhancholl does not appear at all. So rare are the other forfeda in inscriptions that it is worthwhile detailing the individual examples (numbering as given by Macalister): ir. This appears twice, once in an inscription in Killogrone in Co. Kerry (235), which reads ANM MLEGMRID MACI VECUMEN; and once in a late inscription on a cross slab at Formaston in Aberdeenshire, which reads MAQQ TALLUORRH NHHTV ROBBAC CNNEFF. Uilleann. This appears only once, in an inscription in Teeromoyle, again in Co. Kerry (240). The inscription reads MOCURRETI MAQI VLISACESUICMIR. Pn. This appears in two, or possibly three, inscriptions. The first is in Cool East on Valencia Island in Co. Kerry (231), and reads LOGITTI MAQI ERPENN. The letter [p] appears as an X shape instead of the 'double X' shape of the letter, presumably because the correct letter shape is quite hard to carve. The second inscription is in Crickowel in Breconshire in Wales (327) and reads TURPILI MOSAC TRALLONI. Again an X shape is used. The third and final inscription is in Margam in Glamorganshire in Wales (409) and reads PAMPES. However, much of the inscription is broken off and what remains looks like a squat arrowhead. It almost certainly stands for [p] however, as the ogham inscription is accompanied by one in Latin which confirms the sound.

Other forfeda
Beyond the five Forfeda discussed above, which doubtlessly date to Old Irish times, there is a large number of letter variants and symbols, partly found in manuscripts, and partly in "scholastic" (post 6th century) inscriptions collectively termed "Forfeda". They may date to Old Irish, Middle Irish or even early modern times.

Peith
Due to the "schematicism of later Ogamists" (McManus 1988:167), who insisted on treating the five primary forfeda as vowels, [p] had again to be expressed as a modification of [b], called peithe, after beithe, also called beithe bog "soft beithe" or, tautologically, peithbog ( Peith, Unicode allocation U+169A).

Manuscript tradition
The 14th century Auraicept na n-ces among the 92 "variants" of the Ogham script gives more letters identified as forfeda (variant nrs. 79, 80 and 81).
The forfeda of the Ogham scales in the Book of Ballymote (scale nrs. 79, 80, 81 [1][2][3])

Inscriptions

Forfeda The Bressay stone in Shetland (CISP BREAY/1) contains five forfeda, three of them paralleled on other Scottish monuments and also in Irish manuscripts, and two unique to Bressay. One of the latter is possibly a correction of an error in carving and not intended as a forfid. One is "rabbit-eared", interpreted as some kind of modified D, presumably the voiced spirant. Another is an "angled vowel", presumably a modified A. One unique character consists of five undulating strokes sloping backwards across the stem, possibly a modified I. The fourth is a four-stroke cross-hatching, also appearing in the late eighth or ninth-century Bern ogham alphabet and syllabary under a label which has previously been read as RR, but another suggestions is SS. It appears in the Book of Ballymote, scale no. 64.[4]

61

References
Kelly, Fergus 'The Old Irish Tree-list' Celtica 11 (1976) pp1223 Macalister, Robert A.S. Corpus inscriptionum insularum celticarum. First edition. Dublin: Stationery Office, 1945-1949. OCLC 71392234 McManus, Damian. Ogam: Archaizing, Orthography and the Authenticity of the Manuscript Key to the Alphabet, riu 37, 1988, 1-31. Dublin: Royal Irish Academy. OCLC 56088345 McManus, Damian Irish letter-names and their kennings, riu 39 (1988), 127-168. McManus, Damian. A Guide to Ogam, Maynooth 1991. ISBN 1-870684-17-6 OCLC 24181838 Sims-Williams, P The additional letters of the Ogam Alphabet, Cambridge Medieval Celtic Studies, 23: 29-75 (1992).

External links
The Ogam Scales from the Book of Ballymote [5] by B. Fell

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] http:/ / www. equinox-project. com/ v22125. htm http:/ / www. equinox-project. com/ v22126. htm http:/ / www. equinox-project. com/ v22127. htm http:/ / www. ucl. ac. uk/ archaeology/ cisp/ database/ stone/ breay_1. html http:/ / www. equinox-project. com/ ogamscales. htm

Gort (letter)

62

Gort (letter)
Ogham letters Aicme Beithe Aicme Muine

Beith Luis Fearn Sail Nion

Aicme hatha

Muin Gort nGadal Straif Ruis

Aicme Ailme

Uath Dair Tinne Coll Ceirt

Forfeda

Ailm Onn r Eadhadh Iodhadh

abhadh r Uilleann Ifn Peith Eamhancholl

Gort is the Irish name of the twelfth letter of the Ogham alphabet, , meaning "field", which is related to Welsh garth 'garden' and Latin hortus. Its Proto-Indo-European root was *gher-, *ghort- 'to enclose, enclosure'. Its phonetic value is [g].

Ifn

63

Ifn
Ogham letters Aicme Beithe Aicme Muine

Beith Luis Fearn Sail Nion

Aicme hatha

Muin Gort nGadal Straif Ruis

Aicme Ailme

Uath Dair Tinne Coll Ceirt

Forfeda

Ailm Onn r Eadhadh Iodhadh

abhadh r Uilleann Ifn Peith Eamhancholl

Ifn (also spelled iphin) is one of the forfeda, the "additional" letters of the Ogham alphabet. Its sound value according to the Auraicept na n-ces, De dilib feda and In Lebor Ogaim, are io, a, and ia, respectively. The Auraincept glosses the name according to the "arboreal" tradition as spinan no ispin "gooseberry or thorn". The letter's invention dates to the Old Irish period, several centuries after the peak of Ogham usage. Since the Ogham alphabet dates to the Primitive Irish period, it had not sign for [p] in its original form. Ifn may originally have been added as a letter expressing [p], called Pn (probably influenced by Latin pinus). Due to the "schematicism of later Ogamists" (McManus 1988:167), who insisted on treating the five primary forfeda as vowels, [p] had again to be expressed as a modification of [b], called Peithe, after Beithe, also called beithe bog "soft beithe" or, tautologically, peithbog, and the earlier letter designed to express p was renamed to i-phn, and considered as expressing an idiphthong.

Ifn

64

Unicode
Both Ifn and Peith have Unicode allocations: Ifn U+1698 Peith U+169A

References
Damian McManus, Irish letter-names and their kennings, riu 39 (1988), 127-168.

Iodhadh

65

Iodhadh
Ogham letters Aicme Beithe Aicme Muine

Beith Luis Fearn Sail Nion

Aicme hatha

Muin Gort nGadal Straif Ruis

Aicme Ailme

Uath Dair Tinne Coll Ceirt

Forfeda

Ailm Onn r Eadhadh Iodhadh

abhadh r Uilleann Ifn Peith Eamhancholl

Iodhadh is the Irish name of the twenty-fifth letter of the Ogham alphabet, . In Old Irish, the letter name was idad. Its phonetic value is [i]. The original meaning of the letter name is unknown, but it is likely influenced by edad, much like Gothic pairra, qairra, together with which it forms the coda of the briatharogaim. "Iodhadh" is also known by other names such as "Ioho", "Idad" and "Idho". Though there is never any mention of which is the correct name.[1] The "arboreal" glossators assign ibhar "yew".
[1] John Michael Greer, The New Encyclopedia of the Occult, 2003, Llewellyn Publications

Luis (letter)

66

Luis (letter)
Ogham letters Aicme Beithe Aicme Muine

Beith Luis Fearn Sail Nion

Aicme hatha

Muin Gort nGadal Straif Ruis

Aicme Ailme

Uath Dair Tinne Coll Ceirt

Forfeda

Ailm Onn r Eadhadh Iodhadh

abhadh r Uilleann Ifn Peith Eamhancholl

Luis () is the second letter of the Ogham alphabet, derived either from luise "flame" or from lus "herb". Its Proto-Indo-European root was either *leuk- 'to shine' or *leudh- 'to grow'. Its phonetic value is [l]. The Auraicept na n-ces glosses the name as cairtheand "mountain-ash", i.e. "rowan" (Modern Irish caorthann). The associated verse is Li sula "lustre of eye" The Auraincept interprets this as "delightful to the eye is luis, i.e. rowan, owing to the beauty of its berries".

References

Muin

67

Muin
Ogham letters Aicme Beithe Aicme Muine

Beith Luis Fearn Sail Nion

Aicme hatha

Muin Gort nGadal Straif Ruis

Aicme Ailme

Uath Dair Tinne Coll Ceirt

Forfeda

Ailm Onn r Eadhadh Iodhadh

abhadh r Uilleann Ifn Peith Eamhancholl

Muin is the Irish name of the eleventh letter of the Ogham alphabet, , meaning "neck", which is related to Welsh mwn and Latin monile. Its phonetic value is [m].

NGadal

68

NGadal
Ogham letters Aicme Beithe Aicme Muine

Beith Luis Fearn Sail Nion

Aicme hatha

Muin Gort nGadal Straif Ruis

Aicme Ailme

Uath Dair Tinne Coll Ceirt

Forfeda

Ailm Onn r Eadhadh Iodhadh

abhadh r Uilleann Ifn Peith Eamhancholl

nGadal (Ngadal or Ngeadal) is the Irish name of the thirteenth letter of the Ogham alphabet, . The Bratharogam (kennings) for the letter are: lth lego "sustenance of a leech" tiud midach "raiment of physicians" tosach n-chto "beginning of slaying" Its meaning is probably "[the act of] wounding". In Old Irish, the letter name was Gtal. It may be a verbal noun of gonid 'wounds, slays'. in which case is related to Welsh gwanu 'to pierce, to stab', which comes from the root was *ghen- 'to pierce, to strike'. Its original phonetic value in Primitive Irish was [], the voiced labiovelar. In Old Irish, this phoneme merged with g (gort), and the medieval manuscript tradition assigns it Latin ng [], hence the unetymological spelling of the letter name with initial n-.

NGadal

69

References
Damian McManus, Irish letter-names and their kennings, riu 39 (1988), 127-168.

Nion
Ogham letters Aicme Beithe Aicme Muine

Beith Luis Fearn Sail Nion

Aicme hatha

Muin Gort nGadal Straif Ruis

Aicme Ailme

Uath Dair Tinne Coll Ceirt

Forfeda

Ailm Onn r Eadhadh Iodhadh

abhadh r Uilleann Ifn Peith Eamhancholl

Nion is the Irish name of the fifth letter of the Ogham alphabet, , probably meaning "fork". In Old Irish, the letter name was Nin, a name which is notable for referring both to a specific letter, and to any of the Ogham letters in general. The Bratharogaim have: costud sde "establishing of peace" bg ban "boast of women" bg maise "boast of beauty" The glossators of the Ogam Tract and the Auraicept na n-ces seem to refer to at least two Irish words nin, meaning "part of a weaver's loom", and "a wave". The corresponding adjective ninach is glossed as gablach and used as a synonym of cross, and the word seems to be roughly synonymous with gabul "fork, forked branch", and is thus a plausible base for a name for "Ogham letters", which after all (at least the consonants), look like forks or combs. The

Nion second nin seems to be cognate with Welsh nen "roof, heaven", with a meaning of "loftiness", with an adjective ninach "lofty". The kennings are explained by the glossators that weavers' beams were erected as signs of peace. The "arboreal" tradition claims the word as ash-tree, concluding that looms were made of ashwood. In some instances, the association with ashwood, which is best known as the raw material for spears, the kenning was amended to "destruction of peace". McManus (1988) suggests that the word for "forked branch" was applied to the olive branch, the shaking of which in Irish tradition requested an interruption of a battle. The kennings related to beauty, on the other hand, are maybe somehow dependent on the second meaning of "lofty".

70

References
Damian McManus, Irish letter-names and their kennings, riu 39 (1988), 127-168.

Onn

71

Onn
Ogham letters Aicme Beithe Aicme Muine

Beith Luis Fearn Sail Nion

Aicme hatha

Muin Gort nGadal Straif Ruis

Aicme Ailme

Uath Dair Tinne Coll Ceirt

Forfeda

Ailm Onn r Eadhadh Iodhadh

abhadh r Uilleann Ifn Peith Eamhancholl

Onn is the Irish name of the seventeenth letter of the Ogham alphabet, , meaning "ash-tree", which is related to Welsh onn(en), from the root was *s-, *osen 'ash'. Its phonetic value is [o]. The letter's Bratharogam kennings are the following: congnaid ech "wounder of horses" fthem sore "smoothest of craftsmanship" lth fan "[equipment] of warrior bands" These refer to different uses of ashwood as horsewhips, wood used by carpenters, and for spears. In the Old Irish period, onn "ash" was replaced by uinnius. McManus takes this as an indication that the Ogham letter names date to the Primitive Irish period.

Onn

72

References
Damian McManus, Irish letter-names and their kennings, riu 39 (1988), 127-168.

Ruis (letter)
Ogham letters Aicme Beithe Aicme Muine

Beith Luis Fearn Sail Nion

Aicme hatha

Muin Gort nGadal Straif Ruis

Aicme Ailme

Uath Dair Tinne Coll Ceirt

Forfeda

Ailm Onn r Eadhadh Iodhadh

abhadh r Uilleann Ifn Peith Eamhancholl

Ruis () is the fifteenth letter of the Ogham alphabet, derived from ruise "red". Its Proto-Indo-European root was *reudh- 'red'. Its phonetic value is [r].

Sail (letter)

73

Sail (letter)
Ogham letters Aicme Beithe Aicme Muine

Beith Luis Fearn Sail Nion

Aicme hatha

Muin Gort nGadal Straif Ruis

Aicme Ailme

Uath Dair Tinne Coll Ceirt

Forfeda

Ailm Onn r Eadhadh Iodhadh

abhadh r Uilleann Ifn Peith Eamhancholl

Sail or Saille is the Irish name of the fourth letter of the Ogham alphabet, , meaning "willow". The name is related to Welsh helyg(en) and Latin salix. Its Proto-Indo-European root was *sal-. Its phonetic value is [s].

Straif

74

Straif
Ogham letters Aicme Beithe Aicme Muine

Beith Luis Fearn Sail Nion

Aicme hatha

Muin Gort nGadal Straif Ruis

Aicme Ailme

Uath Dair Tinne Coll Ceirt

Forfeda

Ailm Onn r Eadhadh Iodhadh

abhadh r Uilleann Ifn Peith Eamhancholl

Straif is the Irish name of the fourteenth letter of the Ogham alphabet, . Old Irish spelling variants are straif, straiph, zraif, sraif, sraiph, sraib. The Bratharogam kennings for the letter are: tressam ramnai "strongest reddening" mrad rn "increase of secrets" saigid nl "seeking of clouds" The probable meaning of the name is "sulphur". The first two kennings could be explained by the main use of sulphur as dye, and its alchemical significance, respectively. The third kenning could be a corruption of saiget nl "arrow of the clouds", i.e. sraibtine "lightning". An alternative kenning has aire srbae "chief of streams", and glossators adhering to the "Tree Alphabet" base an identification with draigen "blackthorn" on this, by thinking of a "hedge on a river". The "chief of streams" kenning may be referring to sulphur by reference to the stream of brimstone, sruth [s]ruibhe, mentioned in Isaiah 30:33. The letter's original phonetic value is uncertain, but it may have been [st], [ts] or [sw]. The medieval manuscript tradition transcribes it with Latin Z.

Straif

75

References
Damian McManus, Irish letter-names and their kennings, riu 39 (1988), 127-168.

Tinne
Ogham letters Aicme Beithe Aicme Muine

Beith Luis Fearn Sail Nion

Aicme hatha

Muin Gort nGadal Straif Ruis

Aicme Ailme

Uath Dair Tinne Coll Ceirt

Forfeda

Ailm Onn r Eadhadh Iodhadh

abhadh r Uilleann Ifn Peith Eamhancholl

Tinne is the Irish name of the eighth letter of the Ogham alphabet, , meaning "ingot". Its phonetic value is [t].

References

Uath

76

Uath
Ogham letters Aicme Beithe Aicme Muine

Beith Luis Fearn Sail Nion

Aicme hatha

Muin Gort nGadal Straif Ruis

Aicme Ailme

Uath Dair Tinne Coll Ceirt

Forfeda

Ailm Onn r Eadhadh Iodhadh

abhadh r Uilleann Ifn Peith Eamhancholl

Uath, Old Irish ath, hath (IPA:[w]), is the sixth letter of the Ogham alphabet, , transcribed in manuscript tradition, but unattested in actual inscriptions. The kenning "a meet of hounds is huath" identifies the name as ath "horror, fear", although the Auraicept glosses "white-thorn": comdal cuan huath (.i. sce L. om); no ar is uathmar hi ara deilghibh "a meet of hounds is huath (i.e. white-thorn); or because it is formidable (uathmar) for its thorns." The original etymology of the name, and the letter's value, are however unclear. McManus (1986) suggested a value [y] (i.e. the semivowel). Peter Schrijver suggested that if ath "fear" is cognate with Latin pavere, a trace of PIE *p might have survived into Primitive Irish, but there is no independent evidence for this.

References

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r
Ogham letters Aicme Beithe Aicme Muine

Beith Luis Fearn Sail Nion

Aicme hatha

Muin Gort nGadal Straif Ruis

Aicme Ailme

Uath Dair Tinne Coll Ceirt

Forfeda

Ailm Onn r Eadhadh Iodhadh

abhadh r Uilleann Ifn Peith Eamhancholl

r is the Irish name of the eighteenth letter of the Ogham alphabet, , meaning "clay", "earth", "soil". In Old Irish, the letter name was also written ir. Its phonetic value is [u] or [u:].

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Article Sources and Contributors

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Nuhanen, Baad, BabelStone, Benjaminb, Berig, Billinghurst, Bloodofox, Bradeos Graphon, Caeruleancentaur, Cantiorix, Cavila, CecilWard, Cherkash, Clifflandis, Codex Sinaiticus, Crafanc, Cuchullain, Curtis Clark, Cybercobra, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Danielaustinhall12, Darwin45041l, Dbachmann, Dcirovic, Dcoetzee, DeCausa, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Deflective, DerBorg, Dorien Thomas, Dougweller, Dragonbeast, Drmccreedy, DuncanHill, EamonnPKeane, Eburaconos, Editor32, Ekko, El C, Elmer Clark, Erud, Evertype, Ezrakilty, Favonian, Fconaway, Fergananim, Fergus mac Rich, FilipeS, Finbarr Saunders, Florian Blaschke, Furrykef, F, Gamesbook, Gilgamesh, Glenn, Gob Lofa, GoingBatty, Graham87, Green ink, Grist, Guthrie, Hachiko100, Heron, Hibernian, Hmains, I do not exist, Ikiroid, Indexheavy, Iridescent, J. 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Finkelstein, Joshcrawfordsays Luis (letter) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=544139954 Contributors: Alansohn, Ben Ben, Benjaminb, Clifflandis, Commander Keane, Cybercobra, Dbachmann, Deville, Dictionaric, Evertype, Feydey, Frietjes, Luisdragon7, Telsa, TheDJ, 9 anonymous edits Muin Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=537299117 Contributors: Alexius08, Belovedfreak, Carlossuarez46, Catpeople1, Cybercobra, DCnemesis, Dbenbenn, Deriksmith, DopefishJustin, Evertype, Frietjes, Mais oui!, SamuelTheGhost, Timneu22, Tyhopho, 17 anonymous edits NGadal Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=544237822 Contributors: Angr, Cybercobra, Dbachmann, Dbenbenn, DopefishJustin, Evertype, Frietjes, Kwamikagami, LarryJeff, 1 anonymous edits Nion Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=544234692 Contributors: Benoni, Cmdrjameson, Cybercobra, Dbachmann, Dbenbenn, Evertype, Frietjes Onn Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=526448406 Contributors: Cybercobra, Dbachmann, Dbenbenn, DopefishJustin, Evertype, Frietjes, Nvg19872000, Pablosanchez99 Ruis (letter) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=570372587 Contributors: Angr, Bruce1ee, Cybercobra, Dbenbenn, Deville, Dialectric, Evertype, Frietjes, The Anome, 2 anonymous edits Sail (letter) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=546546397 Contributors: Benoni, Cybercobra, Deville, DopefishJustin, Evertype, Frietjes, Yamamoto Ichiro, 2 anonymous edits Straif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=411821525 Contributors: Cybercobra, Dbachmann, Dbenbenn, DopefishJustin, Evertype, Frietjes Tinne Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=491038152 Contributors: Clifflandis, Cybercobra, Dbenbenn, DopefishJustin, Evertype, Frietjes, TutterMouse, Westsida Uath Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=565019032 Contributors: Clifflandis, Dbachmann, Dbenbenn, DopefishJustin, Evertype, Frietjes, Ikiroid, Kwamikagami, Znex, 5 anonymous edits r Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=449780492 Contributors: Cybercobra, Dbenbenn, DopefishJustin, Evertype, Frietjes, Gene Nygaard, Mais oui!, Mtys

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File:Book of Ballymote 008r.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Book_of_Ballymote_008r.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dbachmann File:Vg 135, Hassla.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vg_135,_Hassla.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ulf Christofersson Image:Ogham futhark ballymote.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ogham_futhark_ballymote.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dbachmann Image:Yngre futharken.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yngre_futharken.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Tasnu Arakun Image:Hlsingerunor.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hlsingerunor.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Tasnu Arakun Image:Medeltida runor.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Medeltida_runor.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Tasnu Arakun File:Ogham Stone Rathass Church Tralee Kerry.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ogham_Stone_Rathass_Church_Tralee_Kerry.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: User:Jaqian Image:Book of Ballymote 170r.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Book_of_Ballymote_170r.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dbachmann, 2 anonymous edits Image:Ogham airenach.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ogham_airenach.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dbachmann file:Ogham Con.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ogham_Con.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Rico38 file:Ogham Vow.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ogham_Vow.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Rico38 Image:CIIC 504.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CIIC_504.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: BabelStone, Bloodofox, Mceder Image:Forfeda.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Forfeda.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dbachmann

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License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/