!"#$! &"'()*+," -"$.*)#/ /,00$-*"/ 12342523467 $&&89 &:&: ;*!!$-"$!

<=>?@=>A BC -@DE>FF> $GG> #HIJ>==>K

!"#$% !'#()* +"$,'-(-# . /0#12"-3 4556


!7859 7: ;<= >+7>7?5;57@A 9B$C3"0 D
E5@F? 7: >+7>7?5;57@?

@'3"A !udgmenL" and roposlLlon" are synonymous and can be used lnLerchangeably.

5G ;B" =-1-)($3('-
!"#"$%&'%(" ! afflrms LhaL someLhlng ls or ls noL. 1he sLudy of loglc ls concerned wlLh
Lhls Lype of [udgmenL (p.113)

55G ?(2C%" >0'C',(3('-,
)%*+,- +/(+(0%'%(" ls LhaL whlch llmlLs lLself Lo composlng or dlvldlng an aLLrlbuLe wlLh
regard Lo a sub[ecL. Also called a caLegorlcal proposlLlon.
1(*+,-2 +/(+(0%'%(" ls composed of several slmple proposlLlons.
klnds of Slmple roposlLlons
o AfflrmaLlve and negaLlve proposlLlons ! afflrmaLlve proposlLlons compose a
predlcaLe wlLh a sub[ecL. negaLlve ones deny Lhe unlon of Lhe Lwo.
o unlversal, parLlcular and slngular proposlLlons
" unlversal ! Lhose whlch Lake Lhe sub[ecL ln Lhe enLlreLy of lLs exLenslon
(e.g. all blrds fly)
" arLlcular ! resLrlcL Lhe exLenslon (e.g. some blrds are carnlvorous)
" Slngular ! llmlL lL Lo an lndlvldual sub[ecL (e.g. eLer ls my peL blrd)

See dlagram on p. 113

/G /HH(02$3(I" >0'C',(3('-,
1. 1("'/&3%$'(/%-0 (A & C, l & L) ! one ls slmply Lhe negaLlon of Lhe oLher, no mlddle
ground ls posslble.
2. 1("'/&/%-0 (A & L) ! Lhey cannoL be Lrue aL Lhe same Llme, buL Lhere ls a mlddle
ground.
3. )#4$("'/&/%-0 (l & C) ! Lhey cannoL be false aL Lhe same Llme, buL Lhey can be
slmulLaneously Lrue.
4. )#4&,'-/"0 (A & l, L & C) ! lf Lhe unlversal ls Lrue, Lhe parLlcular ls also Lrue buL noL vlce
versa.

Converslon applled on enunclaLlons ! lnverL Lhe Lerms wlLhouL changlng Lhelr meanlng.
o 1hls ls done by changlng Lhe proposlLlon lnLo a sub[ecL-predlcaLe (verb Lo be")
1

" Pe llves ! Pe ls llvlng
o ln converslon, Lhe CuAn1l1? musL someLlmes change, buL noL Lhe CuALl1?.
2


1
See /&-,'&,-" :L M,.#0")& fiom "!"#$% "' ()* +,"-".$($"/0 1)2-(*, 34
2
Fiom how I unueistoou this, Q0ALITY iefeis to the tiuthfulness of the sentence.
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<=>?@=>A BC -@DE>FF> $GG> #HIJ>==>K
" A: All men are morLal ! Some morLal are men
" L: no man ls morLal ! no morLal ls man
" l: Some man ls a morLal ! Some morLal ls a man.
" C: Some man ls noL morLal ! Some non-morLal ls a man.
o lf Lhe predlcaLe ls an ad[ecLlve, lL becomes a noun when lL ls converLed lnLo a
sub[ecL.

JG @"#$3(I" >0'C',(3('-,
When Lhe negaLlve form ls used Lo change Lhe sLrucLure of Lhe proposlLlon, Lhe new
proposlLlon ls called an !5#%+(,-"' 6/(+(0%'%(".
7**-3%&'- 7"8-/-"$-0
9
! 1he process of maklng equlvalenL proposlLlons from one
sLaLemenL. Cbverslon and ConLraposlLlon are 2 ways of maklng lmmedlaLe lnferences:
1. :4;-/0%("
<
! conslsLs of subsLlLuLlng an afflrmaLlve senLence wlLh lLs negaLlve
equlvalenL, or vlce versa. (p. 116)
2. 1("'/&+(0%'%("
=
! uses Lhe negaLlon of Lhe predlcaLe as Lhe sub[ecL of Lhe new
proposlLlon. (p. 116)

9G >0'C',(3('-, KC"0 ,"L $-M KC"0 $))(M"-,L 4CG NNO6
6/-3%$&'%(" +-/ 0- ! essenLlal, aLLrlbuLe whlch belongs Lo Lhe sub[ecL by naLure.
o As such" ls ofLen used ! belng as such" means belng as belng."
6/-3%$&'%(" +-/ &$$%3-"0 ! accldenLal, a loglcal accldenL ls aLLrlbuLed Lo a sub[ecL.
o As such" slgnlfles Lhe aLLrlbuLe ! belng, as corporeal, has exLenslon."

FG P'M$% >0'C',(3('-, 4CG NNQ6
1. >-$-00&/? @#3A*-"'0 ! someLhlng cannoL noL be.
2. 1("'%"A-"' @#3A*-"'0 ! someLhlng ls, buL noL necessarlly so.
3. 6(00%4,- @#3A*-"'0 ! someLhlng ls noL, buL can evenLually come Lo be.
4. 7*+(00%4,- @#3A*-"'0 ! someLhlng cannoL be.

ulsLlncLlon beLween Lhe 2'M1, of Lhe modal proposlLlon (necessary, conLlngenL,
posslble, lmposslble) and Lhe M()312 (Lhe unlon of Lhe sub[ecL and predlcaLe)
o WhaL usually changes ln negaLlon ls Lhe 2'M1, (p. 119)

See ulagram on p.120

=G >0'C',(3('-, 'H (M"-3(3R $-M C0"M()$3(I" C0'C',(3('-, 4CG NDS6

S
An immeuiate infeience is an infeience which can be maue fiom only one statement oi pioposition. Foi instance, fiom the statement
"All toaus aie gieen." we can make the immeuiate infeience that "No toaus aie not gieen." Theie aie a numbei of immeuiate infeiences
which can valiuly be maue using logical opeiations, the iesult of which is a logically equivalent statement foim to the given statement.
Theie aie also invaliu immeuiate infeiences which aie syllogistic fallacies.
4
0bveision is a "type of immeuiate infeience in which fiom a given pioposition anothei pioposition is infeiieu whose subject is the
same as the oiiginal subject, whose pieuicate is the contiauictoiy of the oiiginal pieuicate, anu whose quality is affiimative if the oiiginal
pioposition's quality was negative anu vice veisa". The quality of the infeiieu categoiical pioposition is changeu but the tiuth value is
equivalent to the oiiginal pioposition.
S
Contiaposition is a foim of immeuiate infeience in which fiom a given pioposition anothei is infeiieu having foi its subject the
contiauictoiy of the oiiginal pieuicate, anu in some cases involving a change of quality (affiimation oi negation).
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6/(+(0%'%(" (8 %3-"'%'? ! sub[ecL and predlcaLe ls lnLerchangeable ! 1he caplLal of lLaly
ls 8ome = 8ome ls Lhe caplLal of lLaly.
6/-3%$&'%;- +/(+(0%'%("0 ! Lhe predlcaLe ls exLended ! Charlemagne ls Lhe emperor
(emperor" means some emperor") = Some emperor ls Charlemagne
3 rlnclpal !udgmenLs of ldenLlLy (p.121)
o B&#'(,(A%-0 ! redlcaLe Lhe same Lhlng of Lhe same Lhlng.
o >(*%"&, 73-"'%'%-0 ! 8elaLe dlfferenL names of Lhe same meanlng.
o C#3A*-"'0 %" DE%$E 'E- 0#4@-$' &"3 'E- +/-3%$&'- -2+/-00 'E- 0&*- 0#4@-$' (/
"&'#/-F 4#' D%'E $("$-+'#&,,? 3%0'%"$' '-/*0G

555G 9'2C%"T >0'C',(3('-,
Also called E?+('E-'%$&, +/(+(0%'%("0, or ln grammar, $(*+,-2 0-"'-"$-0.
1hese are composed of varlous slmple proposlLlons llnked LogeLher Lo convey a
meanlngful whole.
o A complex proposlLlon always lnvolves several predlcaLes.
1he LruLh of Lhe complex proposlLlon essenLlally depends on Lhe connecLlon beLween
Lhe slmple proposlLlon whlch comprlse lL, and parLly on Lhe LruLh of Lhese slmple
proposlLlons. (p. 122)
1ypes of complex proposlLlons
o 1(+#,&'%;- +/(+(0%'%("0 ! consLrucLed wlLh Lhe con[uncLlon and", Lhe LruLh of
Lhe copulaLlve proposlLlon depends on Lhe klnd of connecLlon slgnlfled and on
Lhe LruLh of lLs componenL parLs.
o 1(*+,-2 +/(+(0%'%("0 #0%"A H(/I
" !2$,#0%;- 3%0@#"$'%(" ! lf one Lerm of Lhe dls[uncLlon ls Lrue, Lhe oLher
Lerms are false.
" 7"$,#0%;- 3%0@#"$'%(" ! aL leasL one of Lhe Lerms of Lhe dls[uncLlon has Lo
be Lrue, alLhough Lhe oLhers may be Lrue aL Lhe same Llme.
" 7"$(*+&'%4%,%'? ! Lhe opposed Lerms cannoL be Lrue aL Lhe same Llme.
o 1("3%'%("&, +/(+(0%'%("0 ! Lhese proposlLlons enunclaLe a connecLlon beLween
a condlLlon (Lhe anLecedenL) and Lhe condlLloned (Lhe consequenL)
" SomeLlmes called an lmpllcaLlon slnce Lhe condlLlon lmplles Lhe
consequenL.
" lor Lhe condlLlonal proposlLlon Lo be Lrue, lL ls noL necessary LhaL Lhe
condlLlon be Lrue, because whaL really maLLers ls LhaL Lhe connecLlon
should be Lrue.